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THE PELIC l\ II IS TOR) OF ART
Founding Editor: Nikolaus Pevsner
Joint Editors: Peter Lasko and Judy Nairn

Axel Boethius

ETRUSCAN AND EARLY ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

Revised by Roger Ling and Tom Rasmussen

Axel Boethius, born in [889, in 10,21 4 worked on the excavations at Mycenae.

In 1025 he became the first Director of the Swedish Institute in Rome. Thereafter Rome
was to be his second home and Roman topography and architecture the main
interests of a busy working life. After serving as Professor and subsequently as Rector
Magnificus of the University of Goteborg, he retired to Rome to settle. He died
in 1969, soon after passing the page proofs of the present volume which, taken in con-
junction with the published version of his Jerome Lectures ( The Golden House oj

Nero, ri)6o), is the culmination of, and an enduring memorial to, a lifetime's interest

and research.
 Axel Boethius

Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture

Penguin Books
Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England
Penguin Books, 625 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10022, U.S.A.
Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria, Australia
Penguin Books Canada Limited, 2801 John Street, Markham, Ontario, Canada L3R 1B4
Penguin Books (N.Z.) Ltd, 182-190 Wairau Road, Auckland 10, New Zealand

First published as Part One of Etruscan and Roman Architecture 1970

Second integrated edition published under the title
Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture 1978

Copyright © the Estate of Axel Boethius, 1970, 1978

All rights reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Boethius, Axel, 1889- 1969.
Etruscan and early Roman architecture.
(The Pelican history of art)
Earlier ed. published in 1970 under title:
Etruscan and Roman architecture.
Bibliography: p. 247.

Includes index.
1. Architecture— Italy— Etruria. 2. Architecture Rome. —
I. Ling, Roger. II. Rasmussen, Tom. III. Title. IV. Series.

NA300.B63 1978 722'^ 78-1875

isbn 14 0561.44 7 (paperback)

Phototypeset in Monophoto Ehrhardt

Printed in Great Britain by
Fletcher & Son Ltd, Norwich
Bound by Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press) Ltd,
Bungay, Suffolk

Designed by Gerald Cinamon

Except in the United States of America, this book is sold subject to the
condition that it by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired
shall not,
out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior concent in any
form of binding or cover other than than that in which it is published and
without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on
the subsequent purchaser
CONTEXTS

Foreword to the Second Edition 7

Map 8

1. THE STONE AND BRONZE AGES 9

2. THE EARLY IRON AGE 10
3. ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE 32
Introduction 32
Techniques and Materials 34
Temples 35
The Early Temples - Types of Plan and Superstructure - Plans - Podia
The Orders - Pediments and Roofs - Ornament - Liturgical Disposition

Town Planning 64
Domestic Architecture 75
Roads and Bridges 94
Tombs and Cemeteries 94
Conclusion 101

4. ETRUSCAN ROME 03 1

5. ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

(386-aboUt 200 B.C.) 114
6. HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA' 136
Techniques and Materials in Public Buildings 137
Techniques and Materials in Domestic Architecture 140
Fora 145
Basilicas 149
Temples 156
Ornament - Types of Plan and Superstructure
Town Planning 178
Domestic Architecture 183
Villas 190
Baths, Theatres, and Other Public Buildings 195
Baths and Palaestrae - Circuses - Theatres

Utilitarian Architecture 206

Tombs and Cemeteries 209
Conclusion 214
 CONTENTS

List of Principal Abbreviations 217

Notes 219
Select Glossary 241
Bibliography 247
List of Illustrations 251
Index 255
FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION

This work appeared originally in 1070 as Part with such enthusiasm, insight, and skill, must
One of a combined volume on Etruscan and be singled out for special thanks.
Roman architecture. For various reasons For the second edition the book has been for-

among them ease of handling it has been tunate in the meticulous care of its revisers,

decided that for the second edition the volume Tom Rasmussen and Roger Ling. Dr Rasmus-
should be split into two, one on the Etruscan sen was responsible for Chapters 1-4 and Dr
and Republican period, the other on the Im- Ling for Chapters 5-6 (though each suggested
perial. The latter, revised by its author, John emendations in the other's section). Their
Ward-Perkins, will appear in due course. prime concern has been to attempt to bring the
For the first edition, Professor Boethius re- Notes and Bibliography up to date. Most of the
ceived invaluable help from a circle of friends revision has been carried out through the Notes,
and helpers far too wide to name individually, where square brackets indicate the more impor-
though Professor Arvid Andren, who under- tant additions; of necessity only minor altera-

took the laborious task of seeing the book tions could be made to the text. Warm thanks
through the press in its final stages, and for the are extended to Professor C. E. Ostenberg for
illustrations, Dr Ernest Nash in Rome, and supplying illustration 52.
Miss Sheila Gibson who executed the drawings
NIK.OLAUS PEVSNER

The dimensions throughout arc expressed hath in

feet and inches and in metres and centimetres. In

all eases it is the latter figure which is that of the
original text.
Maggiore

Panteileria
CHAPTER I

THE STONE AND BRONZE AGES

Dociles vires are the splendid words with which the primitive simplicity of Old Latium with its
Pliny in his Historia Naturalis (XXXVI, 101) shapeless wooden gods and their simple dwell-
characterizes the achievements of the Romans ings (KaXidSeg) - if, indeed, they had any huts
as architects and town-planners. The words and images at all
1
its pastoral life in green
emphasize on the one hand their capacity to valleys, its poor pottery or wooden cups.
learn from others, and on the other their Typical, for instance, are Vergil's descrip-
strength in adapting and reshaping their bor- tions in the Aeneid (vi 1
1, 359-69) of the poor
rowings according to the traditions and de- home of Evander on the Palatine, and of t he-

mands oi'their own life and society. The process couch of leaves covered by a Libyan bearskin
was not one of using undigested elements from upon which 'big Aeneas' slept. Equally sugges-
the Greeks and the Orient, nor of retaining the tive is Propertius's picture of the Rome of
petrified remains of old Italic lore; all indigen- Romulus and Remus in the first elegy of his

ous traditions as well as foreign loans were fourth book. Modern archaeological research
gradually transmuted into a new unity with its proves that this rustic, albeit romantic, concep-
own capabilities for development. tion of prehistoric life in Italy was substantially
The final result of these eight hundred years correct. But occasionally poets and historians
of endeavour (as Pliny puts it) was the Late also tried to recast the early history of their
Republican and Augustan architecture of Rome, country in a heroic Greek mould. Undisturbed
the hellenized Italic architecture which Vitru- by the current rustic conception, they describe
vius in the fifth book of his De architectura great palaces - like that of Latinus in Vergil's
styles consuetudo italica. It was destined to be of description of Laurentum {Aeneid, VII, 170 ff.)
the greatest importance for the common Medi- - and attribute to them impregnable walls and
terranean architecture of the Roman Empire mighty gates. The descriptions of this and other
when, after Sulla and Caesar, the old world be- palaces of the Aeneid are based on hellenistic
came a mighty cultural unity, a Roman xoivrj, models, however, and have no true archaic-
with contributions from all its lands. For a full basis whatever. Moreover, again and again it
understanding of this Roman architecture as it becomes clear that their heroic wars fought by
appears in remains from the Augustan Age and mighty armies were really nothing more than
the first centuries A.D., and as it will be found quarrels about damaged crops and stolen cattle
described in the fifth and sixth chapters of this which disturbed the peace between petty city-

book, it seems necessary to study its background states and villages of the Campagna. The real

in oldest Italy, and in the Orient, Greece, and background to the histon oi Roman architec-
the Etruscan city-states of the eighth and ture is the millennial cultural twilight and rude
following centuries. primitivism of Western Europe before the
The history of ancient Italy differs funda- Phoenicians, Etruscans, and Greeks brought
mentally from that of Greece. Italy inherited no eastern culture to the far and barbaric Hesperian
higher culture, no great memories and legends coasts of the eighth century B.C.
from the Bronze Age. Further, Italy had no It has to be remembered that trade from the
Early Iron Age comparable with the Greece of glorious Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age
the Geometric Period and of Homer; indeed, of Greece reached south Italy. The northern-
Roman authors very often delight in describing most outposts in Italy of this trade with the
10 THE STONE AND BRONZE AGES

great eastern cultural world, as far as we know doctrine has tried to establish that the architec-
at present, are Ischia and Luni (Monte For- ture and town planning of the historical periods

tino), in a central position on the River Mignone were heralded in the primitive gropings of the
south-west of Viterbo, but recent research has Stone, Bronze, and Early Iron Ages; but as
shown that influence from the Mycenaean soon as we succeed in sweeping away the cob-
world reached even as far as Stonehenge. A real webs, we see plainly that the Italians, not only
problem which remains to be explained is why in the eighth century but right through the
only superficial influence from this high eastern great ages of Roman history, received rather

culture can be traced even in the south of Italy. than created the external forms of higher archi-
It is true that the south of the peninsula enjoyed tecture. There is, however, another kind of
somewhat less barbarous conditions than cen- originality which one feels in almost all their
tral and northern Italy, even in the Stone Age, architecture: a mood, an indigenous social
and that had more contact with the civilized
it tradition; in short, the inner vires of which

world; but barbarous it was and barbarous it Pliny speaks.

remained all the same, right down to the later A study of the prehistoric villages reveals the
Iron Age. conditions in which the new imported culture
The influences from the Near East and developed. Diodorus's description of the Ligur-
Greece towards the end of the eighth century ians of the Augustan Age, who spent their nights

made aclear break with the past and marked the 'in the fields, rarely in a kind of rude shanty,
arrival of a new era, in total and evident contrast more often in the hollows of rocks and in natural

to the Bronze Age. As we see it, the pioneers caves which may offer them sufficient protec-

were Phoenician traders and also - as Geo- tion', could apply equally to Neolithic and
metric show and Homer describes -
vases Eneolithic life, so far as the remains permit us
Greek adventurers like Odysseus. After them to judge. More important for an explanation of
came Greek colonists. Thus the high culture traditions persisting in the daily life of later ages
from the east attained a strong position in the is the evidence for clusters of huts. The most
distant barbaric land and at the same time met common huts of these primitive villages had
with a people prepared to receive it the Etrus- conical roofs. They were circular or elliptical,

cans. From the seventh century the art and with fireplaces in the centre, and made of wicker-
architecture of the Etruscan and archaic Greek or branch-work, covered with clay or perhaps
city-states conquered central Italy, and provided sometimes with skins. Just like many buildings
Rome and the Latin towns with new means of of the Bronze and Iron Ages, they were some-
expressing the spirit of their commonwealth. times half sunk in the ground, sometimes more
The aim of the first chapters of this book is to or less on ground level. Already in this early age,

contribute to the discussion about the relation cave burials could be replaced by rock-cut
between these overwhelming foreign cultural tombs imitating huts. Here is the beginning of
influences and local architectural traditions, by an architectural tradition of great importance
means of a factual survey of what the builders for south Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia.
of the settlements of the Stone, Bronze, and In south Italy rectangular huts of the Neo-
Early Iron Ages had achieved in central Italy, lithic Age have also been found. Thus excava-
and especially in Latium and Etruria (the Lazio tions on Pantelleria have revealed such huts
and Tuscany of future ages). What we know with foundations of several layers of flat stones.
about these attainments proves that those early At Molfetta (Apulia) a network of crooked,
periods of central Italy belonged to the ageless paved paths ties together the huts of a Stone
prehistoric barbarian life of Western Europe. Age village. Both in Sicily (Cannatello) and in

They were barren and poor in their architec- south Italy (Coppa Nevigata) a tendency to
ture. Antiquated evolutionistic and nationalistic create an open central area can be traced. 2
 Stone Age stratification has in our times been those of the Apulian sites and the coast ot
recognized in different parts of central Italy too, Etruria, nor of planning of any kind.'
even near Rome; Luni affords an especially For the purpose of this survey of the earliest
clear example, with Chalcolithic (Rinaldone) architectural endeavours in central Italy, it

and Apennine layers appearing above the Stone would be an unnecessary digression to enter

Age stratum. Recently, aerial photographs of upon the much disputed questions concerning
the coast of southern Etruria, south of Montalto the population of Italy during the Stone and
di Castro, have shown round villages with pro- Bronze Ages. The country originally was in-
tecting earthen ramparts akin to the great con- habited probably b\ verj sparse non-Indo-
centrations of Neolithic settlements found in European tribes. \t the beginning of historical

Apulia on the Foggia plain (Tavoliere) and near times, peoples speaking Indo-European lan-
Matera. On the Tavoliere over two hundred guages, with Latin, Faliscan, Umbro-Sabellic
roughly circular sites with one to eight enclo- dialects, Oscan, and so on, predominated in

sure ditches have been traced [ 1 1. The largest central Italy, except in Etruria, where Etruscan
was spoken by the entire population. To this

mav be added that many scholars believe, with

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Greek historian
of the Augustan Age (1, 30), that the Etruscans
were descendants of the Italian pre-Indo-

//,>Q e^W European

From
tribes.

the point of view of architecture there

no break between the Neolithic, Eneolithic,
tl;/ •. CDC is

oCr*\
and Bronze Age periods. A really new fades, a
\ clear progress beyond this primitive life in caves

\ <<? and wattle-and-daub huts, appears after about

1500 B.C. with the so-called Apennine culture.
The Apennine culture used to be called 'extra
i. Tavoliere, near Foggia, settlement, Neolithic. terramaricolan'. On the Aeolian islands it is

Plan called Ausonian, and in Morgantina in Sicily

Morgetian; roughly contemporary were the so-
(Passo di Corvo) measures about 550 by 875 called Terramare villages in the Po \ alley. Of

yards. Inside these enclosure ditches lie smaller new culture was still barbaric
course, even this
circular enclosures, individually surrounded by compared with the grandiose palaces of Malta,
ditches of sizes varying from some 50 to 50 feet 1 the Minoan and Mycenaean palaces of the
across. In the largest villages more than a hun- second millennium, and even the earliest
dred 'compounds' of this kind have been identi- nuraghi of Sardinia, which remained a distant

fied; smaller 'homesteads' contain only a few. horizon [(•>}.

No doubt dwellings were built within these en- It has been suggested that the Apennine cul-
closures for family groups and their cattle. The ture was a product of early Indo-European
enclosure openings usually have the same gen- infiltration and represents a new racial situation

eral orientation, probably pointing towards the created by the crossing of the immigrants with
main entrance to the village. Otherwise no the old population. Furthermore, it has been
regular planning appears inside the great enclo- assumed that the tribes which spread the Apen-
sures,and it must be noted that the villages of nine culture over central and southern Italy-

Latium and inland Etruria even of the Bronze were more or nomadic shepherds, using
less

and Iron Ages have not up to now afforded us tombs as rallying places - as were the royal
any instances of regular external shapes such as tombs of the Scythians, according to Herodotus
12 • THE STONE AND BRONZE AGES

2. Luni, Apennine hut, Bronze Age. Reconstruction by Jerker Asplund and C. E. Ostenberg

UTHEI

30 FEET
PLAN OF MIDDLE AND NORTHERN HOUSE
-v----
— •'"

Black areas = Hearths

Dotted areas = Remains of original floor

3. Luni, Apennine huts, Bronze Age. Plan

 '3

(iv, 7 1 *•)• In Apulia, from Gargano in the Giovenale, south-west of Viterbo, where later a

north to Lecce and its neighbourhood in the great Villanovan village and an Etruscan town
south, megalithic tombs and dolmens exist akin were built, a deep stratification starting with

to those of Spain, southern France, Corsica, Apennine layers and continuing through sub-
Sardinia, and Africa, and they could have been Apennine times has been studied. All the
centres of this kind. Rock-cut tombs in the layers show floors of rammed clay and post-
neighbourhood of Bari, accessible bj a vertical holes of huts. In one hut, which was oval, a bed
shaft leading down to the door of a subterranean of pebbles from the near-by river is laid along
cave, have rightly been compared with the huts the inside of the wall, as also in Bronze Age
of the Bedouins and referred to as reproduc- villages at Manfria near Gela, and still in shep-
1
tions ofnomads cots. herds' huts in Sicily (below, p. 70. and Note 52).

Although some of the Apennine people may Excavations south of the Capitoline Hill on
have been pastoral, remains of permanent resi- the Forum Boarium (by the church of S. Omo-
dences with agriculture and pasture-farming bono) prove that Rome also belonged to the
are typical features of the Apennine culture of Apennine settlements of central Italy and that
central Italy. On a hill near Bolsena, called her history started at least as early as about 1 500
Capriola, close to Early Iron Age settlements, or 1400 B.C. Finds of pottery near Civitavecchia
remains of several Apennine huts have been attest the existence of Apennine villages along
found, ^.ock-cut foundations attest to oval the coast. Added to this areApennine finds
wattle-and-daub huts. Of great importance is from the districts round Veii and Clusium
theApennine village on the acropolis of Luni, (Chiusi), and scattered finds from the Faliscan
which can be dated to the centuries between district (round Civita Castellana). Thus we can
1400 and 100 by fragments of Late Mycenaean
1 conclude that Apennine hamlets of the type of
(Late Helladic) pottery in the Apennine strati- Luni and Capriola were scattered over the area
fication [2, 3J. Here we meet with rectangular of the later Latin and Etruscan Iron Age cul-
houses of considerable size; the largest is 138 ture during the second half of the second
feet long and 16 feet wide (42 by 5 m.). As in so millennium B.C.

many prehistoric buildings, their lower parts Towards the end of the Apennine culture we
are cut down into the rock. The floors of meet with strongholds fortified with wide walls
rammed clay above a bottom layer of limestone of irregular blocks. It seems that the Apennine
chips lie from about 3 to 7 feet below the surface. tribes, assaulted by invaders about 1000, needed
The walls seem to have been built of rough points d'appui. One of these was Coppa Nevigata
stones and roofs were of straw or reeds. Indoors, in Apulia on the Bay of Manfredonia, with
fireplaces, portable cooking-stands and other walls nearly 20 feet wide, which long served as
earthenware, hand mills, bread-wheat, barley, a place of resort for the Apennine people. The
beans, and peas have been found. The finds of same seems likely regarding the rather primi-
bones indicate that the villagers of Luni had tive walls of Casa Carletti, near the Apennine
more cattle and pigs than goats and sheep. In village of Belverde in Tuscany, where there are
short, Luni shows us in the clearest possible fortified sites with dwellings comparable to
way how people settled and built their houses those of the hill towns on the Aeolian islands and
in central Italy in the centuries around 1300. other Bronze Age strongholds of southern Italy
Probably a rock-cut chamber tomb on the and Sicily.

southern slope of the acropolis belonged to this The isolated yet prosperous life of the Aeolian
\illage. It seems to prove connexions with the islands met with sudden change after about
a

large number chamber tombs oi

of rock-cut 1250. An Apennine culture from the mainland,
southern Italy and Below the medieval
Sicily. here called Ausonian I and II, apparently sup-
castle on the neighbouring acropolis of San planted the old culture, evidently in connexion
14 •
THE STONE AND BRONZE AGES

with an invasion of mainland people. The same built of large polygonal blocks and divided into
happened in Sicily. On the acropolis of Lipari several rooms. However, a dispassionate judge-
'Ausonian' foundations, both oval and roughly ment of the known archaeological material
square and denoting huts generally built of warns us not to conjure up 'empires' and
wood on stone, replace the older type from 'palaces' even here: it seems safer to avoid a

about 1 800. This, incidentally, confirms that the terminology suggesting more than a rather
Apennine tribes did live in permanent villages. primitive coalescence of villages and local im-
As we have seen, finds of Late Mycenaean provements, even if it is true that not only the
pottery prove that after about 1400, sailors from 'Anaktoron' but also the rock-hewn chamber
the highly civilized kingdoms of the palaces of tombs in Sicily and south Italy enhance the
Cnossos, Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos, from impression of a rising level of civilization and of
Rhodes and Cyprus, came to the coasts of influence from the Mycenaean east. At Cassi-
Sicily, to south Italy, and as far north as the bile, Pantalica, and Thapsus in Sicily hundreds
Aeolian islands and Ischia. They may have been of rock-cut tombs, sometimes with several
on their way to France and Spain, in search of chambers and with elaborately carved and
obsidian from Lipari, copper from Sardinia, decorated door jambs, have been discovered. In
ores from the mines of Etruria, and other raw an earlier period entrance doorways to tombs at

materials; perhaps they were also looking for Castelluccio (Noto) were closed with stone slabs
slaves, as in Homeric days (Od., xxiv, 211, 366, and decorated with spiral motifs vaguely re-

389), from Sicily and elsewhere. Directly or by sembling Maltese reliefs of the Tarxien period.
intermediaries this trade reached the interior of All this may indicate that the houses had some
Sicily (Morgantina) and also - as the finds from decoration as well. Rough beehive tombs in
Luni have already shown us - the interior of Sicily prove that this important kind of archi-
Etruria. 4 tecture reached Italy in the period of the
In Sicily the so-called 'Anaktoron' at Panta- Mycenaean connexions. Further, when we
lica, near Syracuse, is one construction which encounter corbel-vaults in the nuraghi in Sar-
reveals influence from the Mycenaean palaces dinia [5], and much later in the Etruscan tholos
[4]. What remains is foundations of a rectangu- tombs, we must ask ourselves whether they
lar building measuring about 116 by 40 feet, were more or less distantly connected with

<
t. Pantalica, near Syracuse, 'Anaktoron', Bronze Age. Plan

50 FEET 15 METRES
 15

Mycenaean influence, or whether they were villages. But the shapes of the villages varied,

derived from independent origins. Traditions and without new complete excavations nothing
of early tholos arehitecture in Italy very likely can be claimed as certain about them. The regu-
live on today in the corbelled stone huts lar plans which have been widely reproduced
(truddhi, trulli) for shepherds and tools in the and believed typical are all imaginary recon-
fields of Apulia and Sicily and in the strange- structions, and all that has been claimed for
beehive houses of Alberobello and its environs. 5 them as prototypes for the regular towns which
No doubt Mycenaean sailors, with their ships we shall meet with in Italy in the sixth century
and the tools and pottery on them, brought B.C. has no solid foundation.'

rudiments of the achievements of Bronze Age- Among the achievements of these early ages
Greece to the Italic peoples. All the same, when which have never since been forgotten should
discussing architecture, it is no understatement be mentioned the timber constructions and
to say that nowhere in Italy did the ships from corner joints in the gabbioni of Castione and the
the east encounter a state of life sufficiently living-platform made with uprights and a floor
mature to partake in the high cultures of Mycen- of planks in the Grotta di Pertosa near Salerno.
aean Greece. The so-called lake dwellings around Lago
On the northern outskirts of the Apennine Maggiore, Lago di Yarese, Lago di Como, and
culture in central Italy there appear, besides the Lago d'Iseo, and, farther east, the peat-bog
cavo-dwellers of Liguria already referred to, the villages of Lago di Timon and Arqua Petrarca
much discussed lake dwellings of the Alpine and are all older than the Terramare. It is almost cer-
sub-Alpine districts and hut villages of the Po tain that these lake dwellings were not built on
valley, generally described as 'Terramare\ be- artificial islands in the lakes but on the shores.
cause of the black earth of their refuse dumps, They represent, in any case, a social organiza-
l
or palafitte arginate'. tion to be compared with the circular villages in
The story of the Terramare starts about Apulia: building plots on piles with straight
1 500. It seems likely that immigrants came from streets paved with planks and a common en-
Hungary at that time, bringing with them a trance. The huts were quadrangular cabins of
vigorous primitive culture with a fine metal in- logs and planks.
dustry (probably connected with Austrian From the transitional phase between the
copper mines) and refined pottery with varied Bronze and Early Iron Ages and through the
shapes and decoration, evidently evolved in a centuries right down to the Roman conquest of
\\ ell-established tradition developed elsewhere, 16 B.C., one has also to remember the carvings
as was no doubt also the social organization. chiselled into the rocks of the Alpine mountain-
The Terramare villages were supported on side in the valley of Camonica. They represent
piles, just like Spina and Ravenna in centuries a highly characteristic log-cabin architecture. 7
to come (Strabo, V. 1. 7). Sometimes they were All this provides a distant background to what
protected against the floods of the Po valley by \ itruvius tells us about timber houses in coun-
moats, ramparts of earth, and even timber con- tries 'where there are forests in plenty', and
structions, the 'gabbionf. Typical of the Terra- about a tower, made of larch planks, in the
mare sites are cemeteries, also protected by neighbourhood of the Alps (11, 1. 4; 9. 15).

moats and with pile substructures, containing The Terramare villages of the Po valley, the

close-packed cineran urns. It seems quite pos- fairly rich Apennine culture of south Italy and
sible that the first Terramare colonists brought its Mycenaean relations, and the Apennine
with them the custom of cremation. villages in the country between the Tiber and
The Terramare huts were round or rectangu- the Arno were the centres of architectural
lar. Open spaces, very likely used for cattle, activity on the mainland of Italy during the
always seem to have occupied the centre of the Bronze Age. Looking down from Populonia,
l6 THE STONE AND BRONZE AGES

5 METRES

5. Palmavera, Sardinia, nuraghe. Bronze Age. Section and plan

 '7

one of the later hill towns of "the Apennine dis- Age culture on the island from about 1500 on-
trict of central Italy, one can see distant Sar- wards. The nuraghi were towers on hills above

dinia, as Strabo (v, 2. 6) remarks before enter- the plains, built all over the island within sight
ing on his charming description of that rich of each other and obviously representing a care-
island. But there an amazing contrast between
is fully planned system of defence. The oldest
the architecture and culture of Sardinia and nuraghi were isolated circular towers of trun-
the Apennine some 100 miles east of the
villages cated conical form, containing two (or even
island, a contrast much
the same as that be- three) corbelled round chambers set one above
tween the Apennine villages and Malta. About the other. They were constructed of blocks
seven thousand nuraghi are known in Sardinia reminiscent of later Italian cyclopean walls. To
[5]. They were the most conspicuous architec- the nuraghi belonged villages with stone-built,
tural achievements of the great period of Bronze circular, corbel-vaulted huts [6].

6. Su \ura\i di Barumini, Sardinia, nuraghe, dating from c. 1500 B.C. and onwards
l8 • THE STONE AND BRONZE AGES

The impressive Sardinian bronze figurines, Bronze Age architecture of Sardinia and Malta,
both of warriors in fantastic and of ordin-
attire so far as we can see, belonged to a quite differ-

ary people, seem to show Etruscan and Greek ent sphere from the Bronze Age settlements on
influence and to illustrate the later periods of life the mainland of Italy. The Tyrrhenian Sea was
in and around the nuraghi. Bastions and exten- the dividing line. Even the people of Iron Age
sive additional fortifications which we now see Etruria seem to have made only occasional con-
around the nuraghi are remains of continued tacts with the western islands, and the Greeks
efforts to strengthen the old fortresses and use never colonized Sardinia. What was, in fact, of
them in the stubborn resistance of the Sardin- great importance for the Sardinians, from the
ians against the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, eighth century onwards, was the influence of
Greeks, and finally - from the third century on- the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, who built

wards - Romans. Only the Roman con-

the great towns with conspicuous sanctuaries on
quest ended the free existence and Bronze Age the coastal plains and penetrated inwards to-
traditions of the mountaineers of the central wards the villages of the nuraghi. The first con-
parts of Sardinia - one of the first instances of tacts seem to have been quite peaceful, but later

an interesting local culture yielding to the style the resistance arose which has just been men-
of the Roman Empire. The Etruscan tholoi tioned. In any case, it is significant that the

[95, 96] (below, p. 96 ff.) may perhaps have had Romans of Late Republican times called the
some direct or indirect connexions with the cultivated Sardinians of the coast 'Punici', but
corbelled vaults of the nuraghi. Otherwise we used various tribal names for the despised
can only state the strange fact that the great people of the old nuraghi in the rugged interior. 8
CHAPTER 2

THE EARLY IRON AGE

The Apennine and sub-Apenninc hut builders other hills were the first inhabited areas of this
of central Italy, whether they were partly Indo- kind in Rome; in the seventh and sixth cen-
Europeans or a local race destined to become turies Rome gradually united the settlements
absorbed by new invading Indo-European on the surrounding Esquiline and Quirinal
tribes, no doubt bequeathed some technical Hills and also the Caelian, creating a civic and

knowledge to the more developed architecture religious centre for them all on the future

of the Iron Age. They may also have cut cham- Forum Romanum. Already before that time,

ber tombs, as suggested on p. 1 3 ; but their archi- the Palatine village extended towards the forum
tectural legacy was all the same inconsiderable. over what had been its old cemetery along the

In spite of Mycenaean influence, dolmens, Via Sacra. Remains of important Early Iron
strongholds, and the variety of chamber tombs, Age villages of the same kind have been studied

not even south Italy and Sicily impress us as on the Alban and other hills of Latin towns,
having reached any higher degree of cultural or such as Ardea, Lavinium (Pratica di Mare),
architectural capability. But it seems that a new Tibur (Tivoli), and on the future Etruscan sites

era began in the tenth or ninth century. A still of Veii, Caere (Cerveteri), Tarquinia, Vulci,
primitive but all the same remarkably vigorous Luni, San Giovenale, and others.
Iron Age culture spread over central Italy in the The tombs of these towns are to a great extent
eighth century. At Luni (Monte Fortino) and cremation tombs with ash urns in roughly circu-
on the western part of the acropolis of San lar shafts (pozzi, pozzetti). The urns and tomb
Giovenale one sees uncommonly well how huts gifts, such as terracotta vases, miniature cook-
of a new kind were built above the Apennine ing stands, fibulas, razors, and so forth, could
villages [12, 13]. This new culture is usually- be placed directly in the pozzetti, but frequently
called the Villanovan culture, after the first thev were preserved in terracotta dolia [7],

great finds at Villanova, near Bologna; but as

the new types of dwelling show great variation, 7. Pozzo tomb from the Via Sacra, Rome,
Early Iron Age culture is perhaps a preferable Early Iron Age. Rutin-, Antiquarium Forense

name, taking into account also the related types

of the culture in the southern parts of Italy [14].
It was very rich around Tarquinia in the eighth
century, but had a poorer character in Latium.
For central Italy the Early Iron Age culture
meant a great reversal of conditions, the first
revolution in a development which resulted in
the changed appearance of the country in
Etruscan and Roman times. New villages were
built on hills, defensible by steep scarps, rivers,
and ravines filled with brushwood. Extensive
cemeteries prove a large population. Many of

these large hill villages were to have a great

future in Etruscan and Roman times, and in

some cases have survived to our own days. It

seems evident that villages on the Palatine and

10 CENTIMETRES
20 • THE EARLY IRON AGE

sometimes in stone receptacles or in rough rec- are about 12 inches high and 16 to 20 inches
tangular coffins of stone slabs. In a tomb at wide. Together with grave circles of the Apen-
Velletri in the Alban Hills the shaft is corbel- nine districts, they remind us of both primitive
vaulted with tufa blocks, which is noteworthy and highly developed Mycenaean grave circles,

[8]. One wonders whether it had any connexion as well as of the later Etruscan tombe a circolo.

At Vetulonia we meet with both Iron Age and

Etruscan grave circles. The former are sur-
rounded by rough unhewn blocks which herald
^?^5^^V^^^wJ5^v^ the cyclopean
periods. 1
and polygonal walls of later

These Early Iron Age villages had new, more

and artistically more valuable crafts
forcible,
producing imposing biconical ash urns covered
by helmets (or clay models of helmets) or by lids

imitating roofs, ash urns reproducing huts [14-

* :.
* . 6 17], and above all richly developed metal work,
including helmets, shields, fibulas, and other
ornaments. Life in central Italy tended to wider
horizons. It is evident that the new Iron Age
villages were centres for improved farming and
metal-mining.
As far as archaeological evidence can tell, this
development unified central Italy. It came into
existence within the pale of Apennine culture
and probably often in competition with the
Apennine villages. The villages of the Early
Iron Age converted the mainland of Italy, in a
much more radical way, to a new manner of life
and habitation. In this context the clearly con-
nected but much more variegated and rich cul-
ture south of Latium must be considered, as we
can see from biconical ash urns and finds of
impasto ceramics from Padula, Sala Consilina
[14], the Sele valley, Milazzo on the mainland
8. Velletri, Vigna d'Andrea, corbel-vaulted tomb, of Sicily south of Lipari, and many other places. 2
Early Iron Age. Section The old explanation that this great change was
due to a final Indo-European invasion is prob-
with the larger Bronze Age structures of the ably true, and may show the process by which
same kind in Greece or was inspired by the Italy assumed its ultimate Indo-European
tholos architecture of the Etruscans. shape. On the other hand, recent research
Rock-cut fossa tombs also occur, and some- makes it more and more probable that the Indo-
times contain coffins of oak trunks or even of European Italic peoples of whom we know
terracotta imitating a tree-trunk. Iron Age before Rome's final Latinization of Italy about
Tibur (Tivoli) had a cemetery with fossa tombs 100 B.C. (the Umbrians, Sabines, Latins,
of the seventh century and earlier, which are Sabellic tribes, Oscans, etc.) received their

surrounded by travertine slabs forming grave characteristic ethnographic and cultural charac-
circles with a diameter of to to 1 6 feet. The slabs ter, known from historic times, in Italy, by
mingling with the probably rather sparse small rough blocks of the local calcareous stone-
Bronze Age population which was perhaps to was built. A stretch of nearly a third of a mile of
some extent already Indo-European. the wall is still to be seen, in some places some
When the Romans tried to visualize these old 10 feet high. A road, constructed upon a terrace
villages, they cherished stories of a round or wall of the same material as the enceinte, leads

quadrangular primitive Rome.' Nothing has to the village. This strongly fortified Early Iron

substantiated such ancient tales about regular Age centre is indeed an early and interesting
town planning in the Early Iron Age settle- predecessor of Etruscan defensive works, espe-
ments nor the modern theories about it. It cially those of Rusellae of about 600 B.C. (see
should be noted that no Villanovan village p. 68). Bologna, on the other hand, offers an
known at present displays regularity of town instance of a great Villanovan village built on a
planning, externally or internally. Groups of plain. The physical features of the Po valley
huts were built on hills which offered a com- make that, needless to say, very understandable.
mon natural defence unhid praesidia, to use In this connexion it has to be remembered
Cicero's expression (De republica, n, 6). Like that, even in Imperial times, when the Romans
the Apennine peoples, the Yillanovans some- planned to build a colony they traced with a

times strengthened the defences of their hill- plough drawn by a bull and a cow yoked to-

i). Relict from \quileia showing the foundation of a colonia, fixing its border
by means of a trench made by plough. Imperial Age. iquileia, Museo trcheologico

sides. Most conspicuous is a place called Citta gether a continuous furrow with an earthen
Danzica south of Rapino in the country of the wall on its inner side [o]. Plutarch (Romulus, x 1)

Samnite tribe of the Marrucini.' It is a big hill adds that a brazen ploughshare should be used,
measuring about 3 miles from north to south which seems to prove that the custom was very
and half a mile to a mile from east to west. On old - but this, of course, could also have been an
this plateau are dense remains of an Early Iron archaistic notion. Plutarch, like Yarro (Lingua
Age village. The western part of the settlement Latina, V, 14;,). says that Romulus founded
was defended by the steep sides of the hill, but Rome etrusco ritu, 'after summoning from Tus-
all along the eastern side, where the slope is canv men who prescribed the details in accord-
smooth and open to assault, a protecting wall of ance with certain sacred ordinances and writ-
22 • THE EARLY IRON AGE

io. Reconstruction by A. Davico of part of the Early Iron Age village on the Palatine, Rome

ii. Foundations of a hut in the Early Iron Age village on the Palatine
 23

ings, and taught them to him as in a religious ing stand of a type wellknown from miniature
rite' (with a sacrificial pit, mundus, and by tomb gifts and fragments from many Early Iron
ploughing). Age villages was used for preparing food. On
\s discussed on p. 64, the old Etruscan towns the southern short side is a fairly wide entrance
remained irregular until the sixth century, and flanked by four post-holes, two inside and two
even then only their colonies on the plains seem outside the door. The latter, no doubt, were
to have had regular patterns. It may be that both made for posts carrying a canopy [cf. 17]. We
the Etruscan and the common Italic practice of see on a hut urn from Tarquinia 1 16], at Leon-
the very old way of marking off the villages from tini, in the Athenaeum of Syracuse in Sicily, in

surrounding agricultural lands and pasturage Lipari, and elsewhere, as on the Palatine, that
on the hills, or on a plain such as that of Bologna, these primitive huts could be square or squar-
was inherited from the Early Iron Age villages. ish; but other hut urns [15] and also the Early
But neither such usage nor what we know about Iron Age villages of Luni, San Giovenale, and
the boundaries (pomeria) of Rome and other Veil prove that the most usual shape was oval.''
towns prove that the old settlements had fixed The oval huts ofSan Giovenale are very large
geometric shapes." [12, 13]: one of them measures some 36 by 19

The manner of building the huts of these feet. As occurred in the Apennine hut of Cap-
settlements, with wattle and daub, which we riola, the outline was drawn by a furrow in the

meet on the Palatine and in all villages akin to it, surface of the tufa which the lower edge
hill in

is the same as in the Apennine hamlets. But of the wattle-and-daub walls was embedded.
otherwise the huts display a much higher stan- The hut has post-holes for the roof supports,
dard, stabilized types, and an increased wish for holes which probably served to stabilize tables,
1

adornment. On the Palatine Hill remains of two beds, or other furniture (as in the shepherds
villages of the Early Iron Age have been found huts of today on the Roman Campagna), and a

[10, 11], one towards the southern slope of the door on the western short side.

hill, the other below the so-called Aula Regia of Interesting and illuminating is the burial
the Palace of Domitian. Between them an Early equipment from a tomb at Sala Consilina [14].
Iron Age tomb has been excavated; a great In the tomb, together with an ash urn of the
cemetery along the Via Sacra north of the Pala- usual Early Iron Age type containing the bones
tine [7] and - it appears - another on the south of a cremated body and the usual funeral gifts,

slope also belonged to these villages. was a model of a house packed with ashes. The
The foundations of one hut on the southern type is quite different from the Villanovan huts.
slope of the Palatine are especially well pre- It has a ridged roof adorned by volutes and
served [n], and the village can be reconstructed birds, reminiscent both of ash urns and of the
in all main respects The hut measured 16
[10]. • end acroteria of the ridge-poles of Archaic
bv 12 feet (4.90 by 3.60 m.). The floor is cut into Greek and Etruscan temples. The walls are

the tufa of the hill to a depth of about 20 inches. decorated with briskly painted white geometric
The hut was rectangular with rounded corners. designs. Compared with all we know about the
Six large post-holes along the long sides were Early Iron Age huts, the decorations of the
evidently made for the supports of the roof. The ridge-pole and the roof construction seem to
walls were of wattle daubed with clay, as has prove that the model reproduces a new type of
been proved by the discovery of fire-baked frag- house, probably inspired by the earliest temples
ments in different places and many huts. The and houses of the Greek immigrants, such as we
huts had hipped roofs of thatch. A post-hole in know them from the Geometric Age and later.

the centre of the Palatine hut shows that the At Luni and San Giovenale have been found
roof-ridge was supported by a pole. The hut square subterranean rooms of considerable size
had no central hearth; instead, a portable cook- which have to be remembered among Early Iron
HntG
 14 (toft). Implements trom tomb no. 63 at S. \ntonio,
Sala Qjnsilina, with ash urn and model

V of a house, Earlj lr<

Salerno, Wuseo Provinciate

15 (above lejl). Hut urn from

I
notrio- \usonian).

(.astel Gandolfo,
Earl) Iron
Rome Wuseo
, delta Preislorta c ProlOSloria del Lazio

16 {left). Square hut urn from Tarquinia,

Earl) Iron Age.
- Florence, Wuseo Archeolc

\- (aboie). Hut urn from (-ampofattore, near Marino,

Earl) Iron •
na e

t Protostoria del Lazio

26 THE EARLY IRON AGE

Age instances of possible domestic or even elongated and shaped in a decorative way. This
palatial architecture. At the westernmost end of may seem to herald the ornamental rows of
the acropolis of Luni is a shaft measuring some crossing rafters on archaic temples and houses
60 by 30 feet and cut down in the rock about 20 from the seventh century onwards [18]. The
feet.Between 800 and 900 cubic yards of tufa
have been removed. There are charred remains
of a wooden roof and walls covered with clay,
though we do not know whether these once be-
longed to a carefully constructed basement or
(as seems most probable to me) to a collapsed
building constructed above the basement.
There is, in any case, no entrance to the sunk
room. The finds of pottery indicate that this
Early Iron Age 'palace' was burnt down in the
eighth century. Of later date is a similar but less

pretentious structure belonging to the Early

Iron Age settlement of San Giovenale. It is

almost square, with sides measuring about 50

feet, and cut down to a depth of about 18 feet;

stairs lead down to the lower part of the shaft. 18. Faliscan ash urn, seventh century B.C.
Whether basements or houses, these construc- Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia

tions represent a quite different, more stately

architecture than the huts. 7 short ridge-logs of the vents and the cross-beam
The
hut urns from cemeteries [14 17] com- to which their upper ends are attached are also
plete our picture of the usual type of Italic Iron often fashioned in decorative ways. The walls
Age huts. The ash was put into the urn through of the hut urns frequently rest on a plinth and
its door. The diameters of most of these recep- can be straight or sloping, upwards or (more
tacles vary between 12 and 16 inches (30 and rarely) downwards. A human figure outside
40 cm.). On an average, 12 inches may be singled above the door also occurs. Doors with more or
out as a most usual width, corresponding to a less decorative door-posts or even frames are
height of about 8 to 12 inches. Exceptions to common. The doorways are closed by slabs
those with the usual round or oval plans are huts with central knobs. They have transverse holes
which have curved corners and square huts. A corresponding to holes in the door-posts, evi-
square urn from Tarquinia (Selciatello) [16] dently intended for ropes or twigs which func-
measures 115 by 10^ inches and is 11^ inches tioned as bars; shepherds of today can still be
high (29 by 26 by 29 cm.). The roof is slightly seen latching their doors in the same way when
curved. It has an almost rectangular door with a they leave their temporary huts. Some hut urns
window indicated to the left. Thus, except for have fairly large windows in the wall to the left
the plan, it exhibits the common features of all of the entrance or in both long walls. Many
hut urns. The roofs can be described as conical show incised geometric decoration filled with
hipped roofs. At each end of the roof-beams on white or yellow colour or with strips of tin. It

many hut urns is a vent for smoke. On the long seems clear that the wattle-and-daub huts had
sides of the roof they show ridge-logs to weigh incised and painted geometric wall decoration
down the thatched roof. The same device, of the same kind, though the ornamentation of
usually three short ridge-logs, is often seen the hut urns may sometimes be more free and
below the vents. The projecting tops of the logs, rich. The hut urns of Latium show a more
which cross each other at the ridge, are often primitive and simple decoration, as against the
 27

more ornate urns from the towns farther north,

from Tarquinia to Vetulonia; but the latter still

belong to the characteristically restricted crea-

tions of prehistoric life, even if they already dis-

play fixed types far superior to the primitive
dwellings of the past.
The origin of the habit of using models of huts
as ash urns has been much discussed. The tech-
nique of the decoration clearly connects the
Early Iron Age pots, including hut urns, with
Switzerland and Central Europe. Probably there
was a link of some kind, but it has been pointed
out that the hundred-odd hut urns known from
Central Europe and Scandinavia seem all to be 19. Lid of a stele from Tarquinia,
slightly later than the urns of the Early Iron Age Early Iron Age. Florence, Museu Arckeologico

in Italy. Other suggested parallels or prototypes

seem irrelevant. The
urns from Early
hut ture of the seventh and following centuries.
Minoan post-Minoan times on Crete, which
to What has been said about the Bronze Age seems
have been adduced, were not used as ash urns in the main valid about the architecture of the
and are altogether too different to be taken into Early Iron Age, in spite of its evident progress. s
serious consideration. Hut-shaped urns from A quite different matter is social traditions,
Este have also been put forward, but it is uncer- that is, inherited habits of daily life or of defence
tain whether they were hut urns, lamps, or formed in the old villages. No doubt such a
ovens, and they do not afford us any more con- legacy lived on, but architectural features of any
clusive evidence than do the Cretan parallels. importance which existed when the architec-
Before we continue with architecture in the ture of the towns of the eastern Mediterranean
Early Iron Age, we have to consider whether world conquered Italy, are very rare. One
these huts had any formal qualities of impor- example may be the round Temple of Vesta at

tance for the future. Scholars have emphasized the eastern end of the Forum Romanum. The
the axial tendency of the Early Iron Age huts, temple of the Imperial Age that we see today
with their entrances always in one of the short was rebuilt in marble after a fire in the year a.d.
end walls, and have compared this with the 1 () 1 , and we know that it had also been reshaped
axiality of the Tuscan temples and houses. To previously in the styles of earlier ages. Ancient
me it seems to display a fantastic typological authors were convinced that the round shape
bias to compare such a natural primitive dis- was inherited from curvilinear shrines of Vesta
position with the elaborate architecture which (and from the round Early Iron Age huts). Ovid
we shall meet in the next chapter. But some writes delightfully about the old form of the
external features may deserve more considera- Temple of Vesta in the Fasti (v'I, 261-82): 'The
tion; for example, the crossing logs on archaic buildings which you now see roofed with bronze
temples may perhaps be traditional remains of you might then have seen roofed with thatch,
the refinements of the ridge-poles of the Early and the walls were woven of tough osiers. This
Iron Age huts [i8|, and the lid of an Iron Age little spot, which now supports the house of the
stele (ioj from Tarquinia also recalls the early Vestals, was then the great palace of unshorn
Etruscan temples. On the whole, however, such \uma. But the shape of the temple, as it now
characteristics, though interesting and note- exists, is said to have been its shape of old . .
.'

worthy, seem vague and of slight importance \ti er discussing the round shape {forma rotunda)
when we consider the quite different architec- of the earth, he adds: 'The form of the temple
 THE EARLY IRON AGE

is similar; there is no projecting angle in it; a 12 B.C. that the hut was set ablaze by crows
dome protects it from the showers of rain.' It which dropped burning meat from some altar
should be kept in mind that the Early Iron Age upon it; so there must still then have been a
village on the Palatine in the seventh century thatched roof (li v, 29. 8).

extended over the old cemetery along the Via Vergil was of the opinion that the rustic
Sacra. Huts had been built even as far as the Romulean regia was on the Capitoline Hill
place where, much later, the equestrian statue (Aen., viii, 654). Dionysius makes it quite clear
of Domitian was erected in the Forum Roma- that the hut which he describes was situated on
num. Also, from all archaeological points of the south-western part of the Palatine, on the
view it seems most probable that the traditions same part of the hill where the Early Iron Age
from the curved shrines of the Early Iron Age village [10, 11] has been excavated. What the
villages survived. Recent excavation in the ancient authors affirm at least establishes that
neighbouring building, the 'regia', which ac- there was an old tradition dating from the Pre-
cording to Roman traditions one of the oldest historic Age alive on the spot. It seems much less

kings gave to the head of the state clergy, the likely that the huts on the Palatine and the
Pontifex Maximus, have revealed remains of a Capitoline Hills were inventions suggested by
Age hut below the fifth-century
large Early Iron learned hellenistic romanticism, the hut on the
palace of megaron type." Acropolis of Athens, and what the Romans
We know that the Romans of the Imperial could see in old-fashioned dwellings in the
Age cherished memories of Latin villages with Campagna all around them. " 1

primitive huts, such as could - and can still By the time we get an equally clear picture of
today be seen among shepherds throughout the somewhat later settlements in Tuscany and
the countryside. Propertius wanted straw huts Latium, the cultural situation of all Italy had
(casae stramineae) even for kings in the profli- completely changed. From the eighth century
gate Rome of his and Cynthia's time (n, 16. 20); onwards, influence from the Orient and the
Livy's Camillus talks of the famous hut of city-states of Homeric, Geometric, and Archaic
Romulus (v, 53), and Imperial coins reproduce Greece had contributed to the civilization and
such dwellings of the old sagas. Vitruvius also reorganization of the country between the
(11, 1. 5) tells us about old-fashioned rustic Tiber and the Arno in a far more fundamental
structures kept as a reminder of olden times in way than, for instance, the culture of the Early
Italy, referring to the hut of Romulus on the Iron Age had changed Bronze Age conditions.
Capitoline Hill, as on the Acropolis of Athens. A new kind of architecture, inhumation con-
Dionysius (1, 79), speaking of the life of herds- nected with tombs of new types, a rich import of
men and the struggle for existence in oldest Oriental and Greek luxury, inscriptions written
Latium, describes the 'huts which they built, with Greek letters adapted for the Etruscan
roofs and all [avzopoipoi], out of twigs and reeds'. language, and other devices of high culture all

He continues: 'One of these called the hut of mark the new era.

Romulus remained even to my day on the flank In Augustus's age Dionysius of Halicar-
of the Palatine Hill which faces towards the nassus (1, 33. 4), describing the completely
Circus, and it is preserved holy by those who legendary Arcadians of the Palatine in Rome,
are in charge of these matters; they add nothing gives us a remarkably vivid picture of how well
to it to render it more stately, but if any part of the Romans knew that this was a revolution
it is injured, either by storms or by the lapse of caused by influence from countries with a

time, they repair the damage and restore the hut higher culture. According to him Evander, the
as nearly as possible to its former condition.' king of the Arcadian saga, was the first to intro-
The flavour of ancient times is still more en- duce into Italy the use of Greek letters, and also
hanced by Cassius Dio's report from the year music performed 'on such instruments as lyres.
 29

trigons, and flutes; for their predecessors [the able mineral resources. Along the west coast of
Early Iron Age tribes in Italy] had used no Italy and in Sicily were vast rich plains which,
musical invention except shepherds' pipes. The whether cultivated or not, must have attracted
Arcadians are said also to have established laws, immigrants as offering great possibilities for
to have transformed men's mode of life from their more developed agriculture. The picture
the prevailing bestiality \>':k tou Oqpuodov;, from preserved for us of the Greek arrival in Italy is

primitive conditions, that is] to a state of civil- filled with acts of piracy and outrageous atroci-
ization, and likewise to have introduced arts ties. The descriptions of Odysseus's landings
and professions and many other things con- on the barbaric west coast give us a very lively
ducive to the public good'. If we add to this list impression (see, for instance, OJ., x, 144 fif.),

a new kind of architecture, it is indeed - attri- and marvellous paintings onof shipwrecks
bution to the Arcadians apart an excellent Geometric eighth-century vases from Ischia
summary of the result of influences from the and Athens tell of the hardships of the sailors,
great Eastern cultural world which ended the not so different from those suffered by Odys-
Early Iron Age in Italy and overthrew its primi- seus. No less important is Ephorus's statement,
tive and monotonous life. preserved by Strabo (vi, 2. 2), that before the
What happened in Italy in the eighth and earliest Greek colonies (that is, before the later
following centuries must be related to the great half of the eighth century) the Greeks 'were so
expansive cultural revival in the eastern Medi- atraid of the bands of Tyrrhenian pirates and
terranean countries after the decline about iooo the savagery of the barbarians in this region that
B.C. It was the age of the Assyrian and Neo- they would not so much as sail thither for
Babylonian Empires, of the Late Hittite king- trafficking'. King Agrios in Hesiod's Theoginua
doms north of Syria with their marvellous art, (1013) may also belong to the era of these tales
of the Phrygian and Lydian kingdoms, of of ancient savagery at the dawn of history.
Urartu, of the Saitic renaissance in Egypt and But soon the situation changed. The Greeks
of Phoenician trade and skilful imitations and built their towns in southern Italy and Sicily in
new combinations of the great artistic traditions the style and with the organization they brought
of the Near East and Egypt. As Homer, Hero- with them. All this is known history, though
dotus, and later authors describe, Phoenician some of the dates are disputed. Typical and of
merchants were important intermediaries be- special importance for architecture and for the
tween Europe and this Eastern world in its late entire culture of central Italy are the two
renaissance. Closely connected with all this was northernmost Greek settlements, Cumae and
the Homeric Greek era and the unparalleled Ischia. The lofty, isolated acropolis of Cumae
strength and originality with which the Greeks stands above a wide beach where the ships were
reshaped Eastern influences into their Homeric drawn up after their long adventurous voyages,
and Archaic culture. During and after this and the settlement on Ischia lies on a hillock at
period of revived acthity from the eastern the western end of the island, with a bay for the
Mediterranean countries, Greek Archaic cul- boats. Newcomers to Italy are described in the
ture both at home and in the Italian colonies sagas in the persons of Diomedes, the Argive
became more important than anvthing else for founder of Tibur (Tivoli), the Arcadian Evander
Italy. of the Palatine, Aeolus of the Eiparian islands,
\\ e must now return to the primitive villages and others. Such tales are evidently attempting
of Italy among the wilderness and pastures and to explain the introduction of Greek culture to
ir\ them with the eyes of the sailors
to look at Italy from the eighth century onwards, even if

from the Eastern world. They saw artefacts, in some cases the legends may go back to the
such as weapons and ornaments, which proved Greeks of the Mycenaean Age. The rich
that these barbaric western lands had consider- country of south Italy and Sicily, with the con-
30 THE EARLY IRON AGE

siderable metal resources of the former, now knew Latin only by contact with Rome and
fell into the hands of a quite new kind of people, Latium or by 'having had Romans among them
endowed with an almost unparalleled heroic as colonists' (to quote Livy, 1, 27. 9). As Varro
genius and energy in opposing such enormous affirms in Lingua Lattna (VII, 35), 'the roots
powers as the despotic kingdoms of the Near [radices] of the words' were quite different in
East and the oppressive primitive life in the Etruscan and Latin. 12 How did this happen?
west. The same can be said of the Etruscans, What brought about this new cultural situation
whatever their origin was, and in spite of what on the west coast, dissociating Etruria from
they learned from the Greeks. Pictures of ships, Latium and its other neighbouring lands? How
and a few words about Aphrodite and Nestor's can it be explained that the Etruscans were pre-
cup scratched on a Geometric pot from the pared to make the new high culture and archi-
cemetery of Ischia, bring to life for us these Near East and Greece their own,
tecture of the
sailors and immigrants with their Homeric a hundred years or even more before the Italic
language and culture. 11 peoples around them - in complete contrast to
While the Greek city-states in southern Italy what happened when Mycenaean influences
remained Greek oases surrounded by native had reached Italy?
tribes,from the eighth century onwards the The most plausible explanation is that a new
country between Lydius Thybris, as Vergil people with Eastern affinities had discovered
(Aen., II, 781) styles the Tiber, and the Arno Etruria and immigrated to harbours on the west
was penetrated and unified by the highly coast, especially those of Caere (Cerveteri),
characteristic Etruscan version of Oriental and Tarquinia, Vulci, and other south Etrurian
Greek culture. Where previously the Early Iron towns in the making. From these starting-points
Age culture had given the same general appear- the newcomers would by amalgamation have
ance to all the villages, a new, strong nation with reshaped the pre-existing Indo-European
a language of its own arose, with rock-cut tribes, their language and their villages, gradu-
chamber tombs of a new type [cf. 70] from about ally occupying the inland villages such as San
700 B.C., painted walls from the first half of the Giovenale (about 630 B.C.), Luni, and - even
seventh century (Tomba delle Anatre at Yeii), earlier the Faliscan district. This attempt to
and hoards of imported Oriental and Greek explain the archaeological facts by assuming an
tomb gifts. immigration from the East agrees with what all

The people who introduced this new luxury, ancient historians (except Dionysius of Halicar-
the Etruscans, seem to have called themselves nassus), as well as the Etruscans themselves and
the Rasenna, while in the Latin and Greek the Romans, believed. These old tales may be
languages they were known as Etrusci, Tusci, uncertain, chronologically confused, reshaped
Tyrrheni, or Tyrseni. North and west of the by frequently told sagas about famine-stricken
Tiber these Etruscan-speaking tribes were emigrating peoples; but they cannot possibly be
spread all over the country, except for a terri- discarded en bloc and must be considered to-
tory with an Indo-European language round gether with the linguistic and archaeological
Falerii (Civita Castellana) and Capena, the evidence. They all have in common the firm
Faliscan plain on the western shore of the river, belief that the Etruscans were immigrants from
which kept its Indo-European language in spite Asia Minor.
of overwhelming Etruscan influence from the At the head of these legends stands Hero-
seventh century onwards. All our literary sour- dotus's famous tale (I, 94) wherein he describes
ces of Late Republican and Augustan times the Etruscans as a part of the Lydian people
affirm that the people on the Etruscan side, the which emigrated to Italy after building ships at
Ittus etruscum, or Lydia ripa, as the riverside of Smyrna, 'whereon they set all their gods that
Trastevere was still called in Imperial times, could be carried on shipboard'. Tacitus (Annals,
 3*

I \, 55) proves that this notion was alive among the hellenized external forms of their culture
the Romans and the Lydians of the Imperial and architecture.
Age: he relates that envoys from Sardes in Modern scholars have tried to revive and
Tiberius's time quoted a decree of their kindred corroborate Dionysius's opinion by research
country Etruria, according to which a son of showing the connexions between the Etruscan
King Atys of Lydia, Tyrrhenus, had emigrated culture and prehistoric life in central Italy.

to Etruria with a part of the Lydian people. But What is here assumed to be influence from the
there are also other tales of connexions of the new tomb architecture on the old local types and
Etruscans with the Near East, linking them other results of the merging of immigrants and
with the Pelasgians, and of Tyrsenians (or the local population, they consider as proof that
Tyrrhenians) on Lesbos, Lemnos, Delos, and the Etruscan people had been living in Etruria
Imbros. In the Homeric hymn to Dionysus we since the dawn of prehistory. But how did it
meet them as pirates on the Aegean. 13 happen that this supposed aboriginal people
But, on the other hand, there is Dionysius was spared only there? Does it seem likely that
criticizing the prevalent idea about the Lydian the Early Iron Age culture of central Italy was
origin of the Etruscans (1, 30): 'I do not believe created by two different races with the Tiber as
that the Tyrrhenians were a colony of the a dividing line between them? Ingenious
Lydians; for they do not use the same language suggestions that it may have been the Etruscans

as the latter, nor can it be alleged that, though who brought the Early Iron Age culture to Italy-

they no longer speak a similar tongue, they still some time about 900 B.C. and that it spread from
retain some other indications of their mother their new settlements do not, it seems, solve the
14
country. For they neither worship the same difficulties.

gods as the Lydians nor make use of similar laws Anyhow, for the present study of the archi-

or institutions Indeed, those probably come

. . . tecture of the Etruscans it is enough to state that

nearest the truth who declare that the nation a new architecture of common Mediterranean
migrated from nowhere else, but was native to stamp was brought to Italy by a people that
the country, since it is found to be a very ancient spoke Etruscan. If the Etruscans were immi-
nation and to agree with no other either in its grants from Asia Minor, they probably started
language or in its manner of living [ovte d^ioy- their life in Italy with a rather low form of cul-
/.(oaaov ovre dfiodianov].' The evident objec- ture from the Near East. It seems likely that

tion to this is that conditions in the Lydia of they brought with them basic architectural

Dionvsius's days must have changed entirely traditions. In any case, it is clear that refined

since the time when the Etruscans would have Etruscan architecture, as we see it, was de-
emigrated (though a recent find proves that the veloped in the cities of the Etruscans under con-
Lydian language survived into the Hellenistic tinuous influence from the Orient and Greece.
period); but all the same, Dionysius's reasoning The reshaping power of this influence was so
is highly interesting, especially since he makes strong that the question whether or not the
it clear that the Etruscans were different both immigrants brought fundamental architectural
in language and way of life from their Italian ideas with them almost becomes one of second-
neighbours and all other peoples - in spite of ary importance.
32

CHAPTER 3

ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

INTRODUCTION the majestic, archaic tholos tomb called La

Montagnola di Quinto Fiorentino [96], of
The Etruscans enjoyed a free existence as inde- Orvieto, San Giuliano, San Giovenale, and
pendent city-states for some five hundred years, Luni (Monte Fortino). Falerii (Civita Castel-
from the eighth century to the early third cen- lana) had a special position, since it was the
tury B.C. Finally, in the early first century, in- centre of the Indo-European Faliscans and yet
ternal warfare and Sulla's victories put an end politically and by its culture closely connected
to particularism in Italy and latinized the whole with the Etruscans.
country (excepting only the Greek towns).The Boundaries and different political associa-
culture of the Roman Empire and the architec- tions and constitutions no doubt caused con-
ture of Augustan Rome then imposed them- flicts; but the Etruscan towns of the centuries
selves on the ancient Etruscan centres of agri- which we know did not make war on each other
culture, mining, handicraft, art, and shipping. to the same extent as the Greek city-states at
Their ill-famed and dreaded piracy had been home and in Italy, though they gave no aid to
stopped by the Romans about 300. Veii when it was conquered by the Romans.
Especially important for Rome was Veii, the They organized themselves into a confedera-
rich and great neighbour town with painted tion with its centre in the Temple of Voltumna
chamber tombs already from the seventh cen- in the neighbourhood of Volsinii, and even, in

tury B.C. According to Livy, the Romans des- the seventh, sixth, and fifth centuries B.C., suc-
troyed Veii in 396. Rome's next important cessfully established a dominion embracing the
Etruscan neighbour was Caere (Cerveteri, Po valley and Campania, with control over
Etruscan Chaisre). Three famous inscriptions Latium through such Etruscan dynasties as the
on golden plates, two in Etruscan and one in the Tarquinii in Rome. Their architecture and
Punic language, found between two temples at culture spread over central Italy from the sixth
Pyrgi [28], one of Caere's harbour towns, show century onwards, and it should be remembered,
that Caere about 500 had close connexions with especially in the Campanian towns, that such
Carthage. From the fourth century onwards features as regular town planning and atrium-
Caere became closely connected with Rome houses can be explained by cultural influence
and soon lost its independence, Pyrgi receiving and by no means necessarily imply Etruscan
a strongly fortified Roman colony outside its builders. In the Po valley Etruscan town plan-
spreading township in the third century B.C. ning and architecture asserted themselves
[114]. The roster of the greatest towns, glorious around Felsina (Bologna), in new centres such
coastal successors of the Villanovan villages, as Spina or the Etruscan colony at the Reno
must include Tarquinia, Vulci, Talamone, River, called Marzabotto, which were both
Rusellae, Vetulonia, Populonia, and Volaterrae founded towards the end of the sixth century
(Volterra); to these should be added such inland [62]. In Campania, Capua, Pompeii, and even a

towns as Faesulae (Fiesole), Arretium (Arezzo), town on the Sorrento peninsula, Marcina (prob-
Clusium (Chiusi), Volsinii in the neighbour- ably Fratte near Salerno), had their Etruscan
hood of medieval and modern Bolsena, Blera periods. The Etruscans of these early days also
(Bieda), and such unidentified towns as those of controlled the sea around Corsica and Elba.
 INTRODUCTION 33

The period of greatest power gradually came with the hellenistic world after the victory over
to an end in the fifth and fourth centuries. Hannibal, and to great landowners and other
Latium, according to the Roman tradition, was wealthy people, protected by Rome.
lost in509 because of the rise of the Roman The main buildings in which the Etruscans
Republic. Samnite invaders from the central demonstrated their state, culture, religion, and
mountain districts expelled the Etruscans from family traditions were the temples and the
their capital Capua and from Campania in the palatial houses of kings and nobles, as we see
fifth century. By 474 their sea power had already them reproduced in monumental tombs. In

had a serious setback in a battle against the contrast to these - but also to the tenement
Greeks at Cumae. North of the Alps and the Po houses with upper storeys, which we shall meet
valley the Gauls, another powerful rival of the with already in third-century Rome - stand out
Etruscans, developed a great military force and the one-storey houses of the common people
organization comprising cavalry with iron which our archaeological material has revealed
horseshoes (a novelty in the ancient wars). at Marzabotto, San Giovenale [66], Veii, Vetu-
Among other material a rich tomb from the Saar lonia [55), Rusellae, and in a few other places.
shows that they had an interesting and rich cul- Vitruvius remarks especially (VI, 5. 1) that the

ture of their own, at least the higher classes, and ordinary people in towns, where the rich lived
could import real treasures, as, for instance, the in atrium-houses built in grand style, did not
largeGreek bowl from Vix. Then, towards 400, need such luxury.
the Gauls invaded the Po valley, ending the The densely populated quarters of the com-
Etruscan dominion. They proceeded to raid the mon people housed a free population, though
towns of Etruria, and in 386 they even sacked one which never seems to have attained the
Rome. Meanwhile, after the subjugation of Veii, importance of the Roman plebs. Cicero (De
a century of wars began between Rome and republican 11, 16) says that even at the outset
Tarquinia. This double warfare against the Romulus divided the Roman plebs among the
Gauls and Rome rendered necessary what aristocratic clienteles; the same system seems to

proved to be one of the great architectural have been typical of the Etruscan towns, pre-
achievements of the Etruscans: the construc- vailing until the decline of old Etruria. The
tion of town walls in their fully developed shape grouping of qualified slaves, freedmen, and
[58] (below, pp. 67-8). They confirm in a monu- clients around the influential families seems to

mental way what Livy says over and over again have been very important. A great proportion of
about the military strength displayed by the the artisans were slaves, according to Livy (v,
Etruscans even in these late and losing wars. 1). They had the same kind of dwellings as the

The end came between 280 and 241, when all majority of the common free people which
Etruscans and Faliscans were brought under Diodorus mentions (v, 40. 3-5).

the sway of Rome with more or less reduced To these introductory remarks may be added
independence and territories. a few words about Vitruvius and his description
For a historical study of Etruscan architec- of Etruscan architecture. References to his

ture it is most important to remember that the famous Ten Books on Architecture, written
dependence on Rome and the decline of political about 25 B.C., have already been made and will
power in the fourth and third centuries by no accompany all the following chapters right
means put an end to the wealth or to the archi- down to Late Republican times in Rome. It may
tectural activity of the Etruscans: on the con- therefore be useful to state at once that Vitru-
trary, after the final Roman victories, as in Pom- vius was first and foremost an architect who
he eloquently and even ardently proclaims -
peii, a period of increasing prosperity was in- as

augurated for the Etruscan towns. This was due wished to contribute to the grandeur of Augus-
to the peace under Rome, to Italy's contacts tan Rome by reviving traditional styles of archi-
34 ' ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

tecture. He preached to a younger generation superseded the old village. We meet with rec-
about the honest, highly experienced architects tangular houses and the common Mediter-
of bygone days, expressing himself in a strong ranean manners of building, which from the
but sometimes rather ambiguous pre-classical great Etruscan coastal towns spread to the out-
Latin. He wanted to adapt the classical styles to of-the-way corners of inland Etruria, Latium,
the demands of his own times, but at the same and all central Italy.

time claims to have re-established their ideal Timber construction appears at an early date
proportions and forms. He thus wishes prim- at Veii. The ceilings,which the rock-cut cham-
arily to be the practising architect, not a teacher ber tombs at Caere (Cerveteri) and other Etrus-
of the history of architecture, and to establish can cities reproduce, show the mastery of
rules for all kinds of buildings in the Augustan timber-work which the Etruscans attained in

Age. Vitruvius bases his ideal rules for Etruscan the sixth century [82 ff.]. In sixth-century San
temples and their dispositiones upon his know- Giovenale and at Veii (that is before 396), we
ledge of the more or less modernized architec- also meet with a crude masonry of tufa blocks in
ture of Etruscan stamp which he could see all various sizes in the houses. Ashlar work and
over Latium and Etruria. He may even have polygonal walls belonged to Etruscan architec-
studied Roman or Etruscan treatises on the old ture from early times, especially in royal tombs,
architecture comparable to the compendia of city walls, and the podia of temples. Sun-dried
Etruscan religious and wisdom com-
political brick and half-timber on stone foundations be-
piled in the Late Republican Age and charac- came highly important, as seen at Veii, San
teristic of the learned interest of that period. Giovenale, Vetulonia, and many other places.
While he is an unsafe guide on archaic architec- At Marzabotto the bricks seem to be partly

ture, his rules often approximate to the measure- fired, and the foundations of the houses are of
ments of preserved Later Etruscan and Roman river boulders embedded in mud [63]. Some-
buildings.When Vitruvius tries to fix measure- times walls were made of rammed clay {pise),
ments for the various elements of their construc- sometimes they could be built with the mud
tion, he is evidently combating a confusion pre- brick directly on the ground. It is evident that
vailing under hellenistic influence. What he these modes of construction were brought to

intends to do is to arrive at general rules of his perfection and general use in central Italy in the
own based on actual buildings, but not by repro- seventh century. What reached the villages of
ducing any one example. 1
the Earlv Iron Age was a technique known
already from the third millennium in Malta,
and from such Bronze Age villages on Crete as
TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS 2
Vrokastro, Kavousi, Karphi, and so on.
When Oriental and Greek culture arrived in the Vitruvius (1 1, 8. 9) describes the ancient mud-
eighth century B.C., the old wattle-and-daub brick city wall at Arretium (Arezzo) as 'excel-
structures soon seemed to belong to a remote lently built', and a description of 1536 and

past, though wattle and daub remained in every- excavations of 19 16- 18 have substantiated his
day architecture even in Imperial times as an praise beautifully cut bricks
: and scarcely visible
indestructible undergrowth. Vitruvius (II, 8. mortar joints were revealed. At Rusellae a mud-
20) expresses a wish that it had never been 'in- brick terrace wall on a foundation of rough
vented'. In inland places like San Giovenale we polygonal blocks was built about 600 (cf. p. 68).

see with almost dramatic vividness how the Vitruvius distinguishes between the square sun-
Etruscan chamber tombs of the Oriental and dried bricks of the Greeks and the rectangular
Greek luxury began to appear about 630. On the Greek Lydian bricks, 'being the kind which our
acropolises of San Giovenale and Luni founda- people use, a foot and a half long and one foot
tions of roughly square structures suddenly wide'. Bricks actuallv found at Arretium and
 35

Yetulonia show roughly the same proportions. Giuliano, San Giovenale, or its neighbour Luni
The name 'Lydian' reminds us of the Lydia ripa (Monte Fortino), but also in many great Etrus-

of the Tiber, and may indicate real knowledge can centres such as Clusium (Chiusi), Vola-
of an eastern provenance of the technique or terrae, Cortona, Arretium ( Arezzo), and Perusia
mav merely be a synonym for 'Etruscan'. In any (Perugia), remains of temple foundations have
case, though the Greeks preferred other pro- so far been sought in vain.
portions, there can be no doubt that the Etrus-
cans learned from their mud-brick architecture,
TEMPLES
of which the enlarged city wall of Gela, of the
fourth century, still affords a monumental We learn from the tombs that the domestic
example. 3 architecture of the nobility and the Lucumones,
Etruscan mud-brick architecture started a as the Etruscan kings were called, assumed
great new tradition in Italy. Augustus, contrast- stately forms. But the centres of the new towns
ing the old Rome of brick with his marble city in Italy, with their foreign culture and luxury
(that is, his city with its temples and other (already known from the tombs of the seventh
monumental buildings faced with marble), has century), were evidently the temples, with their
in mind concrete and mud-brick. Pliny (xxxv, piazzas and altars in front of them. The late

173) says that in his time no mud-brick walls compilers of Etruscan tradition report that the
were built in Rome. Yitruvius (11, 3 and 8. 16) founders of the Etruscan towns thought that
warmly defends mud-brick architecture, but every proper town ought to have three gates,
he makes us understand that the Romans of the three main roads, and three temples (those of
Augustan Age could not build their high houses Tinia, Uni, and Minvra, i.e. Jupiter, Juno, and
(insulae), so necessary for the constantly in- Minerva; Servius ad Aen., 1, 422). In the Etrus-
creasing population, of mud-brick, since the can towns known to us there is no trace of such
space of the city was so limited that there was planning, but Vitruvius (1, 7) confirms that the
no room for the bulky walls needed for high Etruscans had rules for their temples handed
mud-brick structures. In any case, a descrip- down by the haruspices.
tion of an inundation of the Tiber in 54 B.C.
shows that mud-brick houses still survived in
4
The Early Temples
great numbers during the first century B.C.
Mud-brick and wood evidently remained A temple on the acropolis (Piazza d'Armi) at

the normal building material for the walls of Yeii seems to illustrate the first tentative begin-
Etruscan temples and houses down to the last nings of Etruscan temple building. It was a rec-

centuries of Etruscan history, in contrast to the tangular (49 feet u inches by 26 feet 3 inches;
Egyptian and Greek stone-built temples. This 15.15 by 8.07 m.) timber-framed building (with
perishable material doomed Etruscan domestic mud-brick), without pronaus or podium, and
architecture when decline came. Roman and the foundation consisted of coarse tufa blocks.
medieval activity on the Etruscan acropolises It had a frieze and antefixes of crude archaic

completed the havoc. The tombs are at least workmanship. These early temples also include
for the time being our best archaeological one at Volsinii (Bolsena) with a roughly quad-
evidence of what the palatial houses of the rangular temenos measuring 56 feet 5 inches by
nobility were like. The case of the temples is 44 feet (17.20 by 13.40 m.), surrounded by a

different. Their podia and foundations were wall 1 20]. A cella without pronaus (26 feet
more monumental and less perishable. A rich 3 inches by 21 feet 8 inches; 8 by 6.60 m.) is

supply of terracotta decoration and tiles often built against the back wall of the temenos. A
permits a reconstruction ;" but not only in places model of a house from an Etruscan tomb in the
without known Etruscan names, such as San cemetery of Monte Abatone at Caere \zi] and
36 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

Section A.

rnuiiugi BSHnUSE] EgagHgESgE

\
L-^-i

fc

'uun iw. uLg .

; -^ : cnassmgn

10 METRES

20. Volsinii (Bolsena), Poggio Casetta, temple, also older models of houses with decorative
early sixth century B.C. Plan crossing rafters from Falerii and from Sala

Consilina [14, 18] may be considered together

21. Hut urn from the cemetery of Monte Abatone with these early sanctuaries. 6
at Caere, seventh century B.C. To a foreign architectural tradition belongs
Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia
the old Temple of Mater Matuta at Satricum,
famous for its terracotta revetments and datable
to about 500. It is surrounded by a peristyle and
has an oblong cella and deep pronaus. Like the
smaller temple at Pyrgi (p. 44), it is an interest-
ing instance of a temple with a Greek plan. It
may, of course, have been due to Greek influ-
ence from Campania, but Dionysius (1, 21. 2)
tells us that the Temple of Juno at Falerii was

built on the model of the Temple of Hera near

Argos. Thus, temples of the Greek type, like
Greek columns (cf. p. 52), were not alien to the

Etruscans. They were probably scarce, but can

be compared with the Doric temples of Oscan

Pompeii, or to Elyman Segesta with its un-
finished columns. 7
 TEMPLES •
37

Funerary urns and models show small chapels trary reconstructions. The obvious approach to

with pitched roofs but without pronaus, a type our material seems to be an empirical descrip-
which no doubt persisted per saecula. But of real tion of common features and an unbiased classi-

importance for monumental Etruscan sacred fication of the various types and their long and

Z>k

22. Reconstruction of an Etruscan temple as interesting career in Etruscan, Roman Repub-

described by Yitruvius (iv, 7). Rome University, lican, and Imperial architecture."
Istituto di Etruscologia e Ji Antic hit a Italic he As far back as we know the temples had ex-
ternal terracotta decoration in the Greek style

architecture from the fifth century down to [43, 44J; but their most typical features clearly
Roman times were only what Vitruvius in his were not Greek. Typical of all Etruscan temples
famous chapter about Etruscan temples refers are roomy colonnaded pronai in front of the
to as 'tuscanicae dispositions' , the typically cellas and entrances only on the front, a distinc-

Etruscan rules for temples (1 V, 6 f.) [22]. There tive feature no doubt due to the nature of Etrus-

are several variations of this highly character- can religious rites. They thus had an innate
istic type. Vitruvius describes two of them but axial tendency, which was also visible in the
does not claim that they were archetypes: he early temple areas at Volsinii (Bolsena) and
just wished to re-establish an ideal arrange- Orvieto (20, 33]. In Roman times this was
ment and proportion, and therefore chose two emphasized by altars placed in front of the
types which were most in vogue in his day, be- centre of the entrance. Common to all the vari-
cause they were used for Roman Capitolia ous temples with this general arrangement are
(below p. 163). However, modern scholars have wide spaces between the columns. These large
assumed that all the variations of Etruscan intercolumniations made it impossible to em-
temples were derived from Vitruvius's two ploy stone or marble for the architraves, so
types an unfounded conclusion, which has wooden beams were laid upon the columns, and
given rise to strained categorization and arbi- the whole entablature was of wood, which again
38 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

is completely at variance with the practice in were not too wide, they even built Greek en-
Greek temples (Vitruvius, III, 3. 5). Many tablatures in stone (instead- of employing the
temples of Etruscan type had columns along low wooden roofing of the ancient shrines). This
the side walls, but they never had a peristyle on most important combination of the principles
all four sides as had the great Greek temples. of Greek and Etruscan buildings, occasionally
The back walls were closed in all cases, but they mentioned by Vitruvius (1 v, 8. 5), was a part of
could be extended right and left of the cellas if the modernized consuetudo Italic a, as in his fifth

the temples had side rooms (wings, alae) with book he called the hellenized Italic architecture
columns outside the walls of the central cella of Late Republican times. Vitruvius's remarks
(or cellas), as Vitruvius says (iv, 7. 2; illustra- about areostyle temples in his third book evi-

tion 34, cf. illustration 126, Temple C, Largo dently show such modernisms, which were
Argentina). 9 typical of Roman Late Republican architec-
A very characteristic feature is the use of ture. 10

podia and flights of stairs or ramps on the front All the same, partly due to Vitruvius and
[35]. When a temple is built directly on rock ancient descriptions, but more to the archaeo-

without a podium, like, for instance, the tem- logical material now available, the genuine old
enos and archaic temple at Volsinii [20], it is an Etruscan temples can be reconstructed in their

anomaly explained by the site, which allowed a main lines, with low wooden entablatures and
spur of bedrock to serve as a natural podium. delightfully colourful terracotta revetments in
These Etruscan temples have been compared Greek style protecting the wooden parts of the

with archaic Greek temples and with megara buildings. In addition to these ornaments, fan-
from Mycenaean times and later. Yet the wide tastic antefixes, decorating the ends of the cover
pronai, the closed extensions of the back walls, tiles above the eaves, were used, and charming
and the podia give them a different and funda- rich acroteriaand sometimes terracotta statues
mentally foreign character. Neither the old on the ridge of the roofs or on the eaves above
simple houses of the gods nor Greek influence the gables of the front [22, 51]. Before describ-
can give any real explanation or background to ing the superstructures of this highly original
these new temples in central Italy. It is, indeed, sacred architecture it is necessary to discuss
natural that Vitruvius, trying to renew classical what archaeological study has revealed about
styles and discussing the various types, has typical ground plans.
treated the mos tuscanicus, the dispositiones tus-
canicae, as something different from all other
Types of Plan and Superstructure
kinds of temples (IV, 7; cf. Ill, 3. 5). He omits
variations, which will be discussed below, There are two types of temples with the Etrus-
though they may have been as old and typical as can stress on the front which Vitruvius may
the two kinds of Etruscan temples which he has have had in mind when describing the Greek
chosen: great temples with large open pronai, prostyle temples (ill, 2. 2-3), but which he
on a quadrangular plan, with either three cellas main description (iv, 7).
leaves aside in his
against the closed rear wall or a single cella and One kind of temple with a deep pronaus
open wings (alae). Vitruvius was further mis- having two columns in line with the lateral walls
led, no doubt, by later Roman and Etruscan of the cella seems old and not unusual [23].
temples with their many innovations. Both the There is no reason to doubt that a cippus from
Etruscans and the Romans started in the third Chiusi, dated about 500 B.C., represents a temple
century B.C. (perhaps even before) to build stone of this kind with two Tuscan columns [24]; in
temples on the old Etruscan plan, but with high any case, a fragment of the roof of a terracotta
Greek columns (see below, illustration 129). In model, also dating from about 500, proves that
small temples, where the intercolumniations these two-columned temples belonged to the
 TEMPLES 39

archaic Etruscan Age. A relief of the Imperial

period suggests that the Temple of Juno

Moneta on the Arx of Rome had a prodomus
with only two columns, as has also the small
model of a temple from Teano, which is Late
Repuhlican [25, 149].

23. Model from Satricum of a temple with two 25. Model of a temple from Teano,
columns prostyle. Rome, Museo di I ilia Giulia Late Republican

A great and important group of Roman

temples seems to have been related to the Etrus-
can ones. These Roman temples had a cella -

sometimes pseudo-peripteral - without alae and

with four or more columns in the pronaus. The
pronaus tends to occupy the front half of the
building. This type, destined to be a model for
ciassicistic architecture in Europe and America
in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
occurs in our present Roman material from
about 200 B.C., but probably had Etruscan pre-
decessors.The earliest instances at present
known are Temples B and D and the Port
Temple at Cosa, the larger temple on the acro-
polis of Norba, and the so-called Punic temple
at Cagliari (below, p. 165). These temples may,
of course, remind us of the prostyle temples in
Yitruvius's list of Greek temples. Yet I repeat
that the deep pronaus, the podium, and the
24. Cippus from Clusium (Chiusi) showing a
great emphasis on the front show that the Etrus-
temple with two columns in the pronaus and
animals above the pediment, 500 B.C.
('.
can arrangement described by Yitruvius (1 v, 7)

Berlin. lies Museum

I was even more important to their builders. 11
40 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

3HT

26. Tarquinia, 'Ara della Regina' Temple. Plan

We now arrive at the two types which Vitru- From the proportions of the ground plan
vius (iv, 7) selected in order to represent the Vitruvius passes on to the inner arrangements,
ideal Etruscan temple. It is for these that he giving first place to the three-cella temples and
laid down rules [22]. According to him, the merely mentioning the possibility of temples
length and width of the building plot ought to with one cella and alae [126, Temple C]. It
start at a ratio of 6 to 5. The length should be seems clear that the three-cella temple can by
divided into two equal parts, a rear part for the
cellas, or for one cella with alae, and a front part 27. Veii, Portonaccio Temple. Plan
(with stairs and entrance) for the columns. In
temples with three cellas four-tenths of the
width should be given to the central cella, and
three-tenths to the right and three-tenths to the
left cella or to the alae in temples with one cella.
The corner columns of the pronaus should be
placed in front of the antae on the line of the
outside walls (but if there are alae the corner
columns - as on the Temple of Jupiter Capito-
linus [34] - terminate the row of columns along
the outside of the alae). Two other columns
should be placed between the corner columns
on a line with the side walls of the central cella.
In the space between the four front columns and
the cellas should be placed a second row of
columns, arranged on the line of the cella
walls. 12
 TEMPLES 41

no means be claimed as necessarily dominant Ardea which otherwise displays Vitruvius's

and especially typical of Etruscan sanctuaries. dispositiones tuscanicae measures 85 by 130 feet
The number of the cellas depended, of course, (26 by 40 m.). On the other hand, in the Porton-
on the number of divinities worshipped, and accio Temple of Veil [27, 51], which once carried
triads (or dyads) seem not to have played any the famous terracotta gods now in the Villa
commanding role in the organization of the Giulia Museum on its ridge and which meas-
Etruscan gods. Hardly any evidence from ures 61 by 61 feet (18.50 by 18.50 m.), we meet
Etruria, for example, attests the triad Jupiter, with the measurements recommended by Vitru-
Juno, and Minerva (Tinia, Lni, and Minvra) in vius. The larger temple at Pyrgi [28] measures
the Etruscan towns. 13 78 feet a. inches by 112 feet 10 inches (24.05 by
The 'Ara della Regina' Temple at Tarquinia 34.40 m.). Vitruvius's description of these tri-

[26], famous for the splendid terracotta horses partite temples has generally suggested recon-
in hellenistic style from its pediment, proves structions of Etruscan sanctuaries with columns
that great monumental temples with a tripartite in open pronai in front of the cellas. This is not
inner arrangement, Etruscan disposition, and altogether certain (cf. p. 43 f.), but seems likely.

podium could be built on a quite different plan A recently excavated temple at Vulci is Vitru-
from the quadrangle prescribed by Vitruvius. vian. Thus one has to consider three possible
It measures 253 feet 1 inch by 1 16 feet 8 inches superstructures: temples with three cellas, as
(77-5 by 35-55 m -)- A temple on the acropolis of Vitruvius prescribes, with three cellas and alae.

. Pyrgi (Santa Scvera), temples. Plan

42 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

as seen in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in cella (or cellas like those of the Capitoline
Rome [34], and temples with one cella and Temple of Rome). The columns in the alae
1+
open alae or closed corridors [30]. along the sides of the cella were placed on the
Typical of the temples with alae is that the edges of the podium in line with antae, which
closed back wall extends right and left of the turned off at right angles from the extended

29. Sovana, Tomba Ildebranda, second century B.C. Elevation and plan
 43

rear wall, and ended with the external columns temples, for it is built of ashlar masonry, and
of the pronaus. Temples with alae were very that means that for once we can clearly see the
popular in Late Republican days in Rome, but superstructure. Against the closed rear wall is

the hellenized Tomba Ildebranda at Sovana, a cella measuring 27 feet 9 inches by 14 feet
which evidently imitates a temple of the second 5 inches (8.45 by 4.40 m.); the pronaus in front
century B.C., proves that the Etruscans also of the cella is 26 feet 8 inches (8.14 m.) deep;
favoured this type [20]. On a high podium, the proportion of cella to prodomus thus
below which the rock-cut chamber of the tomb roughly corresponds to that prescribed by
is hidden, stands a colonnade in front of a broad Vitruvius. The rear wall behind the cella con-
central rock-cut block. There are six columns in tinues on either side of it for 9 feet 3 inches and
front and three on the sides of this massive 8 feet 1 1 \ inches (2.82 and 2.73 m.), and from
centrepiece. It reproduces on a reduced scale a the ends of these extensions run side walls
three-cella temple with colonnades in front of parallel to the side walls of the cella to the front
the prodomus and alae left and right of the cellas of the podium. Thus, the open colonnaded
as in the Capitoline Temple in Rome. 15 wings were, in the Fiesole temple, closed corri-
The alae could also be changed to lateral dors along the side walls of the central cella.

corridors. Vitruvius does not mention this Between these outer walls (on the front edge of
variation, but it has been revealed by excava- the podium) were two columns. Stairs led up to
tions of a temple at Fiesole [30]. This temple this pronaus. A special characteristic of this
was rebuilt in Roman times (first century B.C.), structure is that only the front of the pronaus -
but there are older remains below the present i.e. the spaces between the antae and the
structure. It is of great importance for a discus- columns - was left open. It reminds us of what
sion of the reconstruction of the mud-brick Vitruvius says (1 'Where there are pro-
v, 8. 5):

jecting antae in the pronaus, some set up two

30. Faesulae (Fiesole), temple, Etruscan, columns in a line with each of the cella walls,
rebuilt in the first century B.C. Axonometric plan thus making a combination of Tuscan and
Greek buildings {tuscanicorum et graecorum
operum communis ratwanatw).'
Among the later Etrusco-Roman temples of
Latium there is no structure like the Fiesole

temple, but a model dating from the sixth cen-

tury, found at Velletri, shows us the same con-
struction [3 1 ]. That pushes it back to the archaic

31. Model of a temple from Velletri,

sixth century B.C. Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia
44 ' ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

period - in spite of the fact that in this case there wealthy sanctuary of Leucothea (Eileithyia),
are two cellas covered by a flat roof inside the which Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, plun-
building. The shrine was obviously dedicated to dered in 384. Thus, it most probably had one
two divinities. 16 cella and alae. The smaller temple is a peri-

The and the pronaus with side walls of

alae pteral temple of Greek type.
the Fiesole temple should make us reconsider Some other temples may illustrate the differ-
the current reconstructions of even such great ent possibilities. Temple C on the temple terrace
and famous temples as that on the acropolis of of Marzabotto, dated to the fifth century, seems
Ardea, the 'Ara della Regina' Temple at Tar- to have been a temple with cella and alae, but
quinia, and the Portonaccio Temple at Veii even there different reconstructions have been
[26, 27]. It is not only uncertain whether they proposed. The great fourth-third-century
had three cellas or alae, but we must also admit temple in the Contrada Celle at Falerii (Civita

as a possibility that they had closed side walls in Castellana) [32] and the fifth-century temple at
their pronai, like the Fiesole temple, and only the Belvedere at Orvieto [33] seem also to have
four columns in front of the walls of the central been three-cella temples. The former is truly
cella. At Veii, inscriptions seem to indicate a grandiose. The width of the cellas is about 130
triad (Artemis, Minerva, and perhaps Turan), feet. They are built against the rear wall of an
but the remains are inconclusive. The larger almost square enclosure, measuring some 260
temple at Pyrgi [28] seems to have been the by 260 feet. The smaller three-cella temple of

32. Falerii (Civita Castellana), Contrada Celle,

temple, fourth-third century B.C.
Plan reconstructed by A. Andren
 TEMPLES '
45

^ LJU'r i
'T- i i
--~
r^ -
3rf

t:.-'.^

3
:^ s

*<

33. Orvieto, Belvedere Temple, fifth century B.C. Plan

46 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

Orvieto measures 71 feet 11 inches by 55 feet the already mentioned three-cella temple dedi-

5 inches (21.91 by 16.90 m.). To the right and cated in 509 to the triad Jupiter Optimus Maxi-
left, in line with the four columns of the temple mus, Juno, and Minerva on the Capitoline Hill
front, is a wall of tufa blocks which enclosed the in Rome [34]. Etruscan diviners, a sculptor from

sacred area. It projects some 30 feet beyond the Veii (Vulca), and Etruscan workers were em-
corners of the front of the temple and then turns ployed for the planning, decoration, and con-
at right angles. Some 175 feet (53 m.) of the left struction of the Roman temple. As the centuries
side wall are preserved, and a short part of the went on, the temple was restuccoed and the in-
right one. These enclosed areas in front of the terior lavishly modernized - as were Early

temples have an archaic predecessor in the Christian and medieval churches in Renais-
temple of Volsinii (Bolsena) [20]. Their tradi- sance and Baroque times. 18 But the old-fash-
tion seems to live on in the Imperial fora of ioned archaic temple remained as a reminder
Rome. The arrangement implies strict axial of Etruscan culture in central Italy throughout
symmetry. 17 the rapid progress of Rome in the sixth century
until a great fire destroyed it in 83 B.C. It was
reconstructed in 69 B.C., and after that it was
Plans
embellished - that is, rebuilt in the hellenistic

Indisputable evidence for the plan of an old style with high Greek marble columns - but

Etruscan temple is afforded by Vulci, Pyrgi, and Dionysius (iv, 61) affirms that the old plan was

o o

o m
m lj l_j qj hj o

©I;::::, O O O

Q...1 00 o :£> o

000 00
34. Rome, Capitoline Temple,
dedicated 509 B.C.
Plan by E. Gjerstad and B. Blome
 TEMPLES •
47

kept. Tacitus (Historiae, i V, 53), in addition, as Vitruvius prescribes (1 v, 7) in his rules for an
writes that the plan was venerated and con- Etruscan temple without columns along the
sidered sacrosanct when the temple was rebuilt side walls. The substructure and the remains of
in the grand Imperial marble style after fires in the podium, as they stand today, further show
the Flavian Age. Nolle deos mutari veterem that - in spite of Dionysius's erroneous measure-
furmam; the actual remains on the Capitoline ments - we can safely believe his general de-

Hill wholly substantiate these solemn words. scription of the plan of the old temple. It had,
Still to be seen is a mighty substructure he says, a closed rear wall (with extending wings
which, in conformity with Vitruvius's prescrip- right and left), and consisted of three parallel

tions (1 1
1, 4. 1), was 'carried down into the solid cellas under one roof, separated by partition
ground as far as the magnitude of the work walls; the middle shrine was dedicated to Jupi-
seems to require, and the whole substructure . . ter, while on one side stood that of Juno and on
as solid as it possibly can be laid'. The same the other, that of Minerva. The central part of
kind of irregularly piled-up substructures be- the building, inside the peristyle, was in other
low buildings can be seen in many places; for words just what Vitruvius (iv, 7) demands in

instance, below the (now vanished) podium of his prescription for a Tuscan temple. Both
the temple on the acropolis of Ardea. Such Dionysius (iv, 61) and the remains prove that
irregular substructures also occur below regu- the three cellas of the Capitoline Temple had
larly built fortification walls, as, for instance, in alae with a row of columns outside the side walls
the outer circuit of Veii [56] and below the and in front of the eight columns of the pronaus.
Etruscan fortification under the medieval castle Instead of Vitruvius's eight columns in front of
of San Giovenale [57]. Above the Capitoline the three cellas, the Capitoline Temple thus had
substructure an inner wall of the podium can eighteen columns in its monumental pro-
still be seen, once destined to carry the columns domus. 19
in front of the eastern wall of the cellas (it now The Capitoline Temple is the largest Etrus-
serves as a wall of the corridor between the can temple known to us. We may ask if it was
Palazzo dei Conservatori and the Museo the worship of the Roman triad, Jupiter, Juno,
Nuovo). The height of the podium seems to and Minerva, known already from an older
have been about 1 3 feet - a height which, accord- temple, the Capitolium Vetus on the Quirinal
ing to Varro, Catulus, the builder of the temple (Varro, Lingua Latina, v, 158; below, p. no),
of 69 B.C., considered low (Gellius, Nodes which first induced the Etruscan master
Atticae, 11, 10). The width of the preserved builders, employed by the Etruscan kings of
inner wall of the podium of the cellas is c. 13 Rome, to build three cellas, thereby enlarging
feet 7 inches (4.15 m.). The whole podium the type in breadth. We must, of course, also ask
measured 204 by 175 feet (62.25 by 53.30 m.). ourselves if there could have been still older and
The relation between length and width is thus more distant prototypes for the arrangement
roughly 7 6 yet Vitru vius (1 v, 7) prescribes 6
:
; :
with three cellas which Vitruvius regarded as
for his smaller model temple with two rows of the full development of the type. It may further
four columns in front and no alae flanking the be noted as an interesting fact that the width of
three cellas. Dionysius (IV, 61) says the podium the temple that is, the distance between the
was 800 feet in circumference and almost square. corner columns on the front of the podium (163
The excess of length over width was not a full feet 2 inches; 49.73 m.) vies with the largest

15 feet. This statement is incompatible with the Greek temples: the corresponding measure-
remains of the temple, and scholars have in vain ments are for the Olympieion at Athens 134 feet
tried to explain the incongruities. In a general 1 1 inches (41.1 1 m.), for the Temple of Artemis
way, however, it confirms that the Capitoline at Ephesus 180 feet 9 inches (55.10 m.), for the
Temple was very large and appeared squarish - Heraion of Samos 195 feet 10 inches (59.70 m.),
48 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

for Temple GT at Selinus 164 feet 3 inches probably had a cornice on top, as has the oldest
(50.07 m.), and for the Olympieion at Agrigento temple in the Largo Argentina (Temple C,
173 feet (52.74 m.). dated to the late fourth century), where the
To sum up: the plans of Etruscan temples, podium is of about the same height as that of the
and especially the two types which Vitruvius Capitoline Temple [35]. 20
emphasized as his mos tuscanicus or dispositions The temple in the lower town at Ardea has a
tuscanicae, reveal a most characteristic arrange- rather different type of podium. It is one of the
ment of their own, with podia, frontal emphasis, temples of Latium which, like the Capitoline
closed back wall, and colonnades in the pro- Temple, attests the beginnings of Etruscan
domus and in temples with alae along the side architecture south of the Tiber. It is dated by
walls. These are the basic archaeological facts. its oldest terracotta revetments to about 500.
There are still some remains of swelling mould-
ings below the podium wall. There was, no
Podia
doubt, also a cornice on top of the wall. These
A discussion of the elevations must start with the mouldings were connected with the rich Italic
podia. As a general rule it can be said that podia development of Greek mouldings known from
of ashlar masonry with stairs in front are typical the substructures of Etruscan seventh- to fifth-
of Etruscan temples. Vitruvius, in his third century tumuli [36], and also seen in the hour-
book (4. 4-5), mentions stairs in front of the glass-shaped altars, with upper and lower
21
podium. Already in the archaic temples we meet echini, supporting sacrificial tables.

two kinds of podia. As already stated, the The material customary for the cellas and the
podium of the Capitoline Temple was 13 feet closed rear walls built on the podia seems to have
high. The south-east corner shows that the been mud brick and timber. This accounts for
facade was straight and probably stuccoed. It the remains of the temples usually consisting
only of subterranean substructures, podia, and
35. Rome, Temple C on the Largo Argentina, fragments of terracotta revetments. Here one
late fourth century B.C., podium must remember Vitruvius's rule (11, 8. 17) that
higher mud-brick walls should be two or three
bricks thick. Instead of such clumsy walls, ash-
lar work may have been used for the greatest

temples, as often in the sanctuaries of the latest

centuries B.C.

The Orders

Vitruvius in his general rules (iv, 7) gives very

clear data for the proportions of the columns and
their height. The height of the columns should
be one-third of the width of the temple. In some
cases his rule gives fairly reasonable measure-
ments, but in the case of the Capitoline Temple
- both in 509 and 69 B.C. (below, p. 164) - as its

width is 163 feet 2 inches (49.728 m.), the

height of the columns should, if we follow
Vitruvius's rule for a three-cella temple with-
out alae, be 54 feet 5 inches (16.576 m.), a height
which surpasses the columns of the great Doric
 TEMPLES •
49

i<.j.tJ. j ii '
V.- . « -. '

*3P*C

36. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery,

podium of a tumulus, seventh century B.C.

temples in Sicily and almost equals the columns Varro's statement that the builder of the new
of the Olympieion in Athens (55 feet 5 inches; temple of 69 regarded the old podium as too low
16. 89 m.). This height has been strongly advo- and out of proportion to the stately pediment he
cated for the temples of 509, but I would not be intended to build.

prepared to allow such a scale for archaic Etrus- The columns of the old temples were often of
can temples, or to accept Vitruviiis's rules as a stuccoed wood. Etruria was famous for its 'very

reliable basis for so sensational an assumption. straight and very long beams' (Strabo, \, 2. 5).
\ itruvius's measurements are very likely those But in high temples, and especially in the later
of the magnificent rebuilt temple of 69 B.C. In heightened temples, columns of stone as, for

his second Verrine oration (1 \, 31), Cicero ex- instance, the central support of the sixth-cen-

claims that thefire of 83 seemed to him to have tury tholos of Quinto Fiorentino [96] - no doubt
been almost sent by the gods 'to ensure that as were preferred or even necessary. the capitals
1 1

the Capitol has been rebuilt with greater splen- and bases of wooden columns were not of stone,
dour, so it shall be adorned with greater richness thej were encased in terracotta.

than before (quemadmodum magnificentius est In his rules for columns, Vitruvius recom-

restitutum, sit copiosius ornatum sit quamfuiiy. mends the so-called Tuscan column, with accu-

When Dionysius (1 v, 61) says that the founda- rate prescriptions for diminution at the top of

tions remained but that the costliness of the the column, the height of base and plinth, the

building was increased after the fire of 83, he height of the capital, and the width of the abacus

evidently means the same, finally, there is (i\, 7. 3). Characteristic ol the Tuscan column
5° ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

IS FEET

5 METRES

%^.wm.M^^^-'^
:
::

37. Vignanello, tomb with a Tuscan column,

c . 500 B.C. Section and plan

is the unfluted shaft whether straight or tapering We can trace columns of the Tuscan type
towards one or both ends, and a capital akin to from about 500, both tombs and domestic
in

the Doric, consisting of a round cushion architecture [37]. In Etrusco-Roman

the
(echinus) and a square abacus. The bases were temples of the third and second centuries, Tus-
evidently inspired by Ionic columns. As in the can columns and wooden Etruscan entablatures
case of the podia, a simple basic shape was en- seem to have prevailed (for example, Signia,
riched by influence from Greek architecture - Alatri, Alba Fucens, Mons Albanus, Cosa).
as was the whole temple building. Tuscan columns and capitals further became
popular in various kinds of Late Republican lection for hellenistic elegance and architectural
architecture, as seen in late tombs at Caere decoration which temples began to display more
[38], porticoes in Rome and Pompeii, and, for than hundred years before Yitruvius. 24
a

instance, a peristyle of a sumptuous rebuilt It would be wrong to assume, however, that

house in Morgantina (Sicily). Imperial archi- Tuscan columns were essential from the begin-
tecture the Theatre of Marcellus, the Colos- ning for Etruscan temples; Yitruvius is, again,

seum, and so on - continues this tradition. too dogmatic and relied too much on the evi-

This late renown of Tuscan columns and dence of later Etrusco-Roman architecture.

what Yitruvius concluded about their specific Casings of capitals from the archaic temples of

38. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery,

Late Etruscan tomb with Tuscan pillar

and original Italic character probably deter- Fortuna and Mater Matuta in the Forum Boar-
mined his choice of Tuscan columns as most ium in Rome show that as early as the sixth and
appropriate for Etruscan temples: he evidently fifth centuries columns with fluted Ionic shafts
thought that they were more truly Italic. This and capitals of a quite different shape from those
may reveal the same romantic nationalistic- prescribed by Yitruvius could be used in

tendency which can be traced in his age in temples of the Etruscan type [39]. A fourth-
Roman poetry, and sometimes also in architec- centurv column from Vulci confirms that fluted
ture, side by side with an overwhelming predi- Ionic shafts were adopted also in Etruria itsell
52 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

39. Capital of a temple on the Forum Boarium, Rome, sixth-fifth centuries B.C. Rome, Pt/Lizzo dei Conservator!

40. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, 41. San Giuliano, Tomb of Princess Margrethe
Tomb of the Doric Columns, sixth century B.C. of Denmark, Doric capitals, sixth century B.C.

at an early date. Tombs [40, 41, 82] prove that I must restate that, at least as early as the
Doric, Ionic, and especially the so-called Aeolic Romans, the Etruscans could amalgamate an
capitals were popular among the Etruscans from Etruscan plan with Greek columns and archi-
the sixth century onwards. 25 traves of stone, as seen in the tombs imitating
 TEMPLES •
53

temple facades. Two tombs at Norchia [42] head and a Corinthian motif at the bottom. The
have rock-cut gables, with Doric columns and first impression of the whole capital recalls the
Doric entablatures displaying some character- freely varied Aeolic capitals of many of the
istic Etruscan liberties. The columns were Etruscan tomb chambers, though capitals with

&k:

42. Norchia, tombs with temple facades,

fourth century B.C. or later

perhaps unfluted. Above a smooth architrave figures are a hellenistic device known from the
follows the frieze of triglyphs with guttae point- eastern parts of the Greek world. The Greek
ing downwards and elongated metopes with towns of south Italy or Sicily may have trans-
human heads on them. The unorthodox im- ferred it Romans, and
to the Etruscans, the to
pression is increased by Ionic dentillated cor- Campania. The Ildebranda tomb stands out as
nices above the frieze. In the pediments are a most interesting specimen of Etruscan temple
preserved remains of highly agitated reliefs. architecture in the provincial, unrestrained
All these details are now badly weathered. The hellenistic style with figured capitals and grif-
earliest possible date seems to me to be the fons and a rich floral pattern on architrave and
fourth century. frieze. The tombs of Norchia and Sovana may

To the second century belongs a still more show what \ itruvius reacted against when he
elaborate sepulchral temple facade on an Etrus- summarized his stern classicistic rules for the
can plan and with a most lively hellenistic real Etruscan style: they are in evident contrast
elevation: the famous Tomba Ildebranda of both to the Early Hellenistic Age in Italy and
Sovana |2(j|. The capitals of the colonnades the florid and enriched decoration of the post-
have Ionic volutes to right and left of a female \ugustan, Imperial \ge.
54 " ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

43. Cosa, Capitolium. Reconstruction

1. Architrave (trabes compactiles) 7. Common rafters (asseres; Vitruvius iv, 2.1)

2. Mutules (traiecturae mutulorum) 8. Sheeting of planks (opercula)
projecting in front of the tympanum 9. Antefixes
3. Joists (tigna) 10. Frieze of the architrave
4. Pediment (tympanum, fastigium) 11. Sima
5. Rafters (cantherii) 12. Pierced cresting
6. Purlins (templa; Vitruvius iv, 2.1) 13. Revetment plaques below the sima and eaves

Pediments and Roofs

After his rules for proportions and height of

columns, Vitruvius (iv, 7. 4-5) proceeds to a
very clear description of the wooden entabla-
tures of what he considered the real Etruscan
temples [43, 44]

Upon the columns lay the main beams

44. Cosa, strigillated sima
[trabes compactiles, corresponding to the
Greek temple] fastened to-
architrave of a
gether,commensurate with the require-
ments of the size of the building. These
beams fastened together should be laid so
and cresting as to be equivalent in thickness to the neck-
 TEMPLES '
55

ing at the top of a column, and should be tion. The paragraph ends with the much-dis-
fastened together by means of dowels and cussed words about the stillicidium; that is, the
dove-tailed tenons. Above the beams and
. . . eaves of the Etruscan temple. Above the pedi-
the walls [that is, above the wooden archi- ment, Vitruvius says, 'its ridge-pole, rafters,
trave] let the mutules [traiecturae mutu- and purlins are to be placed in such a way that

lorum] project to a distance equal to one the eaves of the completed roof should be
quarter of the height of a column; along the equivalent to one-third [of the roof without
front of them nail casings; build the tym- eaves] (ut stillicidium tech absoluti tertiario

panum of the pediment either in masonry respondeat)' . Scholars have referred this 'one-
or in wood. third' to the completed roof (Morgan, Fenster-
busch), to the pitch of the roof (Granger in the
The traiecturae mutulorum were the projecting Loeb edition), or to the height of the columns
ends of the lengthwise above
joists (tigna) laid (Frank Brown), which, since Vitruvius derived
the architrave of the side walls from the rear their height from the width of the temple, serve
wall to the front of the temple. In greater as a basic unit of the design in paragraphs 3-5.
temples, joists were also laid in between and In any case, one essential fact is evident: the
parallel with the architraves of the side walls. Etruscan temples had very wide eaves. This
This description is, no doubt, reliable for seems quite natural, as the walls of mud brick
- had one of the distinctive
temples which Yitruvius had actually seen to be protected. It is

for instance, at Cosa - though temples without features which must be kept in mind when try-

projecting mutules (pp. 58 f.) seem to have ing to visualize them.

been more usual. There seems to be nothing to The appearance of the roofs can be illustrated
add to it except that the description of the pedi- by a much-discussed small terracotta model
ment is chosen in Vitruvius's usual way among from Nemi, when the eaves which are broken
several different possibilities among which he are restored to the roof [45]. Confirmation
codifies one as the orthodox Etruscan disposi- comes from the actual remains. On the temple

45. Terracotta model of a temple root from Nemi. Rome, Museo Ji I ilia Giulia
56 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

46. Gabii, temple, late third century B.C., podium with benches for statues along the sides and back
 I I MPLES •
57

in the lower town at Ardea from the Etruscan

period of Latium (c. 500 B.C.), the drip-line
along the south-east side of the podium proves
that the overhang of the eaves was at least 6 feet
u inches (2.05 m.). Observation of the drip-line
along the north flank of the Roman Capitolium
of Cosa shows that its overhang was 7 feet

7 inches (2.30 m.). The recent Spanish excava-

tions at Gabii have revealed benches for terra-

and the
cotta statues in front of the long sides
back of the podium These statues were
[46].

probably protected by the eaves, and as they

were placed about 2 feet (60 cm.) from the wall
of the podium, the eaves were probably be- 47.Roof of temple model with rectangular pantiles
tween 3 and 6 feet wide. Archaic naiskoi in and semi-cylindrical cover tiles with antefixes.
Sicily could have the same distance - some 6 Rome, Museo di 1'ilhi Giulia

feet between wall and gutter. The wide eaves

belong to the many external features of Etrus-
can architecture of which we do not know saecula. The joists (tigna) above the architraves
whether they were due to Etruscan traditions {trabes campaniles) of the side walls, with their

or to a legacy from Archaic Greek structures, projecting mutules, of which Yitruvius speaks
which were kept and developed in central Italy, (IV, 7. 4-5; p. 54) [43 1, carried the ceiling of the

while the Greeks often gave them up. In the cella (in larger temples, together with beams in
case discussed here, it seems self-evident that between) and the rafters of the roof (cantherii).
the earlier temples of the Roman Republic in- In each gable heavy rafters formed the pedi-
herited their wide eaves from the Etruscans. ments.
Like the Tuscan columns, they were kept until After summarizing what we know about the

the radical hellenization of the second century. roof it is necessary to return to Yitruvius's rule
Yitruvius (11, 1. 5) speaks about thatched that the mutules should project in front of the

roofs of old temples on the Arx of Rome, and architrave, which on the front of the temple
Pliny (xvi, 36) quotes Cornelius Nepos's state- rested upon the columns of the pronaus, 'to a

ment that the roofs in Rome were covered with distance equal to one-quarter of the height of
shingles (scandulae) until the beginning of the the columns'. Perhaps the model of a temple-

third century. As far back as we have material roof from Nemi [45] shows traces of this strange

from Etruscan temples it is clear that the pur- arrangement, illustrated by the tentative recon-
lins of the roofs (temp/a), with common ratters struction of illustration 43. Still more illuminat-

(asseres) and a sheathing of planks above them, ing is a model of a temple from Satricum 48 [ 1,

were protected by flat rectangular tiles (tegulae) in columns at the ends of the
spite of the
with semi-cylindrical cover-tiles (imbrues) mutules. We ma\ also compare a small model
above the joints. The overhang of the lowest of a temple from the I leraion near \rgos, though
tiles along the eaves had a decorated underside, there is only a flat balcony, supported by two
visible from below; and the foremost co\er- columns, on the front of the temple. If we follow

tiles were protected by antcfixes resting upon what the Roman temples of Cosa suggest, in

these ea\es-tiles 1 47, 49 1.

J7
Temple D (first phase 170-160) Vitruvius's
The pediments were, of course, the most con- rule would give us a projection of the mutules
spicuous part of the roof. They could, no doubt, in front of the architraxc measuring 3 teet

be differently arranged during the Etruscan 10 inches (1.16 m.), which seems perfectly pos-
58 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

48. Model of a temple from Satricum

Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia

sible. On the Capitolium of Cosa (about 150) been disputed, but the gist of his words cannot
the result of Vitruvius's rule would be a projec- be ignored: he had seen temples with projecting
tion of about 5 feet 7 inches (1.70 m.). This un- mutules, and considered them to represent the
supported span is surprisingly wide, especially correct Etruscan dispositwnes. ZH
since the pediment had to carry terracotta Scholars generally reconstruct Etruscan
figures, but it seems to be confirmed by the temples without projecting pediments, in clear

west end of the drip-line along the south side contrast to Vitruvius's description as it stands,
of the temple, which continues 5 feet 10 inches but with support from terracotta models [25],
(1.78 m.) beyond the west wall. the tombs of Norchia [42], and later Roman
In larger temples Vitruvius's rule for the pro- hellenized temples such as the Temple of
jecting mutules is structurally hardly possible. Fortuna Virilis by the Tiber in Rome and the
As usual, he has probably dogmatized and codi- Doric temple at Cori [cf. 151 f.]. Again, we can-
fied traditional rules of proportion, which the not doubt that the Etruscans built temples in
temples did not always follow. In the case of the that way - probably under the influence of
mutules he might have been reacting against the Greek temples, which never had such strange
prevailing Greek type of temples. This fact has projecting pediments. But when the Etruscans
 59

first abandoned the special type of pediments Ornament

described by Yitruvius cannot be established.
Very likely both types were used from the The pedimental sculpture was only a part of the
earliest time of Greek influence. external terracotta ornament which the Etrus-
From the sixth century onwards the pedi- cans added to their temples [43, 44]. The origin
ment could be left plain or be decorated with of all this decoration was the Archaic Greek
sculpture. The rear pediment and pediments of temples with terracotta revetments. The main
small temples no doubt usually remained un- Greek centre during the seventh century seems
decorated. A very characteristic shape could be to have been the towns of central Greece. The

given to the plain pediments. The model from habit of adorning temples with terracotta revet-
Nemi [45] has a deeply recessed pediment with ments soon spread to the Ionian towns, to Sardis
an inner flat roof probably projecting in front of (as we know from a beautiful terracotta), and

the architrave. It rests on the mutules and is all over the Greek world, assuming different

covered by tiles. On the cover-tiles along the stylistic characteristics in its various centres.
edge of the inner roof are antefixes. This pedi- Towards 550 it reached Etruria and central
ment from Nemi and other archaeological Italy. It inspired a lively, sometimes exuberant
material show casings nailed on the mutules of style, whether the artists were from Greek
the side walls, as Yitruvius prescribes, and on towns or were Etruscans, like Yulca of Veii
the end of the ridge-beam. To the first half of the (Pliny, XXXV, 157). The delightful terracottas

fifth century belongs a ridge-beam revetment from south Italy and Sicily also had character-
from the larger temple at Pyrgi [28] showing a istics of their own and their technically exquisite

powerful battle-scene from Greek mythology and artistically refined art persisted longer than
in later archaic style, but with quite a strong in Greece. As a rule the Greek temples were
flavour of the wild Etruscan temperament. built of stuccoed limestone, poros and other
A convincing reconstruction of a pediment durable material, or in marble. The rock-cut
with warriors from a small Etruscan temple or tympana of the tombs of Norchia [42] as well as
treasury in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek proves several sarcophagi show that the Etruscans

that as early as the sixth century the Etruscans could use alabaster, tufa, and even marble or
began to use sculpture in the Greek manner. travertine for their reliefs. But the old terra-

Much later, probably in the second century, cotta revetments obviously served their exuber-

the pediments from Talamone, as reconstructed ant, lively artistic taste better, and they re-

in the Florence Museum, again have compli- mained popular down to the time of Late

cated pictorial compositions, though now in the Republican Rome.

hellenistic style.
2 ''
Finds from Orvieto (Temples Pliny (xx xv, 152, 157 f.) praises the artistic

of the Belvedere and Yia di S. Leonardo), Civita and technical quality of the venerable terra-
Castellana (Lo Scasato), Civita Alba, and the cotta sculpture. As a matter of fact, it forms a

well-known team of two winged horses from most important part of the history of Etruscan
the 'Ara della Regina'Temple at Tarquinia artand is discussed in another volume ot The
show (as do other finds) that pediment sculp- Pelican History of lit. Here I can only briefly
ture flourished in the fourth and following cen- mention how the coroplasts retold Greek sagas,
turies. Sometimes it even displays capricious used contaminated and revived Greek orna-
violations of what we consider Greek taste - for ments, or represented their own processions,

instance, the heads and shoulders of terracotta horse races, or at times historical events. With
figures on the pediment of the Belvedere Temple some delav, due to the use of old models for
at Orvieto project beyond the triangular space casting, conservatism, and, of course, provincial

of the tympanum, intruding on the cornice of isolation, they followed the successive Greek
the pediment.
1 " stvles from Archaic to Classical and Hellenistic,
6o ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

but were never quite happy with Greek disci-

pline and showed a certain capriciousness with
their fabulous beasts and half-human beings.
There is in many of these reliefs a wild spirit,
an unrestrained vivacity, and an agility which
mark them as Etruscan. J1
Whatever the stylistic causes of this predilec-
tion for terracottas, it is evident, in any case,
that the terracottas were structurally necessary
for the protection of the wooden parts of Etrus-
can mud-brick temples. But even after mud
brick had been given up, we still occasionally
see terracotta ornament persisting on temples
of stuccoed tufa or limestone of the last cen-
turies B.C. in central Italy.
Now for the antefixes along the eaves. These
were more or less horseshoe-shaped reliefs.

They can be merely decorative, but often repre-

sent gods, the head of Medusa, daemons, or
heroic or comic groups of figures. The figures
can - like the pediment sculpture from Orvieto,
or like the figures in front of the terracotta
gutters above the pediments - boldly swagger
in front of the horseshoe-shaped antefixes or
even rise in an outrageous manner above them,
inwhich case they had decorated back supports
on them, as shown by fragments of an antefix from Ardea, c. 500
49. Antefix B.C.
probably from the temple on the acropolis of Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia
Ardea (c. 500 B.C.) [49]. On these terracotta
end-pieces of the cover-tiles the imagination,
love of colour, and agitation of the Etruscan and the pediments. Pliny and other authors tell of a
Italic artistic mind found a place to work terracottagroup (Jupiter on a quadriga) on the
triumphs. If human figures appear they repeat apex of the Capitoline Temple, and Livy in-
Greek motifs, but it seems superfluous to seek forms us that in 296 it was replaced by another,
precise Greek models for the exuberant Italic probably of gilded bronze. These crowning
development of borrowed prototypes. 32 decorations could assume fantastic shapes such
The same is true of the quadrangular casings as high palmettes and groups of warriors.
nailed on the ends of the mutules or the round Pliny (xx xv, 154) seems to indicate that the old
discs which protected the ends of the ridge- Temple of Ceres, Libera, and Liber on the
poles and crowned the pediments. These discs Aventine Hill also had sculpture above both
were sometimes larger than the end of the ridge- pediments. The same obsessive and tireless
pole, and were suspended from it as from a peg desire to brighten the exterior of temples with

[50]. When Vitruvius, speaking about areostyle lavish ornament also inspired, from oldest times,
temples (1 1
1, 3. 5), says that the gables (fastigta) rich acroteria on the pediments. To the temples
were ornamented in the Tuscan fashion with on the Forum Boarium (dated about 500; see
statues of terracotta or bronze, he is probably p. 51) belonged acroteria with volutes rising

referring to richly developed acroteria above 4 feet 1 inch ( 1 .24 m.) from an oval base measur-
 fEMPLES • 6

50. Ridge-pole revetment from a temple at Fratte,

fourth century b.c. Salerno, Museo Provinciate

ing 2 feet (0.6 m.) high. Such ornaments were poles of archaic models of houses and great
placed in a sloping row along the simas, facing central acroteria of Greek temples from south
the acroteria of the eaves, as shown on a coin Italy and Sicily, as, for instance, a horseman
dated c. 78 B.C. Pairs of volutes of this kind sitting on a ridge-tile which is shaped like a

could also have crowned the apex or the whole horse, from Camarina, or the youth on a gallop-
ridge-pole of a temple, renewing a motif known ing horse from Locri.
already from the Early Iron Age, although there The Roman temple at Gabii affords us
it was purely ornamental and without struc- another instance of assiduous endeavours to
tural function." enliven the temples. \s ahead) referred to on
In the great Portonaccio Temple of Veii p. 57, benches with indentations for feet and
some of the cover-tiles of the ridge-pole were with lead dowels in them for terracotta statues

in the form of saddles, acting as bases for the were constructed in front of the long sides of the
famous terracotta statues of Apollo, Mercury, podium, reaching to the stairs, and along the
Hercules, and Latona (now in the Villa Giulia back 46]. Thus, the podium was surrounded
1

Museum in Rome) [51]. The gods thus seemed by figures on three sides; a decoration which
to move along the ridge of the roof. With these may, however, have been a Roman addition.

can be compared animals adorning the ridge- There is still no parallel from l.iruria.
62 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

7 METRE
2
51. Veii, Portonaccio Temple. Reconstruction. Elevation

The external terracotta embellishments must, These protective ornaments remained, on

at their richest, have given the temples a fan- same position during the whole
the whole, in the
tastic appearance. Another very impressive history of the temples of Etruscan type in cen-
feature was the revetments of the core of the tral Italy down to the second century. At the
building [43, 44]. There were
¥
ornamental end a classicistic taste inspired by Greek archi-
reliefs nailed to the door jambs, and (as has tecture reacted against the late terracotta

already been said) on the ends of the ridge-poles decoration in the overflowing hellenistic style. 35
and on the projecting mutules below the pedi- Abundant archaeological material shows that

ment. Rich, purely ornamental or figurative Etruscan furniture, chariots, etc., could be cov-
reliefs covered the architraves. The raking, ered with plates of bronze from the very begin-
usually strigilated simas above the pediments nings of Etruscan culture in Italy in the seventh
were crowned with pierced crests. Revetment century. When we hear about 'buildings of
plaques hung below the simas and in front of the bronze' in the Orient, Greece, and Rome, this,

purlins (templa) and below the common rafters of course - except for some fairy tales - refers to

(asseres) and planks (opercula) of the eaves. To metal-coated structures of wood or mud brick.

what has been said about figures rising above That this common Mediterranean method of
and pediments may be added as a last
antefixes protection and adornment of buildings was
example the simas from Arezzo, datable about regarded as ancient in Italy, as in Greece, is

400, with warriors fighting. shown by what was told in Rome about a tiny
 TEMPLES '
63

aedicula aenea which was originally erected by temples with entrance on the central axis ot the

Numa Pompilius to the Muses. Our evidence cella; for example, at the old temple of Volsinii
from central Italy begins with references to [20] and probably the temples on the Contrada
bronze gates of the so-called Servian Wall, an Celle of Falerii [32] and at the Belvedere of
aenea aedicula erected on the Forum Romanum Orvieto [33]. The Capitolium of Cosa had a
and remains of architectural ornament in
in 304, square area of the same type as these Etruscan
bronze dating from the fourth century. The temples, though with altar and entrances
latter consists of fragments of plain bronze tiles oriented in agreement with the city plan and
and revetments of the same sort as those of terra- the oldest traditions of the place. The Etrus-
cotta, found at the sanctuary of Diana at Nemi cans, no doubt, had rules for the placing of the
and at Palestrina. 36 temples much the same as those we know for

altars and places 'set aside and limited by cer-

tain formulaic words for the purpose of augury
Liturgical Disposition
or the taking of the auspices' (Varro, Lingua

The strict frontality of the temples may have Latina, V 1 1, 8). Vitruvius and some other archi-

suggested an axial planning of the areas and tects recommended that temples face the west-

altars in front of them. It became the prevailing ern quarter of the sky, enabling the worshippers
rule for the temples of the Roman Republic and at the altars to face simultaneously the sunrise
for temples of the Roman type throughout the and the statues in the temple. This rule and the
Empire. It should, of course, always be remem- exceptions to it admitted by Vitruvius (1 v, 5. 2)

bered that axial symmetry was fashionable, at do not agree with our archaeological findings.
least in later hellenistic temples. 37 However, Here we note a prevailing tendency to make the
axial symmetry cannot be claimed for the old temples face south, though with considerable
Etruscan altars: it seems, on the contrary, that deviations, no doubt due to lost traditions of the
they were placed according to the demands of different cults. In any case, it seems clear that

the cult, facing east, or as old traditions (from the general direction, which we can trace in our

before the building of the temples) determined. material, comes from a basic, non-Greek, tradi-
On the other hand, from archaic times onwards tion present in Etruscan temples even in their
we find regular square areas in front of the hellenized form.""

52. \equarossa, part of the monumental building in Zone F, with courtyard on the right,
second half of the sixth century B.C. (see Note 38)

*
64 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

Before leaving these temples and their resembled that of the atrium-houses, which also
characteristic plan, their wide eaves, their dis- seem to me to display a fundamentally foreign
play of colourful terracottas, and, often, most architectural type, though in Italy such houses
fanciful silhouettes which were formed by the became hellenized by the addition of columns
acroteria on the roof, I wish briefly to sum up and decorations in the Greek style and later

my opinion on the origin of their basic dispositio were largely remodelled after the Greek fashion.
with closed rear wall, great prodomus, and
frontal emphasis. It seems clear to me that these
TOWN PLANNING
features were introduced into Italy by the
Etruscan culture in the eighth and seventh When we turn from the temples to the towns
centuries, either through trade, or brought to around them, we again have to keep in mind
the country between the Tiber and the Arno by possible aboriginal Etruscan elements, com-
Etruscan emigrants from Asia Minor. The mon Mediterranean culture, Greek influence,
famous eighth-century Assyrian relief of the and the specific development of all of these dur-
temple at Musasir in Urartu seems to me to ing the six Etruscan centuries in Italy. As in the
show a part of this background of different types case of the placing of temples, the Etruscans
of temples in Asia [53]/' In any case, I regard developed rules for building their towns. These

&&Z

53. Assyrian relief showing the sack of Musasir, Urartu, eighth century B.C.

the basic concept of the typical Etruscan temples rules, which we know about only from learned
as of Eastern and not of Greek origin. But what- Late Roman elaborations, were found in the
ever the origin, it seems evident that a new his- Libri tagetici or sacra tagetica of the Etruscans,
tory of this type of temple started in Italy and ascribed to the mythical lawgiver Tages, and
resulted in themonumental, externally hellen- they include those about the foundation of
ized great Etruscan and Roman sanctuaries. I towns (see p. 21) by means of a furrow ploughed
assume that their history and development around the future township [9]. Whether this
54 V cii, street. Plan

10 METRES

was taken over from the Early Iron Age, as I disciplina etrusca said that no old town was con-
believe (see p. 2}), or was part of Eastern ele- sidered a proper one without three gates and
ments in Etruscan life is not clear. To these three main streets (cf. p. 35). But in our archae-
founding ceremonies belonged also the mundus, ological evidence we cannot trace any master

a sacrificial pit in which the first fruits were plan or any fixed quadrangular or circular peri-
deposited. The Romans employed the 'Etrus- meter heralding the Roman four-sided coloniae
can ritual' {etruscus ntiis) for their newly and castra among the oldest Etruscan towns or
40
founded colonies, but also assumed that Lavin- in Rome itself.

ium and Rome had been founded in the same Our material is scanty, but the scraps of evi-

way. Roman writers have related how Romulus dence with which we must work seem to indi-
had summoned men from Etruria who pre- cate that the original Etruscan settlements,
scribed all the details in accordance with their vetusta munificia, were like the old, untidy,
sacred ordinances and writings, thus giving the graduallv developed Mediterranean towns such
sanctity of old rites to their new towns. as Rome and Athens. They replaced in central
The axial planning suggested by Etruscan Age villages with crowds of
Italv the Early Iron

temples and the rules about places for auguries square buildings of wood or mud brick or of
and auspices may well have been a source of stone along narrow crooked streets. This is the
inspiration for the creation of regular towns. impression which the small excavated parts of
Yitruvius (l, 7. 1) quotes haruspices and rules Yeii [54], Yetulonia 1 55 1, and the archaic settle-

for the location of temples from Etruscan treat- ment spread over the acropolis of San Gio\ enale
ises (scripturae), and ancient experts on the give us. 41

55. Vetulonia, street. Plan

56. Veii, terraced city wall
and substructures,
before 396 B.C.
Section and elevation

^ Present edge
of plateau
 TOWN PLANNING 67

57. San Giovenale, Etruscan wall of the early fourth century B.C. below the thirteenth-century castle

Like the Early Iron Age villages, these old great period of these mighty strengthening walls
towns were mostly built on hills. The area of came only during the wars against the Romans
the settlement was in many cases denned by the and Gauls in the fifth century and later. Among
shape of the hills and the lines of natural defence the most conspicuous are those protecting the
- nativa praesidia. Sometimes the table-lands lower town of Populonia, east of the acropolis,
were very large, and the settlement in such cases the walls of San Giovenale and Luni, and those
might have been somewhat dispersed. In the of Tarquinia. At Veii the fortifications were
towns of San Giovenale and Luni, the larger old strengthened by terrace walls against the
settlement - apparently because of the wars Romans before the final defeat of 306. On the
against Rome from about 400 - was reduced to north-west side an agger was constructed and
the parts of the hills which could most easily be crowned by a wall supported by a solid sub-
defended. Veii and Tarquinia are the most structure, as Vitruvius prescribes (1, 5. 1) [56].

famous examples of such hill towns, not to A wall of the same kind was built against the
speak of their offspring on the hills of Latium east slope of the acropolis ofSan Giovenale and
from the sixth century onwards: the Palatine, provided with an agger, protecting the outer
Esquiline, and Quirinal, Lavinium, Antium, side of the substructure. This wall, the steep

Ardea [102], and many others. slopes to the north and south, and a rock-cut
The hillsides, if insufficient for defence, were fossa to the west fortified the central part of the
supplemented by terrace walls [56-8]. The acropolis [57]. The old, larger settlement of the
 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

easternmost point a mound was thrown up

around a substructure for a crowning tower
[59]. These fortress-towns obviously belonged
to the time of the Roman war against Veii, or
were, in any case, a part of the frontier of Tar-
quinia against Rome in the ensuing war in the
fourth and early third centuries. Already before
the Romans had conquered Veii, the Faliscans
of Capena enlarged their fortifications, foresee-
ing that the Romans after Veii would continue
the war, attacking them and the Etruscans,
whom they had warned in vain.
These fortifications seem to belong to a type
pioneered by the Etruscans in central Italy; no
doubt they themselves were inspired by Greek
town walls. At Rusellae, north of Grosseto, as
early as about 600 a wall of mud bricks measur-
ing some 2J-33 by 16-18 inches (7-8.5 by 40-
45 cm.) was built upon a stone foundation, as in
Smyrna. In the sixth century it was replaced by
a stronger terrace wall of polygonal stone blocks.

The walls of Rusellae may have been built

against the local tribes, but they may also, of
Greek -
course - like the city walls in south Italy

Luni, walls, early fourth century B.C have been connected with internal feuds among
the Etruscans themselves, before the system of
city-states of the fifth and following centuries,
seventh and sixth centuries was reduced to this as known to us, was established. 42
fortress. The same happened at Luni [58]. The Varro and other authors affirm that land sur-
hillsides of the east part of the acropolis were veving (limitatio) belonged to the disctplina
strengthened by mighty ashlar walls where etrusca, and the Romans (no doubt correctly)
necessary, two fossas protected the west side, regarded the Etruscans as their teachers, though
and in a gap in the natural defences at the thev soon developed their special centuriatio on

59. Luni, acropolis, mound with a tower

at the eastern end,
early fourth century B.C. Reconstruction

Tufo at wall-^ t

Present exterior ground level V. Approx. interior ground level Approx. location of tufo bedrock
"
right below wall
50 FEET

15 METRES
 TOWN PLANNING 60

the lands around their towns, especially around tery began in the second half of the sixth cen-
their newly built colonies. tury. Eater on we also see regular streets in the
The Etruscan limitatio, no doubt from its Banditaccia cemetery at Caere, which may give
beginnings, was connected with Greek geo- an idea of the elegance of Etruscan streets.

metry (Herodotus, II, 109) and common Medi- Interesting specimens of regular town plan-
terranean practice, but evidently the Etruscans ning belong to the centuries when the Etruscans
gradually developed this international science were masters of the Po valley. In the last decades
in their own way with typical religious precau- before 500 they founded the colony at Marza-
tions of their own, claiming special divine in- botto, on the road from Etruria to Felsina
spiration. Safe conclusions concerning the (Bologna). It was built on a riverside plain
modes of their limitatio can be drawn from what where nothing interfered with the regular plan.
the Roman land surveyors tell us: they connect The rectangular blocks of the grid are 540 feet
it with the regular division of the fields outside (165 m.) long, but their width varies (115, 130-
the cities, as also does Varro (Lingua Latum, 225 feet; 35, 40-68 m.) [62, 63]. The long sides
\ 1, •>$). In old towns {vetusta municipia), the follow the main streets {per strigas). Marza-
previous crowded settlements and the town botto shows the closest affinity to Greek towns
hills (locorum difficultates) prevented the Roman such as Naples, Paestum, Olynthus, the Piraeus.
surveyors from systematizing the town plan. Recent discoveries have elucidated the close
But in new towns they could achieve what they relationship between the chequerboard pattern
considered to be the ideal master plan (pulcher- of the town and the terrace of temples and altars
rima ratio) of straight streets carried in from on the acropolis at the north-west corner. As
four gates and meeting in a central forum. 43 along the fashionable streets of Pompeii and
This type, whether Etruscan or Roman, Ostia, the entrances of the houses faced the
brings us from the Etruscan limitatio to a great streets.

revolution in the history of ancient town plan- Most interesting is the Greco-Etruscan town
ning. In the sixth century or even before, the of Spina in the delta of the Po, founded, like
Greeks in Sicily, the Ionians in Asia Minor, and Marzabotto, about 500. Similar to Venice or, as

the Etruscans had started to plan their new Strabo describes it, Roman Ravenna (v, 1. 7),

towns in a rational, regular way. No doubt it it was built on piles and crossed by canals pro-
had a background in the town planning of the vided with bridges and ferries. Aerial photo-
old Oriental empires, as related by Herodotus graphs have revealed a system of rectangular
(1, 178 f.) of Babylon. 44 blocks, as at Marzabotto, centring upon a large

Whatever memories of their old towns may straight canal (100 feet wide) which leads to the

have predisposed the Etruscans to this regular harbour. It is again the planning which Aristotle
type, it is evident that the new systematiza- refers to when speaking of the modern fashion
tion was connected with the omnipresent Greek of Hippodamus (Politics, VII, 1330 b, 21 f.),
influence in archaic Etruria - in this case though here in terms of canals. ,s
with the ideas formulated by Hippodamus of About 600, when the Etruscan city-states
Miletus in the fifth century. We can clearly extended their dominion to the Oscan popula-
trace these new endeavours in the Crocefisso tion of Campania, Capua became their chief
cemeterj at Orvieto [60], where in contrast to town. Cato maintained that it was founded in

the dispersed great mounds of Caere (Cerve- 471, but that date probably indicates an enlarge-
teri) [61 ) chamber tombs, covered with tumuli ment or reorganization. Livy (i\, 37) tells us
with crowning memorial markers, are arranged that the Etruscans admitted Samnite immi-
in rectangular blocks, accessible by a s\stem of grants from the mountainous central parts of
straight streets. Recent excavations have con- I tab to 'a share in the city and its fields', as did

firmed that this regular planning of the ceme- also the Greeks in Naples, according to Strabo
70 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

60. Orvieto, street in the Necropoli di Crocefisso del Tufo,

begun sixth century B.C.
 TOWN PLANNING •
71

cw

61.Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, air view,

showing tombs of Early to Late Etruscan date (c. 650-100 B.C.)
63. Marzabotto, founded c. 500 B.C.,

the acropolis hill and part of the town, showing a street

with a drain in front of typical quarters

it* „Mff
I

<" Jr.'

*K0
74 ' ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

(v, 4. 7). Very likely the regular rectangular after the first great defeat of the Etruscans in
blocks at Capua, shown on aerial photographs, Campania in the battle against the Greeks at

received their final shape in the age of the great Cumae in 474. In this case, the fortifications
extension when Capua received the fatal Sam- would have been a part of the Oscan and Greek
nite immigrants who, according to Livy, were resistance against the Etruscans. In their sec-
to take over the town in 423. Like Fratte (Mar- ond, late-fifth-century period, the walls clearly
tina) (Strabo V, 4. 13) the old irregular parts of belonged to the Campanians of mixed Oscan
Pompeii (Reg. v 1 1 - v1 1 1) were an Etruscan out- and Samnite ancestry known from Roman
46 47
post, at least for some decades around 500. It history.
seems most likely that the extensive regular The enlarged Pompeii with its Greek wall
quarters north and east of the old crowded hill was among the regular towns which in the fifth

town were laid out some time between 520 and century became common all over Italy, when
450 [64]. The differing orientation and shapes new towns were founded on plains or new
of the blocks indicate that the greatly enlarged quarters added to old hill towns. However, it

town only gradually up vacant parts of the

filled seems clear that the Etruscans were the first to
level space inside the walls. It seems at least adopt the new ideas in central Italy. As town
possible that some of these rectangular blocks planners and land surveyors, they remained the
and straight streets were outlined by the Etrus- forerunners and teachers of the Italic peoples.

cans; they may, indeed, already have started to Now to secular building in towns. A wall
enlarge the town to receive the Samnite immi- painting in the Tomba delle Bighe at Tarquinia
grants (as the Etruscans did at Capua). It is, of and a relief from Chiusi (sixth and fifth cen-
course, also possible that the Oscans became turies) [65] show that wooden scaffolding was
independent and gradually reshaped their town erected around open places for spectators and
umpires of the games. 48 These representations

65. Relief from Clusium (Chiusi) showing wooden

show seats raised on supports which may have
scaffolding for spectators and umpires of games, been about 12 feet high, as Livy describes the
fifth century B.C. Palermo, Museo Nazionale 'rows' (Jon) of the senators and knights in the
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 75

Circus Maximus of Tarquinius in Rome (i, 35. his way to Rome. An agricultural centre exca-
8 f.). Vitruvius (v, 1. 1) attests, also from Rome, vated near San Giovenale belongs to that time,
'acustom handed down from our ancestors that and contains store-rooms and it seems - a

shows should be given in the forum'.

gladiatorial dormitory for the slaves.'

The painting in the Tomha delle Bighe shows The archaeological material indicates that
that the Etruscans had already started to use the common folk in the Etruscan towns lived in
linen awnings (vela) in the theatres. modest rectangular houses. In the confusion of
low foundations inside the regular rectangular
blocks of Marzabotto, small rectangular houses
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
can be distinguished [62]. They often have
In his dramatic description of the sack of Rome party walls (parietes communes) and inner court-
in 386, Livy (v, 41. 7-8) tells us that the plebe- yards with wells. Rectangular houses are com-
ians boarded up their dwellings, while the patri- mon, usually some 10 to 13 feet wide, with
cians bravely left the halls of their palatial porches on the front towards the street and two
houses, their 'domus', open and awaited the rooms en suite. These houses resemble the
enemy in the vestibules in front of the them, Greek megara. Often they had rooms added to
wearing their ornaments and apparel which - their right and left flanks. Usually they had a

in the eyes of the Gauls - made them appear door directly on to the street. But all over the
like gods. Literary sources and archaeological town are also tabernae, used as shops, work-
material from Etruscan towns (foundations of shops, or perhaps as dwellings of the proletariat,
houses, and tombs and funerary urns reproduc- which were wide open towards the streets.

ing houses) substantiate this distinction be- Narrow rooms behind the shops or connected
tween the domus of the kings (lucumones) and with the megaron-like houses were very likely
aristocracy on the one hand, and, on the other, staircases leading to a garret. Under the straight
the great majority of the dwellings of the lower streets in front of the houses run common
classes, the plebs, and, above all, of the qualified sewers [63]. The rectangular and regularly dis-
slaves, artificers (to speak with Livy, V, 1. 5), posed blocks of Marzabotto and the distribu-
clients, and affranchised, described by Posi- tion of rather uniform houses within them
donius (Diodorus, v, 40) and Dionysius of Hali- obviously represent the final achievement of
carnassus. Etruscan town planning of about 500.
The archaeological material makes up for our As has already been stated, the old settlement

lack of literary information about the dwellings of San Giovenale extended all over the acropolis.
of the lower classes - men of ordinary means The eastern part of the hill is crowded with
(communis fort una), as Vitruvius calls them. We small houses which are difficult to visualize in
have remains of ordinary business quarters in detail. But on the slope towards the valley on
the towns, the long rows of small uniform tombs the north side of the acropolis were built ter-
in the great Banditaccia cemetery of Cervcteri, raced rectangular houses on high, carefully
and cippi in the form of miniature gabled constructed substructures of ashlar tufa [66].
houses for the women (and pillars for the men). They faced the valley with their northern, short
While skilled slaves, as Diodorus says, had sides. The stratification indicates a date about
houses like those of the plebs, miners and rural 600. The completely preserved foundations of
slaves, the tumultuariae agrestium cohortes re- one of the houses measure 24 feet 7 inches by
ferred to by Livy (ix, 36. 12), no doubt lived in 12 feet 10 inches (7.50 by 3.90 m.). Contrary to
barracks, the tusca ergastula still mentioned by the arrangement of the chequerboard sections
Juvenal (vi 1 1, 180). That was, in any case, typi- of Marzabotto, where the short sides of the
cal of the great latifundia of the Etruscan houses face the streets, the houses of the north
countryside, which Tiberius Gracchus saw on slope of the acropolis of San Giovenale are built
76 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

66. San Giovenale, houses oft". 600 B.C. on the northt side, east of the castle and the fourth-century town

in rows and obviously had their entrances on the to be faced by rectangular houses with open
long sides, opening on alleys between them. porches towards the street, resembling those of
One street is preserved and has a width of about Marzabotto. 50
8 feet, that is, as described in the Twelve Tables On the north side of Veii we find a building

of the Law. There seem to have been similar of higher standard, with irregular rooms on its

terrace houses facing the valley on the south

side of the acropolis.
The excavated part of Vetulonia [55] shows a

winding, 10-foot-wide main street (for which

the term decumanus would be quite out of
place) and two oblique transverse roads. Six
tabernae face the south-western half of the
main street on side. Along the first
its south
transverse road row of rooms resembling
is a

those on the north side of San Giovenale, while

the north-eastern half of the main road seems
67. Veii, house. Elevation
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 77

68. San Giovenale, House K. in the western quarter, bedroom, </. 600 B.

west side [54, 67]. Like the houses of Marza- tions of somewhat roomier houses with a paved
hotto and the Greek megara, it faces the street courtyard and a well between them west of the

with a porch accessible from a wide entrance. fossa across the acropolis of San Giovenale [68].
\ door with tapering jambs like those of many The great period of these houses was that of the
Etruscan tombs of all periods leads to a room old, larger towns after about 600. Many seem to

measuring 15 by 133 feet (4.60 by 4. 20 m.). The have resembled to a greater or lesser extent the
jambs and ashlar walls are preserved to a height megaron of Veii. The rear and side walls of one
of 4 feet 9 inches (1.44 m.) and suggest that the of the rooms in house K at San Giovenale [68J
entire building was constructed of tufa blocks. 51 have low benches of pebbles which have been
This megaron-like house of Veil can be com- taken from rivers round the acropolis. Beds of
pared with some of the chamber tombs and the same kind have been noted in an Apennine
house models of the ash urns. They seem to hut at San Giovenale, in a Siculo-Geometric

have been better than the houses along the house on the lower acropolis of Morgantina in
narrow lanes of San Giovenale and \ etulonia, Sicily, and in the inner chamber of the tomb

and are probably the modest domus of more called the Tomb of the Thatched Roof at
wealthy people. This ma\ also he true of founda- Caere (Cerveteri), datable to the early seventh
•V'X Strife .""';'

69. Caere (Cerveteri), Tomb of the Thatched Roof,

early seventh century B.C.

70. San Giovenale, Porzarago cemetery,

chamber-tomb, c. 600 B.C.
Section and plan by B. Blome
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 79

century [69]. The excavators of Morgantina That this arrangement is to be found in the
have seen such timeless resting-places, finished Tomb of the Thatched Roof at Caere suggests
with grass, straw, and goatskin, among the that this tomb reproduces a room in a house like

shepherds of Sicily today. Varro (Lingua Latum, that on the western side of San Giovenale. The
v, 166) tells us that the Roman soldiers in his Etruscans of the upper classes about 600 obvi-
time set up their couches in the camps (castra) ously had such bedrooms, in striking contrast
on straw coverings (stramenta), grass, or wheat not only to the luxury of the upper-class tombs
stalks 'in order that they may not be on the of the following centuries but also to the royal
earth'. 52 tombs of the seventh century such as the Rego-

71. Painted root tile from a house at Acquarossa of the sixth century B.C. (see Note 53)
80 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

lini Galassi Tomb at Caere, with its imposing Our main sources for the domestic architec-
stone-built halls and abundant treasuries [94]. ture of the upper classes after about 600 are
After about 600 domestic architecture began to tombs, cinerary urns reproducing houses, and
insist on more elegance. Here we can already Vitruvius's chapter on the architecture of the
see heralded the luxurious, over-columniated upper classes in his time (vi, 3). The great

later architecture of the Etruscans. For such majority of the older tombs consist of one rec-
houses more solid roofs were, of course, re- tangular room cut in the tufa and accessible
quired, and tile roofs superseded the wide, from the fields above by a sloping passage [70].

light, slightly curved thatched roofs, as demon- Sometimes there is an inner chamber as well.
strated by the archaic tomb of Caere which has The megaron-type house at Veil [54, 67] pro-
just been mentioned, by a contemporary gabled vides a parallel from an actual town. But there
ash urn from the cemetery of Monte Abatone at are also tombs with more complex and ambi-

Caere [21], or by ash urns like the square hut of tious suites of rooms. Their arrangement recalls

illustration 16. Vitruvius's account of 'Tuscan' upper-class

72. Perugia (near). Tomb of the Yolumnii.

Section and plan

V ; ->
•''- >»•-.'».' '!'.

i ^^^^SS^igSbgfc^ygigg
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 8l

^22 mn
Z27
I uW ZJ

73. Tarquinia, Tomba del Cardinale. Interior

houses [82-7] (cf. below, p. 86 ff.), a type to Vitruvius (1 1, 10. 2), and others tell us about the
which he gives pre-eminence. 5J Later tombs abundance of fine building timber in the central
had very large halls, occasionally with several Italian woods in ancient times. As seen in one

side chambers [72]. These, as has already been chamber of the fifth century, the 'Tomba delta
suggested, correspond to the palaces of the Scimmia' at Clusium (Chiusi), graceful coffered
great landowners and of the monied classes of ceilings were in fashion already about 500. The
the last centuries of Etruscan history. They Tomba del Cardinale at Tarquinia (third cen-
may, in some cases, have been the communal tury) [73 1 displays the most imposing sunk
property of an association. panels in the ceiling. The famous wall paintings

Both non-archaeological visitors and many of Greek legends, funeral feasts, races, athletic

archaeologists have often sensed that the Etrus- sports of different kinds, and dances, known
cans were inspired by the town houses of the from Tarquinia, Veii, Chiusi, Orvieto, and
rich when, throughout their history in Italy, Cerveteri, probably belonged solely to the
they cut these chamber tombs in the tufa of the tombs, at least in older times, though the grand
table-lands around their towns or in the slopes halls of the later Etruscans may perhaps have
of the surrounding valleys, although their had historical paintings such as those of the

special purpose, and the restrictions imposed Francois Tomb at Vulci.

by having to cut into the living stone, naturally The walls seem mostly to have been decor-
caused modification and simplification. ated with a high red dado with a wave pattern or
In contrast to old tombs such as the Tomb of parallel bands in different colours above [74].
the Thatched Roof |6u], from the sixth century The so-called Eirst Pompeian Style, which we
onwards the interiors reproduce by means of can follow in the hellenistic world from about
sculpture or painting beautiful roofs, door- 300 and even earlier, perhaps did not appeal to

posts, lintels, and other skilled joinery. The the Etruscans; but in the neighbourhood of
mighty ridge-poles, beams, and planks remind Luni there is a chamber tomb with decoration
us as do the dimensions of the terracotta re\ et- resembling the Second Pompeian Style [75].
ments of the temples of what Strabo (V, 2. 5), Tombs at Tarquinia [93] show how beautifully
 52 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

74. Ardea, tomb, c. 300 B.C. Interior

the ridge-poles and alternating massive planks At San Giuliano, Bieda, Xorchia, Sovana,
of the ceilings were painted. The rest of the roofs and in other places late tombs have been pro-
were decorated with chequerboard patterns, vided with ornate facades, sometimes protected
scattered flowers, and other more or less geo- by projecting shed roofs above the entrance
metric designs or gaudy motifs. In contrast to [76]. How far these decorated facades repro-
remains of monumental ceilings and house duce houses of the towns of the last centuries of
plans in Cerveteri and other towns, the famous, the Etruscans it is impossible to say. On the
delightful wall paintings of Tarquinia evidently other hand, the elegant two-storeyed tombs
reproduce colourful tents erected for funerals, constructed against hillsides in the same way
the funeral games, and even the landscape out- as the terrace houses on the south slope of Pom-
side them. Here different ideas meet: imitation peii are evidently connected with real houses
of the architecture of the houses, shelters made [77]. They belong to the flat-roofed domestic
only for the occasion of the funerals, and tem- architecture of Late Etruscan times. The
porary ornament for them. The tombs at Cerve- Crocefisso cemetery at Orvieto seems to show
teri, San Giovenale, San Giuliano, and other streets shadowed by blank walls [60]. A cinerary
places, where the polychromy of the imitated urn in the Museum in Florence [78], whether it

wood constructions has largely disappeared, had a pitched or a flat roof, gives a good idea of
were at least partly furnished with painted what simple facades in Etruscan towns were
adornments - as doubtless were the palatial like and of how much they resembled the older
houses in town and countrv. 54 facades at Pompeii; for instance, the Casa del
 83

75- Luni, Tomb of the Caryatids, Late Etruscan

15 FEET

76. Norchia, tomb with porch. Elevations

84 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

77. Model of Late Etruscan tombs built into the hillside at San Giuliano

turies B.C. display elegantly framed doors with

lintels extending right and left of them [83] and
tapering or perpendicularly framed door-posts
of hellenistic type. Sometimes this motif was
painted on the wall round the rock-cut door.
The rock-cut outer door of the Tomb of the
Thatched Roof at Caere had rough, tapering
door-posts resembling the city gates of Segni
[no], while the door to the inner room is a rock-

cut arch [69]. A house urn, probably from Chiu-

siand of late date, shows that doors with arches
formed of voussoirs became a part of Etruscan
domestic architecture [81]. Numerous late

cinerary urns represent the entrance to the

underworld as an arched doorway [79] as in a
78. Cinerary urn reproducing the facade of a real house, even to the beautiful doors. The
common type of house. Florence, Museo Ar-cheologico
doors of the Tomb of the
rock-cut inner
Thatched Roof and other archaic tombs prove
Chirurgo in its first period (without taberna) that the Etruscans aimed very early at arched
[8 5 ]- entrances. In the famous Tomba Campana of
As for the entrances, tombs of the later cen- the seventh century at Yeii, we see what is very
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 85

71). The entrance to the underworld on a Late Etruscan ash urn. Florence, Wuseo Archeologico

probably a clumsy attempt at imitating a rock- marked female interments at the entrances of
cut arch. 33 the tombs. Small gabled tomb houses dating
Gabled houses had old traditions in Italy. from about 500 have been excavated in a ceme-
The model of a house from Sala Consilina [14] tery at Populonia. To the gabled tombs of Tar-
shows that their history starts already in the quinia, Bieda, Sovana, and San Giovenale may
Early Iron Age. An ash urn from Falerii (Civita be added the central hall of the Tomba dei
Castellana) seems also to belong to the eighth Volumnii near Perugia of the second century
or seventh century [18] (and the roof-shaped [72, 92]. Especially interesting is a tomb at

top of a stele [19] seems to reproduce a transi- Sovana [80] with a porch recalling the houses of
tional form between round huts and gable- Murzabotto and the 'megaron' of Veii I54, 67].
roofed houses). To the seventh century be- The gable is of the same type as the empty pedi-
longs the Regolini Galassi Tomb at Caere |u4|
with its imposing gabled halls, the Tomb of the 80. Sovana, gabled tomb with prodomus.
Thatched Roof, and the gabled ash urn from a Elevation and section
tomb in the cemetery of Monte Abatone at
Caere |2i| which has already been mentioned.
It has highly decorative horns where the rafters
meet, reminiscent of the ridge-logs of the hut
urns of the Early Iron Age or the ash urn from
Falerii [18], and bold snake-like decoration
ending the ridge-poles. Such houses thus be-
longed to Etruscan architecture from its \cr\
beginnings and were considered especially
appropriate for imitation in cinerary urns. Later
on thej also served as models for the hundreds
ol standard reproductions of houses which

3 METRES
86 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

merits of the temples which are well illustrated luxurious house, the decoration of the facade is

by many models of roofs of temples. 56 no doubt enriched in a manner not correspond-

On the model of the gabled building from ing to reality, but this urn is important all the
Chiusi [81], obviously meant to represent a same, not only because it shows in a general

way one of the rectangular houses with pitched

roof but also because it indicates that such
domus could have upper storeys.
These houses, reproduced by funerary urns
or by tombs, show us the domestic architecture
which Vitruvius briefly refers to as gabled
(testudinate), and recommends, 'where the span
is not great and where large rooms are provided
57
in upper storeys' (vi, 3. 1-2).

Not less typical for the Etruscan towns seem

palatial houses with lavishly decorated flat roofs.

A most luxurious hall of the third century is the

famous Tomba dei Rilievi at Caere. At Caere
(Cerveteri), at Tarquinia, and at San Giuliano
tombs from the sixth century and onwards re-
produce such halls with roofs supported by
Doric, Aeolic, or Tuscan columns [37, 40, 41,
82-4]. 58
Flat ceilings, such as for instance that of the

81.Ash urn with arched door from Chiusi, Tomba della Cornice at Caere [83], are typical
Late Etruscan. Florence, Museo Archeologico for an especially distinguished minority of

82. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, Tomba dei Capitelli, sixth century B.C.
ft*!- •^•-- i ? *kV-.
i

.
s
".•"'. •'•*?*- -.

«^r
mm

83. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, Tomba della Cornice, fifth century

noble and palatial tombs of the sixth, fifth, and tecturally more differentiated arrangement of
following centuries [82-4, 87]. In elegance they the rooms, which seems to be based on old
vie with the rectangular halls already described, Etruscan traditions. Even among the tombs
but they surpass them by an impressive, archi- these houses stand out as the typical domus of

84. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, Tomba dell'Alcova, third centurx B.(
 the lucumones and patricians. They are evi-
dently akin to the cava aediam tuscanica, which
Vitruvius mentions first in his chapter on dom-

II estic architecture in the sixth

we see in late,

throughout Pompeii and Herculaneum and

the Republican layers of Ostia [85, 91].
book and which
altogether hellenized, shape
in

The
most characteristic parts (tablinum and alae,

see below) may appear also in some houses of

Marzabotto, datable to the decades after 450.
The rock-cut tombs of this type, whether

I. gabled, like the

as was more common
Tomb of the Volumnii [92], or
provided with flat roofs,
represent everything in a very reduced form, of
course, and display only the basic features of
the atrium-houses, as Vitruvius describes them.
The main entrance to the Roman houses - the
vestibulum in front of the house and the doorway,
ianua, ostium, fauces, which lead to the central

85. Pompeii, Casa del Chirurgo, hall of the house, the atrium - is replaced in
fourth-third century B.C. Plan the tombs by a sloping dromos. As in the Pom-

86. Caere (Cerveteri), Tomba del Tablino, fifth century B.C. Interior
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 89

pcian houses, the rectangular atrium has on its Vitruvius's description of the Roman atrium-
far side a tablinum usually with flanking doors houses of his age contains important additions
on each side built against the rear wall of the to what we can guess of the houses by going to

house. The tablinum was originally the main the tombs. Like the paintings and all the hellen-
room of the paterfamilias and the mistress of decoration which we see at Pompeii and
istic

the house, but the beds or benches for inter- Herculaneum, they evidently belong to the
ments later sarcophagi and ash urns in the later development of this kind of house. Vitru-

atria and side rooms of the tombs are evidently vius starts his description of the cava aedium
adapted to bedrooms for sepulchral use. A tuscanica with the impluvium, a square basin in
typical tablinum, datable to the fifth century, is the middle of the atrium with reservoirs receiv-
in the Tablinum tomb at Caere [86]. The most ing rainwater from an open space in the roof,
famous tombs of this palatial type are the which slopes inward [85, 91]. Thanks to the
Tomba degli Scudi e Sedie, the Tomba dei later excavations at Pompeii we know now that

Capitelli [82], and the Tomba dei Vasi Greci at this device for collecting rainwater was a typical

Caere [87], and the Tomba Rosi at San Giuli- feature of the atrium-house during the last

tomb of the sixth cen-

ano. In a most imposing centuries B.C. That the older Etruscan tombs
tury at San Giuliano, named after Princess do not show this arrangement is therefore by no
Margrethe of Denmark, the tripartite division means surprising. In addition, it would, of
is achieved by two great Doric columns, and the course, have been most inconvenient in the
same arrangement is to be seen in some tombs reduced cava aedium tuscanica of the old tombs
v
with plain pillars [4i].
*

(though it is reproduced in a displuviate atrium

87. Caere (Ccrvetcri), Banditaccia cemetery, 3 METRES

Tomba dei Vasi Greci. Plan
90 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

tomb [89, cf. 88]). Equally, neither the alae of Together with the cava aedium tuscanica and
the Pompeian houses, which ran like a transept the testudinate houses Vitruvius describes dis-
or transverse corridor in front of the tablinum pluviate houses withbeams sloping outwards
and its side doors, nor the chambers (cubicula, and throwing the rainwateroff. A small model

kitchens, dining-rooms) along the sides of the from Clusium (Chiusi) [88] and monumental
atrium, whichwe see at Pompeii and Hercu-
laneum and which Vitruvius describes, occur
in the earlier Etruscan tombs.
If we keep main features of the plan of
to the

the cava aedium tuscanica, which we can deduce

both from the atrium-houses of Pompeii and
from Vitruvius's description, and compare that
with the tombs of the sixth- and fifth-century
nobility, it seems evident to me, in spite of the
differences, that Vitruvius was right in styling

them 'tuscanica'. His description shows us a

later development of the same palatial house
type which we see in the exceptionally large and 88. Model of an atrium displuviatum
elaborate tombs just discussed and in the atria from Clusium (Chiusi),
displuviata. I am convinced that the basic fourth or third century B.C. Berlin, Altes Museum
arrangement of these houses and of the tombs
which reproduced them belong to ancient tombs at Tarquinia [89] give us a perfect repro-

Etruscan architecture, their origin being Orien- duction of this kind of palatial house. They also

tal, not Greek. 60 show that they had roof openings (compluvia)

*:~V*Z?'
89. Tarquinia, Tomba di Mercareccia, Late Etruscan atrium displuviatum
90. Ostia, peristyle, Late Republican

on the top of their hip roofs, but the woodwork tended to hold the water that comes dripping
and the walls were easily spoiled, because - as down the walls all round, cannot take it quickly
Vitruvius maintains the pipes, which are in- enough, but get too full and run over.

A new device, obviously inspired by Greek

domestic architecture, was that the atria were
91. Pompeii, Casa del Fauno in its last period. provided with square colonnades or peristyles
Original building, second century B.C. Plan [90, 91]. On the Via della Fortuna Annonaria in
Ostia are remains of a peristyle dating from the
1. Atrium
beginning of the first century B.C., which stood
2. Atrium tetrastylum
3. Peristyle throughout Imperial times. Peristyles became
4. Peristyle a common luxury at Pompeii in the third and
92 • ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

92. Tomb of the \ olumnii near Perugia, second century B.C.

following centuries, and it is, of course, most - Vitruvius, who in his rules for the temples (1 V,
probable that the Etruscans, as Diodorus 7) prefers the plain, Italic Tuscan columns, yet
affirms (v, 40), had already given peristyles - speaks of the Doric and Ionic orders for atrium-
nephroid, as he calls them - to their houses. He houses. Tombs from the last Etruscan cen-
describes them as a 'useful device for avoiding turies [38] suggest that Tuscan columns could
the confusion when crowds are present'. There also be used. On the other hand, many ash urns,
is no archaeological evidence for this, but if some reproducing houses with hipped roofs
Diodorus's information is trustworthy, as it surrounded by hellenistic columns, and such
probably is, he may have thought of buildings tombs as the monumental Tomba Ildebranda
with a plan like that of the Villa dei Misteri out- [29], show how popular Aeolic, Corinthian, and
side Pompeii (below, p. 192), where the peri- Ionic columns were in the third and following
style is built in front of the atrium and the latter centuries in Etruria. All this shows the same
thus became a tranquil retreat. But he may also process of increasing hellenistic sumptuousness
have thought of houses in which the atrium and comfort as the atrium-houses of Pompeii
remained the traditional main reception hall for and Herculaneum. The Tomba dei Rilievi and
the paterfamilias, while the peristyle behind it the Tomba delPAlcova at Caere [84], the very
provided privacy. magnificent Tomb of the Yolumnii near Peru-
The enriched colonnaded architecture of gia [72, 92], and other large, late tombs prove
Rome and Campania was usually connected with how hellenistic decoration dominated among
elegant and slender Corinthian, Ionic, and some- the Etruscans right down to the end of their free
times Doric columns. But - as I have said in dis- life in Italy. The Tomb of the Yolumnii con-
cussing the columns of the oldest known temples firms in a most striking way that these tombs
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 93

93. Tarquinia, Tomba Giglioli, second century B.C.

reproduce the later Etruscan palaces. With its and other public structures show that voussoir
gabled central hall (atrium), its tablinum be- arches were common in hellenistic architecture
hind, its side rooms and various types of cof- from the fourth century onwards. The recently
fered and otherwise decorated ceilings, it repre- discovered arched city-gate at Yelia proves that
sents the final stage of the Etruscan palace. the Greeks were already constructing monu-
Here, as among the fat, complacent Etruscans mental arches in the fifth century B.C. At least

on the lids of late sarcophagi and ash urns, we from the first decades of the second century
can realize what the Romans meant by their they also employed rows of arches for plain yet
arrogant sneers at the luxury of their Etruscan monumental facades such as those which we see
enemies in spite of the military decoration on at Lindos, and such as we shall see in the first

the architrave of the Tomba dei Rilievi, in the century in the terrace below the Temple of
atrium of the \ olumnii, and in other tombs Jupiter at Terracina [165] and in the amphi-
from the centuries B.C. [93], and the deter-
last theatre of Pompeii [181 Voussoir arches obvi-
1.

mined Etruscan resistance in the wars of the ously reached Italy as a more or less complete
fourth and third centuries.' '

architectural achievement. It is possible, and

The description of domestic architecture has even likely, that the Etruscans were the first to

shown that arches built up of voussoirs became adopt them in central Italy, but there may soon
an important part of the hellenized domestic have been a parallel movement in Rome. The
architecture of Etruria [81]. A tomb at Clusium combination of semi-columns with arch and
(Chiusi), the Tomba della Paccianese (or del architrave - so famous from the Tabularium at

Granduca), has a tunnel- vault built of ashlar in the Forum Romanum (78 B.C.) [143], the

the third or second century. (it\ gates, bridges, grandiose terrace below the Temple of] lercules
94 ' ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

Victor at Tivoli [157], and from all later archi- ROADS AND BRIDGES
tecture - had predecessors in Etruscan archi-
tecture, as shown, for instance, by an ash urn of The admirable system of roads and streets
about 150 B.C. from Clusium now in the paved with blocks of basalt lava belonged to the
Worcester (Mass.) Art Museum. Plain pilasters Roman systematization of Italy. But a coarse
with hellenistic capitals of Ionic character carry and irregular street of stones of different kinds
the top border and the lid of the urn, but below and with narrow pavements has been excavated
them, between the pilasters, are arches and an at Rusellae; it can be dated to the last centuries
architrave. The beautiful Etruscan arched city- B.C. At Marzabotto, as in oldest Pompeii, step-
gates, with, for instance, heads of protecting ping stones occur, leading over unpaved streets.
divinities or other heads in dramatic hellenistic There may also have been tufa-paved streets in
styles on the key and springer stones, as at Vola- the towns, as in fourth-century Ostia. Other-
terrae (Volterra), or the great gate with shields wise, the roads between the towns seem usuallv
on the architrave at Perusia (Perugia), are all of to have been of dirt or cut in tufa, with wheel-
about 300 or However, the really great and
later. rutswhere they passed over the tufa hills. In
creative developments of the voussoir arches comparison with their solid and durable paved
as well as of the vault belong to Roman architec- roads of the last centuries B.C. and of Imperial
ture. 62 times, the Romans must have regarded all the
On the other hand, it is important to remem- Etruscan roads as displaying what Vitruvius
ber that the Etruscans at a very early date calls rural softness (viarum campestris mollitudo;
brought the principle of lofty vaulting to Italy x, 2. 11). In any case, the Etruscan roads had
(as shown by the corbel- vaulted tombs; below, elaborate tunnels and cuttings. These could also
p. 96 ff.), and also, it seems, of light wooden be used for rivers, as, for instance, the much
roofs. But, as far as technique goes, the vaults visited Ponte Sodo at Veii shows.
which the Romans built from the second cen- \\ here the roads crossed streams, wooden
tury have nothing to do with such forerunners. bridges on ashlar piles were built, as can be seen
They depended entirely upon the new, revolu- between the acropolis and a neighbouring hill

tionary Roman manner of building with con- (the \ ignale) at San Giovenale. Arched bridges
crete. 63 (like arches in general) belong to the later hellen-
I have here summarized the sacred and secu- istic architecture of Etruria as well as Rome.
lar architecture of the Etruscans, which we can Livy (xl, 51. 4) explicitly describes how a
follow from the seventh century as a unity, wooden bridge on piles of stone built over the
though, especially with regard to houses and Tiber in Rome in 179 B.C. was replaced in 142
tombs, must always be borne in mind that the
it byarches. 65
independent city-states which formed the rather
loose Etruscan confederation had many charac- TOMBS AND CEMETERIES
teristic local differences in their architecture,
64
art, forms of burial, etc. All the same, there Among the great monuments from the cen-
was a cultural unity, the Etruscan koine, which turies before 400, when the Etruscan city-states
spread all over central Italy in the sixth century dominated not only central Italy but also the
B.C., and
main lines followed the develop-
in its Po valley and Campania, belong the mounds of
ment of Greek art from the Archaic to the the tombs [36, 61]. They changed the whole
Hellenistic Age. The material just discussed aspect of the landscape around the cities, as seen
gives a reliable general idea of the old irregular at Cerveteri,San Giovenale, and in other places.
and the later regular towns, of their temples, of Here again we meet with the Etruscan heritage
the preponderance of rather small rectangular from the Near East and Greece. The great
houses, of the stately domus of the aristocracy mounds and chamber tombs of Asia Minor
with elegant interiors and beautiful furniture. show the closest affinity, as do also, for instance,
i)4 Caere (Cerveteri), Regolini Galassi tomb, c. 650 b.c.

the mounds round Cyrene, on Cyprus, the The rock-cut chamber tombs for inhumation
small tumuli of the Greek immigrants on Ischia came suddenly to Italy about 700. The old
thrown up from the eighth century, and what tomb types, poz/.i and fosse, lived on for a while
literary sources and remains attest from other side by side with the new types of tomb, as can

Greek tow ns be seen, for instance, at Caere in the Banditaccia

96 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

cemetery. Some scholars assume an internal chamfered so as to project beyond the course
development in Italy from the fosse to the above. The same feature characterizes the cor-
chamber tombs; as I see it, there are many in- belled tomb chambers of Orvieto from about
stances of obvious influence from the chamber 550 to 525.
tombs in the latest fosse, but these transitional Two
or more successive corbelled rectangu-
features by no means prove an inherent con- lar chambers with side rooms are found at the
tinuation, and there is neither time nor material so-called Meloni del Sodo tombs near Cortona,
to prove such a gradual unfolding. Here it is not dated to the sixth century. There are also rock-
possible to recordmore than the principal new cut chamber tombs with a slit at the top kept
imported types. Of them I have already dis- open lengthwise and covered by a lintel of stone.

cussed the rock-cut chamber tombs below the They obviously continued the tradition of the
68
tumuli in connexion with domestic architec- tombs of the seventh to sixth centuries.

ture. In sixth-century tombs at Tarquinia the Archaic rectangular corbelled grave cham-
interiors were decorated with sculptured stone bers seem to have been used mainly in the
slabs, placed as a door at the entrance. 67 southern city-states of Etruria. Towards the
Monumental, round or rectangular tomb north, we find instead corbelled domes. These
halls of ashlar masonry with corbelled roofs beehive tombs (tholoi) [95] have no doubt in-
belonged to the first centuries of higher culture

in Etruria. Of the rectangular type, the most

magnificent is the Regolini Galassi Tomb with
its two rectangular crypts in the Sorbo necro-
polis west of Cerveteri [94]. The treasures from
thistomb and contemporary tombs at Pales-
trina areamong the greatest splendours of the
Museo Gregoriano-Etrusco at the Vatican and
the Villa Giulia Museum in Rome. Their
hoards of imported or imitated Oriental luxury
date them to about or shortly after 650 - before
the great importation of Greek orientalizing
and later pottery and other works of art. The
main corbelled, rectangular chamber of the
tomb, which contained the most precious finds,
measures 24 feet by 4 feet 3 inches (7.30 by
1.30 m.). A dromos with side chambers origin-
ally led to this main chamber, but its inner part

was later provided with a corbelled roof. It thus

became transformed into a large antechamber,
31 feet long and 4 feet 2 inches wide (9.50 by
1 door to the inner original
.28 m.), in front of the
cella. The where the curving, corbelled-
slit

forward side walls nearly touch, is covered by 95. Tholos tomb from Casal Marittimo,
slabs. This type of construction was gradually c. 600 B.C., reconstructed.

developed to a row of rude keystones forming a Florence, Museo Archeologico

ridge-beam for the false vault. Among the later
rectangular tombs of this kind a stately tomb, herited structural traditions from the Mycen-
La Cocumella di Caiolo, on the outskirts of the aean Age or from yet earlier primitive construc-
San Giuliano cemeteries shows a steeply pitched tions both of the Mediterranean countries and
corbelled ceiling with the top of each course of Asia Minor. In any case, the corbelled dome
 97

t»6.Quinto Fiorentino,
Montagnola tholos tomb
c. 600 B.C.

Section and plans

is another monumental type which appears fully lar side rooms. Behind this lies the tholos. Its
developed in Italy. Among these beehive tombs diameter is 17I feet (5.30 m.), and it is roughly
the Montagnola and La Mula at
so-called the same in height. In the centre is a massive
Quinto Fiorentino are the most prominent quadrangular support, carrying the corbelled
examples [96]. In the Montagnola, after a dro- vault of the dome, a feature known also from
mos, which about 45 feet long, comes a cor-
is several other Etruscan tombs and taken up
belled rectangular antechamber, 22 feet 6 inches again by the Romans when they imitated Etrus-
(6.85 m.) long, with lateral corbelled rectangu- can tombs in Late Republican times. Rich finds
 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

97. Model of a Late Etruscan tomb with a round

facade in the valley at San Giuliano

date the tomb to at the latest. There

about 600 cans were the teachers of the Romans. Beehive
are other magnificenttombs of this kind in the construction lived on in Roman practice, as
cemeteries of Populonia and Vetulonia and at shown, for instance, by a cistern near the House
Casal Marittimo near Volaterrae (Volterra) of Livia on the Palatine and by the so-called
69
[95]- Tullianum (the lower part of the Career Mamer-
At Populonia and Vetulonia occur square tinus on the Forum Romanum).
chambers with primitive pendentives in the The rows of tombs in Orvieto [60] show that
angles in order to convert the rectangle into a mounds could be reduced to small regular
circular shape suitable to carry the dome, as -
tumuli. The great mounds are usually provided
seen, for instance, in the Tomba della Pietrera at with a circular base of stonework. In tufa dis-
Vetulonia. Very important is that early cor- tricts like Cerveteri they were piled up on
belled tombs such as the Tomba della Pietrera beautifully profiled podia, hewn from the
display careful ashlar work with alternating living rock [36, 61]. One latetomb at San
headers and stretchers. The tombs thus prove Giuliano shows a high, round podium, project-
that the Etruscans already in the seventh cen- ing from the hill behind, which evidently re-
tury (no doubt because of Eastern influence) veals a living tradition from the old tumuli and
used this building technique in Italy and had their podia [97]. The so-called Tomb of Aeneas
wholly mastered it. Here, no doubt, the Etrus- in southern Latium, which Dionysius (1, 64. 4)
 TOMBS AND CEMETERIES •
99

describes, and the mound which Vergil calls been compared with Porsenna's tomb. It seems
the mighty tomb of the Laurentine King Der- to show that this kind of tomb of the atan
reges
cennus (Aeneid, XI, 849), show that tumuli of Etruria was among the antique tombs which
were also constructed in old Latium, and that the grandees of Republican and early Imperial
the revived Roman tumuli of the Late Republi- Rome imitated, in addition to mounds - as seen
can and Imperial Age had antecedents in both at the Via Appia - and, perhaps, tholoi. An
"
Latium and Etruria. 7 archaic Etruscan tomb with a cone consisting of
Tombs with a rectangular podium without superimposed tapering blocks with reliefs found
mounds are seen in the rows of reconstructed at \ ulci seems to be related to this kind of
tombs in the Banditaccia cemetery at Caere monument. 71
(Cerveteri) [61]. Quadrangular also was the The gabled tomb huts at Populonia, men-
podium of Porsenna's tomb, a fantastic tomb, tioned on p. 85, should also be remembered.
described by Varro as having a circuit of 300 by Evidently the variety of types was due to a cer-
300 feet and being 50 feet high. In it was a tain extent to the particularism of the different
'labyrinth', evidently a legendary description of small city-states or groups of them.
several tomb chambers. Above it stood five After 400, sepulchral architecture changed.
cones, one in the centre and four in the corners. Cremation prevailed, and cinerary urns re-
They carried a round disc to which bells were placed the sarcophagi of the older centuries.
attached by chains. The bells could be heard The mounds, furthermore, were gradually
far and wide. If Varro's account is reliable, there given up and replaced by chambers with en-
were two more storeys with pyramidal pillars trances from the hillsides of the valleys and the
above the disc, carried by the five cones. deep, narrow gorges which surrounded the old
The bells on Porsenna's tomb - a device acropolis hills and branched out into the neigh-
known also from Dodona have been con- bourhood. Very impressive tomb valleys are to
nected with the Columna Minucia in Rome, be found in the wilderness around San Giuliano
which also had them [98] (below, p. 206). The [99], Blera, Sovana, and Norchia. The elegant,
often palatial, facades and monumental door-
ways of the tombs which lined the valleys and
transformed them into processional roads be-
longed to the last centuries of the life of the
Etruscan cities and to the prosperity which the
nobility or the nouveaux riches enjoyed under
the sway of the Roman state during nearly two
centuries of peace in Italy, after the Roman vic-
tories in the third century. In tombs like the
Tomba dei Rilievi or the Tomba dell'Alcova
[84 the more private of the apartments or bed-
1,

chambers of the tombs of the old families had

already been replaced by large halls with places
for many interments. Typical of the last period
of free Etruscan life are crowds of ash urns in-
98. The Columna Minucia as reproduced on a
coin of the late second century B.C. stead of beds and sarcophagi - as in the Tomba
Inghirami of Volaterrae (Volterra). There may
perhaps have been family crypts; freedmen and
cones of a Roman tomb on the Via Appia be- clients belonging to the closely limited clans
tween Ariccia and Genzano, usually called the (familiae) were probably buried around the
Tomba di Arrunte or degli Orazi, have rightly family tombs. Late Republican Roman sub-
100 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

99. San Giuliano, tomb facades, after 400 B.C.

terranean corridors or rooms with loculi, herald- tombs with their forefathers of the old mounds.
ing the catacombs, were obviously connected The Roman picture of the declining Etruscans
with these Late Etruscan tombs. In many of the is no doubt unfair, and must not prevent us from
late tombs the interiors are left rough and un- recognizing a genuine hellenistic renaissance
derrated. '- among the Etruscans. Even if it is true that the
To what has been stated above about temples noble Etruscans, on their sarcophagi, seem obesi
and elegant exteriors of houses, and also about indeed, and even if Greek observers saw signs
the tomb facades of Norchia and Sovana and of excessive good living among them, we must
the entrances of the houses, should now be remember, as I have pointed out, that they
added, as typical sepulchral architecture, the resisted the Romans down to the end.
cube tombs [100] and the tombs with
so-called The Tomba Francois at Vulci with its monu-
monumental false doors [101]. The former are mental wall paintings of old Etruscan bravery,
more or less isolated square blocks, projecting and the predilection for arms displayed by the
out of the rock from which they are cut. Beauti- Tomba Giglioli at Tarquinia [93], the Tomb of
ful mouldings and elaborate doors of the type the Volumnii near Perugia, and other tombs,
already discussed characterize these tombs. are as telling as the more frequently mentioned
False doors to the facades on these and other testimonies of luxury and terrifying representa-
tomb facades became the fashion in Late Etrus- tions of murder and daemons of death. The
can times. Below them are subterranean entran- lattermake many of these late tombs sinister
ces to the tomb chambers, which were evidently compared with the festive splendour of the
filled in between each funeral. 73 tombs of the sixth and fifth centuries. This mor-
Critical descriptions of- above all - Diodorus bid streak was connected with the pessimism
(v, 40), Dionysius (ix, 16. 8), and also Livy about life and death common to the entire
(x, 16) contrast the Etruscans of these late hellenistic world. When Lucretius tries to com-
 CONCLUSION •
1 01

bat the superstitions of the Hellenistic Age in influence from the Greeks in central Italy from
Late Republican Rome and to understand the about 600. For a long time the Greeks regarded
true nature of the fiery thunderbolts, he refers Rome as an Etruscan or Greek town. 73 Roman
directly to the charms of the Etruscans and the historians and poets of the Late Republican and
vain search of their scrolls, which are written Augustan Ages, in spite of the common habit
74
from right to left. of caricaturing the contemporary Etruscans,
loved to emphasize the importance of their
Etruscan teachers. Also among modern scholars
CONCLUSION
many typically hellenistic and international
The Etruscan towns of the seventh and sixth communia bona of the Late Etruscan and Roman
centuries evidently inspired the inhabitants of Republican centuries have been wrongly dated
the Iron Age villages on the hills of Rome and and believed to be Etruscan models for Roman
Latium to rebuild and reorganize their settle- architecture. We have seen, for example, that
ments. That is the starting-point for the archi- we have to deprive the Etruscans of their claim
tecture of historical Rome, even if the Etruscan to have invented the voussoir arch. On the
influence - that is, the Etruscan rendering of other hand, the great tombs with high corbelled
Oriental and Greek culture - met with direct vaults, and also probably light wooden vaults,

100. San Giuliano, 'Tomba della Regina', 101. Luni, Tomb of the Caryatids, false door and
Late Etruscan entrance below the door, Late Etruscan

I
102 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE

prove that the Etruscans brought the principle served - even when hellenistic influence ran

of lofty vaulting to Italy at an early date, though He rightly distinguished (x, 55. 5) be-
very high.
tween Roman 'customs of the ancestors and
1
their manner of building such vaults has noth-
ing to do with the vaulted architecture which written laws, in which one could easily trace
the Romans were to develop centuries later. direct Greek influence and the effects of transi-
Already in the seventh century the Etruscans tory political situations. Domestic 'customs of
1
had acquired a complete knowledge of ashlar the ancestors , originating from the Iron Age
masonry, as their domed tombs show, and they and slowly changing and developing in histori-

also, long before the Romans, followed the cal times against much conservative resistance,
Greeks in introducing regular town planning. must be remembered when Roman architec-
No doubt the Etruscans remained important ture from the fifth century onwards is examined.
as teachers, even though Romans and Etruscans But because of the special architectural heritage
went along parallel roads to Greece, and direct (temples, atrium-houses, etc.), Etruscan and
cultural influence from Greece on Rome re- Greek influence was so overwhelming that
placed the one-sided influence from the city- Roman architecture seems to become for a
states of Etruria. And, in any case, from the while just an Etruscan dialect. The Roman 'cus-
1
fifth and fourth centuries onwards the Romans toms of the ancestors were, no doubt, a spiri-

developed a strong individuality of their own. tual factor in the strength of the Romans and
In the same way as the Etruscans used and their capacity to learn. But the history of Roman
transformed Oriental and Greek elements to architecture can never be understood without
guide their art and architecture through their realizing the completely new starting-point
five centuries of free cultural life in Italy, so the which Etruscan building and the exchange
Romans digested what they received from the with the Etruscans provided for all Roman
Etruscans and Greeks in accordance with their building activity in Republican times and its

own traditions - as Dionysius (n, 19. 3) ob- legacy to the Imperial Age.
CHAPTER 4

ETRUSCAN ROME

When turning from Etruria to central Italy etrusca, npa lydia. The great Etruscan town of
south of the Tiber, from about 600 B.C. we shall Veii was only some 8 miles from Rome. Eike all
see the same development as that which started the old Etruscan towns, Veii had a period of
in Etruria in the late eighth century. To a great most impressive prosperity in the sixth and fifth

extent we have until the fourth century B.C. to centuries, with famous sculptors and craftsmen.
rely on the one hand on conclusions from Etrus- L nder the influence of the rich Etruscan
can models and later structures which seem to towns thevillages of Latium - and among them
reveal ancient tradition, and on the other on those of the seven hills of Rome - were reshaped
what we can learn from scattered passages In to petty city-states after the Etruscan and Greek
ancient authors and from legends. model. We see small towns in the Etruscan style
In Latium the villages were not far away from everywhere, on the hills of the old villages, and
the Etruscan towns which were the source of protected by their natural situation - situ

inspiration for them. Etruscan territory ex- naturah munita (to use Livy's words, xx 1 v, 3. 8)

tended to the Tiber, to the aliens tuscus, npa [102]. Already in this early period the Romans

102. Ardea, air view, showing the site of the lower town and the acropolis with
fortifications dating from the fifth century B.C. or earlier to c. 300 B.C.
104 ' ETRUSCAN ROME

had begun to construct their famous agger and nature herself and require but a small garrison;
fossa (a mighty earthwork with a ditch in front) others are protected by the river Tiber . . .

across theopen table-land east of the Esquiline [with] only one bridge constructed of timber,
and the Viminal Hills [105]. At Ardea we can and this they removed in time of war. One sec-
still see a splendid earthen agger with a fossa of tion, which is the most vulnerable part of the
the sixth or fifth century B.C. [103, 104], and city, extending from the Esquiline Gate ... to

103. Ardea, agger, sixth-fifth centuries B.C.

with the acropolis behind

104. Ardea, remains of the bridge leading over the fossa and of the gate (destroyed c. 1930),
with the agger west of the fossa, sixth-fifth centuries B.C. Elevation

aggeres can be seen also at Antium - no doubt the Colline, is strengthened artificially', that is

built during the Volscian wars before the Roman by the ditch and the agger inside it [105].
1

conquest of 338 B.C. and at Satricum (Conca). In Rome this old system of defence was of no
An ashlar wall of the local Roman tufa, cap- value when the Gauls attacked the town c. 386
pellaao, on the south side of the Palatine, akin B.C. Only one of the fortified hills, the Capito-
to the substructure and podium of the Capito- line, resisted. It is self-evident that Late
line Temple, shows how the Romans, like the Roman historians completely misinterpreted
Etruscans at Rusellae, strengthened the natural these old bulwarks when they introduced the
defences of the hills with terraced walls. Very unified wall and the agger and fossa in their
likely they also built palisades or earthworks fourth-century shape into the old stories and
between the hills in the valleys with their groves believed that all the great fortification around
and rivers, as the tradition mentioned by Varro the seven hills, probably occasioned by the
(Lingua Latina, v, 48) about the murus terreus experience of 386 and built with material from
Carinarum indicates. Dionvsius (ix, 68) gives a tufa quarries of destroyed Veii, was the wall of
most illuminating appreciation of this archaic King Servius (legendary date 578-535 B.C.).

patchwork of natural defence and supplemen- But no doubt all these stories incorporated
tary additions when he analyses the position of memories of old terraced walls, when the hill-
Rome: 'Some sections [of the town] standing sides did not suffice,and aggeres and fossae.
on hills and sheer cliffs have been fortified bv Varro's description of the old aggeres and the
 05

105- Rome, map of the Republican remains. The following are omitted: the Servian Wall
between the Capitoline Hill and the Aventine (see Chapters 4-6),
and the Temples of Vesta, Castor and Pollux, and Saturn on the south side of the forum

Roman murus terreus Carinarum show that the Roman kings were Etruscans, condottieri, who
word minus was used also for these earthworks stand out clearly against the earlier legendary
(Yarro, Lingua Latina, V, 48. 143). rulers on the Roman hills.

The Romans were always aware that higher To new higher culture also belonged the
this

culture was introduced to their pastoral and alphabet, which the Augustan authors usually
1
agricultural villages as a finished product, and styled 'archaic Greek as was also Etruscan
,

attributed to the Etruscans almost all the ex- writing. A famous fibula from Praeneste, the
pressions of higher culture which symbolized so-called Duenos inscription on a buccheroid
patrician authority and came entirely to reshape impasto vase from Rome, and the much-dis-
the town life of the early Republic: the twelve cussed inscription on a stele from the Forum
and the fasces of the consuls, actually
lictors Romanum of about 500 B.C. are the oldest Eatin
known from a sixth-century tomb at Vetulonia; inscriptions so far known. But Etruscan in-

the ivory chairs of the high officials; the arraj scriptions a fragment with one Etruscan word
of the triumphs; the sacred land-surve\ing datable to about 600 B.C. found in 1963 at the
(limit at io) of the fields around the towns; the church of S. Omobono and an Etruscan graffito
whole code for human life and religious cere- on a bucchero bowl from the Clivus Capitolinus
monies (the disciplina etrusca), and also gar- have also been found in Rome. Ml this, to-

ments, such as the shoes of the upper classes. gether with the established traditions about the
Finally, there cannot be am doubt that I he last Etruscan kings of Rome before 509, illustrates
106 • ETRUSCAN ROME

the cultural environment which accompanied houses, as in the Etruscan towns [66]. In the
the nascent higher architecture of Rome and the limestone districts hillsides were no doubt
Latin towns, though it is evident that direct in- strengthened by ashlar work like that of the
fluence from the Greek colonies in Italy also Etruscans. Mud brick, pise (puddled earth
encountered the Etruscan blend of Eastern cul- walls), half-timbered and wooden houses on
ture in central Italy. Expressions of the im- stone foundations, columns of wood (columnae
ported higher culture are met with on hill after ligneae; Livy, I, 56. 4), and terracotta revet-
hill, in town after town all over central Italy. ments no doubt became as typical for the towns
But what we know of architecture in the town in Latium after about 600 B.C. as for the Etrus-
which grew rapidly on the seven hills of Rome can cities. Archaeologically this is proved not
must be used as the master key to all the towns only by the remains of temples and walls but
of the small world between the Etruscans to the also by the stratification along the Via Sacra of
north and the Greeks and Etruscans in Cam- Rome and by numerous finds of archaic archi-
pania. As I have remarked above (p. 101), the tectural terracottas on the Capitoline, Palatine,
Greeks hesitated whether to classify Rome as a and Esquiline Hills of Rome, on the Forum
Greek or an Etruscan town; but of course we Romanum and the Forum Boarium, and in

must always remember also the village tradi- towns all over Latium. The corbelled cisterns
tions of the Early Iron Age and Vergil's magni- mentioned on p. 98 prove that the Romans also
2
ficent interpretation of that legacy (i x, 603- 1 1 )
: adapted that construction. 3
Livy's description of the Gallic catastrophe
Our hardy race takes to the rivers first
(above, p. 75) distinguishes clearly between the
Its children, hardening them to frost and
domus of the rich and the houses of common
stream;
people. From the very beginning of Greco-
Our boys hunt through the nights and tire
Etruscan culture, we probably have to assume
the woods,
the three types of palatial houses in the towns of
And shoot the bow and drive their teams
Latium which Vitruvius describes (vi, 3) and
for sport
which I have traced in the Etruscan tombs
Our men inured to work and scanty food
(p. 80 ff.): those with cava aedium tuscanica
Harrow the earth or shatter towns in war.
(though in its oldest form, without impluvium),
The sword trains every age we turn the :

the displuviate houses, and the testudinate

spear
houses. The atria described by Vitruvius as
To goad our bullocks, nor do the slow years
cava aedium tuscanica (p. 88) were already attri-
Weaken our spirit or impair our strength.
buted by Varro to the Etruscans. That was
(Translation by Frank Richards,
evidently the current opinion in Rome - the
Trinity College, Cambridge)
younger Pliny refers to the atrium in his Tus-
That the Romans, as Varro says {Lingua can villa as being ex more veterum. On the Forma
Latina, v, 161), imitated the Etruscan style in Urbis [106] too one still sees the old traditional

architecture is evident, as I see it, in the tus- atria, and the commanding position of atria in

camcae dispositwnes of the temples and of the Late Republican Ostia, Pompeii, and Hercu-
cava aedium tuscanica. The same is true of the laneum is in accord with that. But it should be
very manner of building. The podium of the remembered that our archaeological evidence is

Capitoline Temple, the terrace wall of the Pala- late and begins only with the oldest atria in

tine, and other remains show that the Romans Pompeii and Herculaneum of about 200 B.C.
had learned to use their local tufa for ashlar and with the Domus of Jupiter Fulminator
work. Remains of houses datable to about 300 (datable about 100 B.C.) in Ostia. An early

B.C. prove that this kind of construction could atrium-house has also been excavated at Saepi-
be used at least for the lower parts of ordinary num (p. 186). The Regia in the Forum Roma-
 107

io6. Fragment of the Forma Lrbis Romae, a.d. 203-1 1, showing three atrium and peristyle houses
and the usual rows of shops (tabernae) with triangles indicating staircases to the upper storeys

num, seat of the Rex Sacrorum and the Pontifex existed a type destined to be of the greatest im-
Maximus, has three rooms but does not show portance throughout Roman history: the taber-
the megaron type with prodomus (p. 77) [54]. nae [107]. These were square or rectangular
According to our literary sources, among the shops with a wide door, left open in the day-
domestic architecture of the lower classes there time, facing the street or an open space. No
107. Pompeii, Strada dei Teatri, row of tabernae
108 • ETRUSCAN ROME

doubt they could be one-roomed units, as is still resembled the houses of the old Romans, of the
seen on Ischia and in various places in Cam- famous Curius in the Sabine country (De legi-

pania. In our oldest archaeological material and bus, 11, 3), and others. 4
the oldest descriptions they always appear in Together with the domus of the patricians we
rows. The tabernae were used to house the may at the same time remember that the Etrus-
plebs and for commerce and workshops. Livy's can mounds were imitated in Latium (see p.
description of Tusculum, of what it was like in 98 f.). Dionysius describes the tomb of Aeneas
normal peaceful times, is delightful: shops with (or Anchises; 1, 64) as 'a mound, around which
their shutters down, all wares exposed, busy have been set out in regular rows trees that are
craftsmen, schools buzzing with the voices of well worth seeing'. For Vergil also (Aeneid, xi,
the children (vi, 25. 9). Dionysius adds shops 849) the tumulus was a typical feature of old
full of arms and butchers' shops with knives on Latium, and mounds of the Late Republican
the counters on the Forum in old Rome (x 1, 37. and Imperial Age, referred to in Note 96 to

5; 39. 7; xii, 2.8; Livy, in, 48. 5). There is no Chapter 6, thus appear as an archaistic revival of
reason to doubt that already in the early days of the venerable old type.
Rome such tabernae were aligned in front of Livy (v, 55. 2-5) speaks of the careless haste
private houses along the long north and south with which Rome was rebuilt after the Gallic
sides of the Forum, as Varro, Plautus, Livy catastrophe, in a random fashion and without
(1, 35), and other Augustan authors describe straight streets. It had the appearance of 'a city

(although they, of course, were influenced when where the ground has been appropriated rather
describing them by the same kind of architec- than divided'. As I said on p. 69, the tombs of
ture in their own time). The tabernae which in the Crocefisso cemetery at Orvieto (550-525
179 B.C. were built (or retained) along the south B.C.), parts of the cemetery of Caere, and both
wall of the Basilica Aemilia towards the Forum Marzabotto and Pompeii were regularly planned
seem to have been constructed of timber- by the fifth century. Older Etruscan traditions,
framing and mud brick. The row of shops along if there were any, encountered Greek ideas from
the forum of Pompeii, before its systematiza- the sixth century onwards here as in other fields
tion in the hellenistic style in the second century of cultural life. But there is no evidence what-
B.C., may serve as a comparison (p. 145). The ever of regular town planning in Rome itself.

central parts of Pompeii show tabernae along What Livy describes and dates to after 386 B.C.
the streets dating from the second century B.C. was no doubt only a continuation of the indi-
or even earlier. At Ostia a typical row of taber- genous, ineradicable legacy of winding narrow
nae of the third century B.C. runs along the streets, up and down hill, which Cicero (De lege

eastern side of the castrum [123]. It may be agraria, 1 1, 96) contrasts with the towns of the
noted that these tabernae measure about 28 by Campanian plains, where regular town plan-
21 feet (8.50 by 6.40 m.) and that the portico in ning of the fifth century could be carried out.
front is 10 feet wide. The narrow, curved street below the wide,
There is abundant literary but no archae- straight avenues of Nero between the Forum
ological evidence for farmyards and villages. Romanum and the Palatine still shows us a frag-

Often mentioned along with them are their ment of the old irregular town after 386 B.C.
fortified refuges (castella) and the houses of the [108].
rich. The latter may sometimes have imitated Livy says that before the fire, sewers had been
Etruscan palaces. But more typical of these conducted through the public ways, per publi-
times were no doubt the humble villas of the cum (as at Marzabotto [63]), but that in the

grand old days which the late Romans moral- Rome which he knew they frequently ran under
ized upon. An example is Cicero's grand- private buildings. He may be right in explain-
father's house near Arpinum; it was small and ing this as a result of the chaos after the fire of
 I0()

108. Rome, old Via Sacra and Clivus Palatinus, after 386 B.C., in front of the Arch of Titus

386 or as due to other random building activity. Age, as Yarro had already maintained. It maj
His statement about the sewers any case sup-
in have been partly subterranean, though Flautus
ports the stories that the Cloaca Maxima was (Curculio, 476) refers to it as an open channel on

systematized by the kings, that is, in the Archaic- the Forum. The monumental \aulted cloaca
110 • ETRUSCAN ROME

which we see today is much later (p. 208, of temples in the Etruscan style with personified
below). 5 gods, occupying the cult-places of the old
Connected with what we can see and read demons from the Iron Age villages.
about the old irregular towns is the information The general admiration for the Capitoline
concerning the oldest camps of the Romans and Temple of 509 should not make us forget that
others which is given in a book on strategy by an the Romans began to build temples like those of
unidentified author combined with Frontinus's the Etruscans as soon as the new higher culture
Strategemata (iv, 14). He compares them
1. began to prevail among them - that is to say
with the huts {mapalia) and scattered cottages throughout the sixth century - whether this
of the Africans, and ascribes the concentrated was connected with the political supremacy of
and fortified castra to Greek influence. In any the Etruscan kings and nobles or only with in-
case, the characteristic Roman castra seem to fluence from neighbouring Etruscan towns. It

have developed later, connected on the one has already been said (p. 27) that the round
hand with the organization of the Roman in- Temple of Vesta on the Forum Romanum
fantry the Roman legions - after the age of the probably represented the survival of a tradition
patrician cavalry, and on the other with regular from the Early Iron Age villages, though it was
town planning. 6 of course rebuilt in the Etrusco-Greek style, as
Narrow, crooked streets (like those of San Late Republican coins show. Already before
Giovenale and Vetulonia) [55], sewers below the Capitoline Temple there was, according to
streets and houses, tabernae, Etruscan atria or Varro {Lingua Latina, V, 158), a Capitolium
megaron-like houses with a porch, and aggeres with a temple of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva on
supplementing the defence of the hillsides were the Quirinal Hill. The Argeorum Sacraria,
the main characteristics of the architecture twenty-seven sacraria situated in the ancient
which under Etruscan influence replaced the central parts of Rome, were evidently also in-
old hut-villages. Above all, the great Temple of herited from oldest Rome, and there were
Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva on the Capitoline legends, too, about sanctuaries built by Romu-
Hill in Rome and other temples in Etruscan lus, Titus Tatius, and Numa Pompilius - in
style with terracotta decoration became the some cases our authors of the first century B.C.
great marvels of the old crowded towns. Diony- affirm that traces of them remained. As I have
sius (ill, 69) and Livy (1, 55) recorded legends stated above, Vitruvius (11, 1. 5) mentions the
which seem to contain precious recollections of thatched roofs of temples on the Arx of the
the victories of the new temples in Rome over Capitoline Hill. Dionysius (1 1, 34. 4) even gives
the cults of the Early Iron Age. Dionysius (1 1 1, the measurements of the Temple of Jupiter
69) describes how 'many altars of the gods and Feretrius on the Capitoline, which he ascribes
of lesser divinities [had] to be moved to some to Romulus, saying that the longest sides ex-
other place' when the summit of the Capitoline tended less than 15 feet. He also affirms (1, 34. 4)
Hill in Rome was cleared for the great three- that he had seen the altar of Saturn built by
cella Temple of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva Hercules at the foot of the Capitoline, where
dedicated in 509 B.C. 'The augurs thought the ascent of the Via Sacra begins and where the
proper to consult the auspices concerning each Temple of Saturn was built. All this taken to-
of the altars erected there, and if the gods were gether only shows, of course, that the Romans
willing to withdraw, to move them elsewhere.' themselves attributed some of their old temples
Wherever Dionysius and Livy got this informa- to the earliest period of the kings, 753-616 B.C.

tion,it may well describe what actually hap- they lurked in the shadowy background of the
pened when the period when no images of the history of their architecture. A fragment of a
gods were made and simple hut-like shrines and beautiful terracotta frieze with the Minotaur
altars of turf were built, was succeeded by that and processional friezes from the Forum Roma-
iog. Terracotta revetment from the Forum Romanum, sixth century B.C.
Rome, Soprintendenza Fori) Romano e Palatum

num ( i og ] as well as finds of terracotta revet- archaeological features belonging to the history
ments at Ardea and various places in Rome and of Etruscan architecture: terracotta acroteria
Latium prove by their quality that the Latin in the shape of volutes rising from the base, a
temples of the sixth century were already an casing of a capital, and a small part of a fluted
important part of the Etruscan province of Ionic shaft [39].
Greek Archaic art. In spite of these earlier examples, the great
Architectural attributions to the less legend- Capitoline Temple of 509 marked a revolution
ary later kings of Rome - Tarquinius Priscus in Roman life. After 509 the town of Rome, and,
(616-579), Servius Tullius (578-535), and Tar- of course, also the thoughts of the Romans,
quinius Superbus - seem thus to be in substance were dominated by this marvellous, colourful

reliable. To their period belongs the famous building and all that was connected with it : per-
Temple of Diana on the Aventine Hill. Even if sonified gods, terracotta images by the Etruscan
the tradition that Servius Tullius 'with his own sculptor Vulca (no doubt similar to the terra-
sceptred hands consecrated' the Temple of cotta gods found at Veii), terracotta revetments
Mater Matuta on the Forum Boarium (Livy, as already described for Etruscan temples, a
v, 19. 6 f., and Ovid, Fasti, VI, 479 f.) implies new calendar, and other innovations. 7
too early a date, the temple was clearly built in According to Roman tradition, the great
the decades about 500. Here we meet with enterprise was started by Tarquinius Priscus.
112 • ETRUSCAN ROME

The Romans were convinced (so Livy relates, south sides. The domus disappeared only when
I, 38. 7) that it was he who laid the foundations basilicas were built on the Forum after a great
for the terrace, that is the site of the planned fire in 210. As Varro says {Lingua Latina, v,

temple, 'with prophetic anticipation of the 145), the Forum was the place to which people
splendour which the place was one day to brought their disputes and articles which they
possess (iam praesagiente animo futuram ohm wished to sell.

amplitudinem loci)' . Already the site on the The political function of the civic centre was
levelled Capitoline was greatly admired by the originally restricted to the north-western part
Romans. Dionysius gives a description of how of the Forum. The ancient gathering-places for
Tarquinius Priscus and Tarquinius Superbus public meetings were the slopes of the Capito-
built the temple ( 1 1 f, 69 v, 59-6 1 ); Pliny men-
; 1 line Hill and the Arx towards the Forum. Later -

tions the court of the temple among the great and until the last centuries of the Republic - an
creations of the kings, but Livy informs us (vi, open space at the north-western corner of the
4. 12) that the sixth-century terrace was rebuilt Forum Romanum, as we see that large piazza
in the great period of the Roman city walls in after its final reorganization under Sulla and
the fourth and following centuries. became It Caesar, became a centre for assemblies and
adequate both for comitia (assemblies) and con- public meetings. It was called the Comitium and
tiones (public meetings). Right from the first it occupied the place where Caesar built his curia
was decorated with many monuments, and was for the senate; indeed, that is where it still

no doubt already as spacious as the sites of the stands, as rebuilt by Diocletian. Literary sources
Etruscan temples discussed above [20, 32, }}]. make it quite clear that this open space was
Below were underground chambers and cis- located in front of the old curia of the senate,
terns (favisae) in which - according to Varro - the Curia Hostilia, which was ascribed to King
it was the custom to store ancient statues that Tullus Hostilius and faced the Comitium and
had fallen from the temple and other conse- Forum from a higher level to the north. As Livy
crated objects and votive offerings. says (xlv, 24. 12), the Comitium was the 'vesti-
Our literary sources mention several temples bulum curiae', the forecourt of the Curia to-
of fifth-century Rome; for instance, those of wards the Forum. The Curia had stairs in front

Mercury and of Ceres, Liber, and Libera on the leading down to the Comitium. Roman public
Aventine and the Temples of Saturn (501-493) meetings could also be held on the Forum and in
and of Castor and Pollux (484) on the Forum different places within and outside the Servian
Romanum. Of the latter two, remains of Etrus- Wall, but the Regia and the Comitium seem to
can type from the first periods can be traced in pertain to the Republic about 500 B.C. It has to
the Imperial marble buildings which have re- be remembered that the Romans - in contrast to

placed them and their successors of the Repub- the Greeks in accordance with their old tradi-
lican Age.-They were situated on the south side tions stood at assemblies and other meetings.
of theForum, and, together with the Regia and In the third century we meet with closed
the round Temple of Vesta to the east, they gave amphitheatre-shaped comitia for voters or
a new, monumental aspect to the old and rustic assemblies (p. 133), but in Rome the south side
civic centre, which in these early days fulfilled of the court of the Comitium seems to have been
both a commercial and political function [105]. open towards the Forum. At its boundary to-
A summary of what we know about this wards the present Forum were placed inscrip-
Rome may serve as a general illustra-
centre of tions and monuments recording political events

tion of how fora in central Italy began. What we and famous Romans. Livy calls some of the
now regard as the Forum Romanum was then statues fifth-century, a date which the Etruscan
an unpaved market-place surrounded by patri- material of course makes very likely (iv, 17. 6).

cian domus behind tabernae on the north and Among these monuments was also a tomb said
 H3

to be that of Romulus or his father Faustulus or towns (above, pp. 74-5) [65], were erected along
of an ancestor of King Tullus Hostilius. Some the sides of the long, narrow valley, as Livy
of these old monuments, to which the Forum (1,35. 8) and Dionysius (1 1, 68. 1) describe. 1

inscription of about 500 also relates, are still As alread] pointed out, the Romans mar-
preserved below the level of the present Forum velled at the grandeur of the Capitoline Temple
a black memorial slab, the lapis niger, in the Late and explained it in various ways. Apart from
Republican and Imperial pavement marks the the historical problem of the rise of Rome, the
spot. The exact location and shape of the ora- cultural context is quite clear, thanks to our
tors' platform the rostra, as it was called, since archaeological knowledge of Etruscan temples,
after the victory in 338 it had been adorned with towns, and tombs. What we see in the Rome of
ships' prows from Antium - has still to be ascer- the sixth and fifth centuries and in similar re-
tained, but literary sources indicate its close con- mains from other Latin and central Italian
nexion with the Comitium and the Curia and a towns is altogether a part of the greatest age of
position between them and the Forum. Pliny Etruscan culture and political power in Rome,
(VII, 212) makes it clear that the Rostra, a re- connected with the Etruscan rulers.

served place for foreign messengers (the graeco- Pliny reports (\\\\, 154), in the course of
slasis), and a later column erected in honour of discussing two Greek artists who were em-
the victor in the battle of 338, the Columna ployed for the fifth-century Temple of Ceres,
Maenia, stood along the south side of the Comi- Liber, and Libera, that, according to Varro,
tium. The apparitor of the consuls, the ac census, before it was built everything in the temples
announced noon from the Curia when he saw was Tuscan work. We should not restrict that
the sun between the Rostra and the Graecostasis. observation to Rome. Varro probably conflated
This information makes it likely, of course, that the Greek Archaic and the Tuscan style with-
the stairs of the Curia were visible and open to out realizing that the Etruscans from their
the public on the Forum. Varro (Lingua Latum, beginnings followed the development of Greek
vi, 91) quotes an old commentary on an indict- art, and that their Archaic style was only a ver-

ment accusing a certain Trogus of a capital sion of Archaic Greek art. What Greek painters
offence and prescribing that an assembly should and terracotta artists (plastae) of the fifth cen-
be proclaimed from the Rostra and that the tury brought not only to Rome but to all Etrus-
bankers shut up their shops. This refers evi- can central Italy was certainly classical Greek
dently to the tabernae of the bankers along the tendencies. After the classical heyday of Athens
north side of the Forum, and confirms the close and Argos they influenced all monumental
relation between the Rostra, the Comitium, and architecture, monuments, and private works of
the Forum. art in the Etruscan and Latin towns of the
A famous feature of old Rome was the fourth and following centuries.
wooden bridge which crossed the Tiber from The end of this first period of old Rome was
the Forum Boarium. It was called the Pons the Gallic catastrophe of 386. The revolution
Sublicius and, according to tradition, was con- against the Etruscan kings seems already to
structed under King Ancus Marcius, without have retarded the Romans, and then, after 386
anj sort of metal. Like the old Etruscan bridges, and until the victorious age after the war against
it probably had stone abutments. According to Hannibal, internal struggles and continuous
the legends the beginnings of the Circus Maxi- wars kept them busy. Though traditions from
mus in the Vallis Murcia between the Aventine the Etruscan temples lived on and influence
and the Palatine 1 [ills also belonged to this old from the richer life of the Etruscans and Greeks
Ktruscan Rome of the kings. There is no reason can be traced, progress was delayed in the two
to doubt wooden platforms with vela on
that centuries which followed after the Gauls put
supports, like those known from Ktruscan the great old Archaic town in flames.
CHAPTER 5

ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

(386 - ABOUT 200 B.C.)

The old town of Rome described in the previ- Strabo (v, 3. 7), the Emperor Augustus espe-
ous chapter was damaged or more or less des- cially concerned himself about the defects of
troyed, with the exception of the Capitoline domestic architecture in Rome, reducing the
Temple, when the Gauls, after depriving the height of new buildings and organizing a fire

Etruscans of their dominion in the Po valley, brigade. Yet in spite of Augustus's efforts and
raided their towns and sacked Rome in 386 B.C. his speeches about improved domestic archi-
The Rome which was rebuilt after the Gallic tecture, which he supported, according to Sue-
catastrophe in many ways stands out in drama- tonius (Augustus, 89), old Rome - Vetus Roma
tic contrast to the towns of the peoples that were before the Neronian fire of a.d. 64 in Tacitus's
brought under the sway of the rapidly increas- description still appears as a town of narrow,
ing, overflowing town on the Tiber in the fourth twisting lanes and enormous, shapeless, and far
and third centuries. The Romans boasted of from fireproof buildings (Annales, XV, 38).
their simple, warrior-like life and character, In 338 Rome crushed the resistance of the
compared with the more luxurious hellenistic Volscians around Antium, and thus became
culture of the Etruscans and the Campanians; mistress ofall Latium, extending her power

but their control of subject cities in Italy did not from her strongholds there to her more cul-
mean that they stood in the way of Greek in- tured neighbours to the north and south.
fluence. The classic exposition of the cultural Already in the middle of the fourth century the
differences between the subject states and Rome Romans had brought the great and rich Etrus-
is Livy's scathing description of degenerate can Caere (Cerveteri) into close alliance, and
Capua during the war against Hannibal (x.xiii, they soon reduced it to a dependent state. As
2 ff). We can illustrate the culture, of which will be remembered, the wars against the other
Livy only gives a caricature, by reference to the Etruscan towns ended with Roman victories
refined, appealing life of second-century Pom- about 280. In the fourth century the Romans
peii (the so-called tufa period). Before the war had waged their great wars against the very
against Hannibal, Rome remained stubbornly efficient confederation of the sturdy Samnite
backward in comparison with her subjects, who mountaineers, culminating in the victory of
had regular town planning and shared Greek 290, and it was in connexion with these wars
cultural life. that Naples and the Campanians came under
As I have said before, Cicero contends in De the control of Rome. The last culturally superior
Lege Agraria (11, 35. 96) that the Campanians parts of Italy to come under her sway were
with their town of Capua, which was spread out south Italy (after the war against Pyrrhus, 280-
on a vast and open plain, would laugh at and 275) and Sicily, which became a Roman pro-
despise Rome, which sprawled across moun- vince after the Punic war (227). The Sar-
first

tains and deep valleys, with houses of several dinians of the old nuraghi (above, p. 17), with
storeys strung along badly kept streets and very Rome's usual slander against her enemies, were
narrow lanes. Fires, floods, continual collapses defamed as useless slaves and put up for sale,
of houses, and uncontrolled building were but they revolted frequently, and continued
typical features of Roman life. According to brigandage even in the first century B.C.
 "5

The Romans maintained this early dominion Following the legends about great city walls
by a network of alliances and by granting vari- and gates, and the old bulwarks and the defence
ous degrees of independence or civic rights, systems discussed in the previous chapters,
until they reduced Italy to uniformity about 80 there now emerges a period of truly great
B.C. This multiform consolidation was con- fortifications. The heavy terrace walls which
trolled by strongly fortified colonies and garri- strengthened the hillsides of the Etruscan towns
sons of Roman citizens all over Italy; these during the struggles against Rome from the end
fortifications are the greatest architectural ex- of the fifth century and the Greek city walls
pression of the system of government, corre- offered the prototypes, but the Romans de-
sponding to the organization and iron discipline veloped walls in their own way, as the exigencies
of the legions. The consolidation was tested of their own system of government and the
severely during the war with Hannibal, but vicissitudes of the struggle for control over Italy
emerged stronger than ever, thanks, as Livy required. The Latins probably built walls for
says (xxvii, 10. 7, speaking among others of their last defence against Rome, though we have
Signia and Xorba), to her colonies. Later on the no certain knowledge of them. Most interesting
fortifications functioned quite differently: dur- are the rough limestone walls of a quite special,
ing the internal wars in Italy in the second and local kind which the Samnites built around their
first centuries they were modernized and pro- few urban centres. The circuit of Saepinum,
vided with arched platforms for catapults, etc. the greatest among them, is about 2 miles wide.
[170]. It is typical that even before crossing the It still gives us an almost complete counterpart
Rubicon Caesar had begun to seize such advan- to the infinitely more refined Roman fortifica-

tageous positions, starting with Ariminum tions, and demonstrates the Samnite prepara-
(Appian, The Civil Wars, 11, 5. 34 f.). tions for the wars with the Romans.

10. Signia (Segni), gate in the wall, fourth century B.C. (?)

- - .""''-:

^"••SL^:- n»r '

X.
in. Norba (Norma), walls and gate, fourth century B.C. (second half)

mMLJ
12. Cosa, city gate, with door chamber inside the wall, 273 B.C.
 ii7

i
13. (a) Minturnae (Minturno), castrum (296 B.C.?)
and Late Republican town;
(b) Pyrgi (Santa Severa), castrum, third century B.C. Plan

>^

IOO METRES
I iS • ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

In the Apennine limestone districts the the well-preserved walls with which in 273 the
Romans builtmighty polygonal ('cyclopean', Romans fortified their colony of Cosa [112].
'Pelasgic') walls similar to those the Etruscans They are nearly a mile long and include eighteen
had constructed since the sixth century; Terra- rectangular towers and three gateways of the
cina (probably about 400), Ferentinum (first interior court type, which project inward from
period) [167], Circeii (393), Signia (Segni, the outside of the wall, as known already from
probably fourth century) [no], Cora (Cori; the fourth century at Ostia [123] (below, p. 125).
fourth century), Arpinum (305) [116], Prae- Rectangular walls were built on the plains to
neste (fourth century), and Norba (second half defend colonies. They were of the castrum type
of the fourth century) [in] are imposing speci- (see p. 125): examples are Pyrgi [113B, 114],
mens, in some cases built in connexion with the Minturnae (probably 296) [113A], and Fondi
war against the Volscians. North of Rome are (about 250). The majestic walls of Alatri [115]

TYKflH t N I A
5 E. A

1 14. Pyrgi. Plan

 ii9

115. Alatrium (Alatri), terrace wall, third century B.C.

show the perfection this kind of construction Different kinds of structure were adapted for

had achieved before it was handed down to the different functions. Large, shapeless blocks with
the interstices stopped by smaller stones may
second century.
120 ' ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

once have belonged to primitive constructions, blocks of the fortifications seem mostly to have
but in our material they represent only the been brought into position by means of earthen
simplest and roughest manner used for the less ramps on the inside, which usually remained as
conspicuous parts of the walls (the so-called an inner agger and formed a terrace for the
'prima maniera'). A more regular wall (the defenders. Free-standing walls for defence, for
'seconda maniera') was achieved by smoothing instance the wall of Arpinum [116], seem to
the surface. The true polygonal masonry (the have been rare in this early age of Roman forti-

'terza maniera') has stones accurately fitted to- fications. Clamps and dowels were not used;
gether. They were perfectly smooth, or some- mortar was a later device. The Romans con-
times rusticated, and similar to a rough ashlar tinued to build polygonal walls in the last cen-
wall. The even more sophisticated perfection turies B.C., as seen in villa terraces and in the

of the 'quarta maniera' was arrived at decidedly Temple of Fortuna Primigenia at Praeneste
later. In Roman and Latin usage, as we know it, (below, p. 169 ff.).

the first three types appear together; their vari- Before arched construction became the rule,

ous methods of construction afford no certain gates could be constructed in the polygonal
clue for dating. The often fantastically mighty- walls with corbelled, sloping walls and heavy

116. Arpinum, corbelled gate, 305 B.C.

lintel blocks, as at Signia (Segni), or with cor- ing years the Romans built one of the greatest
belled, pointed arches, as at Arpinum [i 16] and defensive works of their age, the so-called Ser-
Palestrina. The corbelled arch of Arpinum has vian Wall, by which they unified the seven hills
six courses rising to a height of more than 13 into a strong, closely interrelated fortification
feet, and the lintel block ot the acropolis gate at [ 105, 170]. Instead of employing the rather poor
Alatrium measures about 16 feet. Minor gates and narrow local cappellaccio blocks of the
were spanned by slabs. Polygonal walls were previous period, they shipped a far superior
used also for podia and terraces of temples, as at building material from quarries in the recently
Norba, Signia [117I, and Cosa, and for other conquered territory of Veii, the yellowish so-
substructures such as those along the Via Appia, called Grotta Oscura tufa. The ashlar blocks
where they often seem to belong to the first measure some 2 feet (60 cm.) in height; the
period of this road, i.e. to c. 312. 1
length varies between 2 feet 5 inches and 6 feet
Ashlar walls were contemporary with these 11 inches (74 cm. and 2.10 m.) and the width

polygonal walls in districts where the volcanic between 17^ and 26 inches (44 and 66 cm.). The
tufa offered a suitable material. With this wall is laid in alternate courses of headers and
method of construction, in 378 and the follow- stretchers. Some of the blocks are marked with

1 17. Sigma (Segni), temple, terrac

probably tilth century B.C.
122 • ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

alphabetic signs, which were made either at the The lower town, which was abandoned about
quarries or during the building operations. 300, and its old agger no longer fulfilling their
Together with other tufas from the Etruscan function, the north-eastern side of the settle-
Rome, the Grotta Oscura tufa
quarries north of ment on the acropolis needed new fortification.
remained the most important building material For this purpose a terrace wall was built against
in the fourth and third centuries, though tufas the hill with earth infilling towards the hill on
of finer quality and firmer consistency from the the inside and a fossa dug in front of the wall. 2
Alban Hills (peperino), Gabii, and the surround- Somewhat older than the terrace wall of
ings of Rome were used for sarcophagi, altars, Ardea is the rectangular castrum of Ostia
etc., and gradually replaced the Etruscan tufa (see p. 125), a fortification which the Romans
even in architecture. threw up in the last decades of the fourth cen-
The colossal new town wall consisted mainly tury to protect the Tiber [123]. Fragments of
of terrace walls built against the hills and inside terracotta revetments which seem to be of the
ramparts. The agger (cf. above, pp. 103-4), sixth and fifth centuries suggest that this
which probably earlier connected and defended modern fort was built on a site contiguous to
the plain behind the Esquiline and the Viminal, some older settlement, as was the castrum-fort
was amplified into what may be called an arti- of Pyrgi. The walls of Ostia were built in a simi-
ficial ridge with a height of approximately 33 lar manner to the Servian Wall, but with ashlar
feet. This agger was supported by a wall on its of the brownish so-called Fidenae tufa with
outer side, which continued the fortification of spots of charcoal, which was quarried some 6
the hillsides and completed the circle of the miles north of Rome. The thickness of the wall
town wall. Its base is 1 1 feet 10 inches (3.60 m.) is 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 m.), and the highest pre-
wide. In front of this wall was a stretch of ground served stretch measures 2 1 feet 8 inches (6.60 m.)
measuring some 23 feet, and a ditch, the fossa, from bottom to top. The wall probably had a
which was 97 feet (29.60 m.) wide and approxi- rampart on the inner side. The four gates are of
mately 30 feet deep. The artificially sloping hill- the inner-court type similar to those of Cosa
side of the agger towards the town on the inner [112] and run like corridors through the ram-
side of the wall was supported by a retaining part. This type of gate may be considered a

wall of cappellaccio blocks, which, together typical feature of Roman fortification. Neither
with the huge outer wall, belong to the con- at Ostia nor in Rome can we ascertain how the
spicuous remains of this most startling part of gates were covered, whether by lintels or cor-
the Servian Wall. Livy tells how it deterred belled.
Hannibal from laying siege to Rome. We see the Approximately a hundred years after the cas-
same kind of terrace walls used at Ardea, prob- trum of Ostia, in 241, the Romans destroyed the
ably during the Samnite wars about 300 [118]. old Faliscan town of Falerii. They settled the

1 18. Ardea, acropolis, terrace wall, c. 300 B.c.( ?), the bastion

probably dating from the Gothic wars in the sixth century a.d. Elevation and plan
 123

rebellious Faliscans in parts of their old terri- tufa from the Alban Hills is used for the vous-
tory and, as was their practice in unreliable dis- soirs and mouldings. The long, narrow voussoirs
tricts, founded a strongly fortified new centre, describe a circle concentric with the interior
Falerii Novi (Santa Maria di Fallen). It was curve of the arch. The springers rest upon an
connected with Rome by a straight military impost moulding, and moulding of the same
a

road, the Via Amerina, with beautiful, modern type surrounds the outer cur\e of the arch. This
arched bridges [121]. The circuit of the citj type of arch, which is detached from the wall
wall is about i\ miles. In the typical Roman wa\ and limits it to right and left and carries it abo\ e,
it is reinforced by square towers projecting from was the type usual until the age of Augustus. A
the wall, as at Cosa. The ashlar blocks of fine, perhaps later, specimen is the Ponte del

reddish-brown tufa are only about 18 inches Diavolo at Manziana [120], which was probably
(45 cm.) high (they range between 44 and 47 constructed as part of a Roman military road to
cm.), but otherwise the wall is constructed like Tarquinia. The great bridge of the Via Amerina
the Servian Wall, with the inner side generally across the Fosso Tre Ponti [121] shows a differ-
attached to the slopes of the lower part of the ent kind of arch construction. The voussoirs
town. have five sides and are fitted into the coursing of
Among the startling innovations of fourth- the adjoining masonry, a type of arch which is

to third-century Latium are the elegant arched otherwise known only from the time of Augus-
city gates of Falerii Novi and the arched bridge tus onwards. But the bridge is an indispensable
on the Via Amerina. A vaulted drain in front of part of the road. There are no remains of any
the Temple of Saturn on the Forum Romanum earlier structure; a date in the third century
4
has been dated to the fourth century, and the seems therefore certain.
oldest Etruscan arches appear to belong to the As stated above, Rome was rebuilt after 386
same period also. The city gates of Falerii [
1
19] without any regular plan. In their haste after the
display an unusual subtlety. Grey peperino- sack the Romans disregarded the available

1 19. S. Maria di Fallen, gate, 241-200 B.C.

124 ' ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

120. Manziana, Ponte del Diavolo, c. ioo B.C. Elevation and plan

models of Greek towns in Italy, which were Roman town planning is at Xorba : in connexion
regularly planned perhaps as early as the seventh with the great walls [m], during the war
century, of Etruscan towns of the sixth century, against the Volscians and Privernum in the
and of town planning of the fifth century in second half of the fourth century the more level

allied Campania. Elsewhere than Rome, how- parts of the town between the hills with temples
ever, the Romans began to adopt regular plan- on the south-west and north-east received a

ning for their new towns in the fourth and third regular layout. But Cosa is the first really com-
centuries, especially for colonies, where old plete regular Roman town. Although the sur-
buildings and rough and uneven surfaces did face was uneven, rectangular blocks of houses
not stand in the way of modern designs. It is measuring between 107 and 121 feet (32.50 and
evident that regular planning and a street inside 37 m.) in width and about 270 feet (82 m.) in
the walls were adapted to speedy manning of length were built over the whole town inside the
the walls, sallies, and to other military pur- mighty wall. The oblong blocks and quarters
poses. The first instance known of regular arranged in a chessboard pattern show an obvi-

121. Via Amerina, bridge, c. 240 B.C. Elevation

 125

ous affinity to Greek towns like Olynthus and vides'. Consequently, the Greeks adopted all

Naples and the regular quarters of Pompeii kinds of shapes to suit the nature of the ground
(which was planned by either Etruscans or (exactly like the aboriginal hill towns). The
Oscans under Greek influence). The regular Romans, because of entrenching and the fixed
city plan of Cosa is clearly dated to the decades organization of the camps, did not need to take
after the founding of the colony in 273. advantage of steep hillsides, rivers, and so on.
Connected with the regular planning of the The Romans also created a somewhat differ-
networks of streets in towns was one of the most ent plan used especially for permanent rec-
important creations of the Roman military tangular (or quadrangular) castrum-forts with
genius, their camps, or castra. Polybius eluci- very strong, high town walls, built to house a
dates this great novelty for the Mediterranean regular garrison, such as at Ostia [123], Pyrgi
world (VI, 27 32) in a comprehensive and and Minturnae [113, 114], Fundi, Allifae, and
admiring account. He describes a camp as hav- other fortresses resembling the castra. One may
ing two parallel main streets, the Via Principalis, compare fortresses which Alexander the Great
which divided the camp into two sections with built on his march to distant territories of the
different kinds of barracks, and the Via Quin- Persian Empire [122J. The castrum of Ostia is
tana. At each end of the Via Principalis were the earliest known instance of these permanent
gates called the Portae Principales Dextra and camps, and may serve as an example. It mea-
Sinistra. At right angles to these streets ran a sures 212 by 137 yards (193.94 by 125.70 m.)
wide central passage which contained the com- and has in the centre of each side gates of the
mander's headquarters (praetonum), with three type described at Cosa [123]. They are usually
streets on each side. The central passage united referred to by the names of the gates in Poly-
the two halves of the camp and had gates at each bius's description of a camp. The main streets
end, the Porta Praetoria and the Porta Decu- from these four gates met at right angles in the
mana. Remains of camps in Spain of the second centre of the town. In modern literature these
century and from the Imperial Age as well as streets are conveniently called decumanus and
towns like Augustan Augusta Praetoria (Aosta) cardo, designations which in their strict sense
and Turin bear out Polybius's description. belong to the regular division of fields; decu-
The Romans not only applied regular town manus is used for streets running lengthwise
planning to the castra; they also, according to and cardo for the shorter, transverse streets.

Frontinus (St rut age ins, IV, I. 14), believed that According
to the land surveyors it was ideal

they had taken the idea for their temporary if main roads from the surrounding fields
the
castra from the Greeks. This is very likely true, could meet at right angles in the centre of the
but Polybius brings into special prominence the towns without interference from dwellings
which the Romans adapted the
originality with already in existence on the site. This system
new scheme. He emphasizes the importance of with straight, crossing main roads was not alien
the standard planning of the castra, where each to theGreeks, as can be seen at Selinus and
soldier knew beforehand in exactly which street Paestum. In the enlarged fifth-century Pompeii
and in what part of the street his tent would be, 1 04], too, the main roads from the countryside
and affirms that the Romans in their castra pur- resulted in a nearly rectangular grid of streets,
sued 'a course diametrically opposite to that which gave the town its basic regular layout;
usual among the Greeks'. The Greeks, says and Nicaea in Bithynia, a foundation of Antigo-
Polybius (vi, 42), in encamping adapted the nus Monophthalmus and Lysimachus and thus
camp 'to the natural advantages . . . , because about contemporary with Ostia, was a quad-
they shirk the labour of entrenching and because rangular town with four gates which could all

they think that artificial defences are not equal be seen from a stone in the middle of the Gym-
in value to the fortifications which nature pro- nasium, the typically Greek centre of the town.
126 • ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

To sum up, the city plan of the Roman cas- Roman foundation rites. The remains of towns
trum-forts, like all their other regular town likeTimgad, Egyptian Antinoopolis, and Beirut
planning, has to be seen in relation both to older substantiate this, and the planning of many old
and to contemporary designs all over the Greek towns in Britain, Italy, France, and Germany
world. But the final results the Romans achieved still reveals the legacy of the Roman castra. 5
- exemplified by the castra described by Poly- The colony of Cosa is remarkable because it

bius, the castrum-forts with polygonal walls is the most complete surviving Roman town of
such as Minturnae and Pyrgi, and what they the otherwise scantily known centuries before
express of the particular Roman strength, 200 B.C. method of construc-
In addition, the
notions, and manners in their great age - warn tion of the houses demands the- greatest atten-
us not to overrate foreign influences or under- tion. The grey limestone of the hill itself was
lying traditions which may have lingered in the used, cut to various shapes and sizes, but, vying
regular towns of Italy. The way in which Rome with that, mud brick and wood, mortared
gradually developed and forcefully worked out masonry, and rubble work occurred all over the
modern ideas becomes of principal importance town. In cisterns barrel-vaults built of rough
and should not be ignored. In the Roman Em- limestone voussoirs and rubble work or tile are
pire the castrum-forts were considered a dis- connected with this kind of construction. The
tinctive mark of Romanity, as were also the rubble work of Cosa ushers in struct urae caemen-
Capitolia, the fora with statues of Marsyas, and ticiae, concrete, as described by Vitruvius (n,

122. Failaka (Ikaros), temple and fortification built by Alexander the Great on his march to the East.
Plan, somewhat simplified
127
128 ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

4-8), which in the hands of Roman builders was architecture of Pompeii belong various kinds of
destined gradually to revolutionize almost all coarse rubble construction with a framework of
Roman architecture. Roman concrete was a limestone and tufa facing. Thanks to a fine mor-
mixture of rubble and liquid mortar containing tar of pozzolana, towards the end of the third
volcanic dust (pozzolana earth) with very great century walls of this type were developed to
cohesive strength. Cato in De agricultura (14 f.), entire rubble walls without reinforcement.
written about 160 B.C., mentions the use of mor- They resemble the Roman constructions of
tar as a matter of course in utilitarian architec- concrete, though they are less stable and with-
ture. A barrel-vault datable to the first decades out the more careful Roman facing. Walls of
of the third century above the Upper Peirene this kind were built in all quarters of Pompeii,
Well on Acrocorinth is built 'of an agglomerate together with facades of ashlar tufa and remain-
of sea and sand pebbles, held together by a ing structures of the oldest type built with the
1
binder . . . [with] a strong admixture of lime . local limestone. Akin to the rubble of Cosa is

Refined concrete and concrete vaults were thus the construction of the podium of the Temple
used by the Greeks in the third century, at least of Magna Mater on the south side of the Pala-
in utilitarian architecture. The great, but un- tine, which was consecrated in 191 B.C. It is

solved, problem is exactly when the Romans made of irregular pieces of tufa and peperino
developed this kind of building to that degree of laid in thick mortar. 6

perfection and adaptability which made its over- Many scholars believe that concrete began to
whelming future possible. prevail in Rome only about 150 B.C. But many
It is necessary to pose this question already arguments seem to prove that the new material
here, though there is disagreement between appeared there as early as the third century, or
scholars on when this turning-point in the his- at any rate about 200. In addition to the rubble
tory of architecture of Western Europe was of Cosa, the excavations of Ostia have revealed
reached. The difference of opinion ranges be- only houses of concrete with opus incertum in
tween fifty and a hundred years. The lower the quarters which grew up around the castrum-
limit seems certain: remains in Rome from fort in the third and Second centuries. Of crucial
about 150 B.C. onwards prove that concrete at importance is the dating of the imposing mar-
that time was fully developed and widely used. ket hall on the Tiber south-west of the Aven-
The concrete walls were faced externally with tine [125]. This hall and its large granaries, the
stones of irregular shapes and thus displayed Horrea Galbae, are reproduced on fragments
the technique which Vitruvius (11, 8. 1) praises 23 and 24 of the Forma Urbis Romae, which
as the old manner of giving walls a protective dates from a.d. 203-11. The remains in the
surface and calls genus incertum (the modern Lungotevere Testaccio and Benjamin Franklin
term is opus incertum) [124]. To the domestic Street measure 160 feet (along the Tiber) by 285
feet (48.7 by 87 m.). This great structure is
entirely built of concrete covered with opus in-
certum of a quality already reminiscent of that
technique in Sullan times. The building has
arched doors, with alternating arched windows
above. Lengthwise, it follows the rising slope
along the Tiber on three levels; crosswise, it is

divided by barrel-vaulted transepts facing the

river. It seems to me indubitable that this highly
developed building is identical with the Porticus
Aemilia, built in 193 and restored in 174 (Livy,
xxxv, 10. 12; xli, 27. 8). The defenders of a
124. Opus incertum
 129

Roman and Greek authors sueh as Strabo

(V, 3. 8) maintained that the 'older Romans took
but little account of the beauty of Rome 1
be-
cause they were occupied with aqueducts, paved
roads, and the construction of sewers. Diony-

25. Rome, Porticus Aemilia( ?), 193 B.C., restored in 174 B.C. Axonometric plan

later date for concrete either reject the identi- sius says (ill, 67) in spite of the great I. ate

fication or assume that the hall represents the Republican architecture that the greatness of
Porticus Aemilia in a later, rebuilt form, belong- the Roman Empire can best be seen in these
ing to the decades towards 100 B.C. Yet there magnificent utilitarian works, and Strabo ex-
appears to be no other building of the import- plains that the Greeks had taken little interest in
ance which Livy's repeated information indi- them, and that this marks a characteristic differ-

cates in the quarter south of the Aventine ence between Rome and Greece. It is, of course,
(outside the Porta Trigemina). Also, no older easy to prove that the Greeks were forerunners
remains have been found below the hall. It is in the construction of aqueducts, sewers, and
therefore difficult to deny that already at the other utilitarian architecture. On the other
beginning of the second century concrete, opus hand, the Romans later partly because of their
incertum, and vaulting had reached the con- concrete started a new era in the field, without
siderable perfection which the Porticus Aemilia any of the beaut} of 'the useless, though famous,
shows, and that the experimental age conse- works of the Greeks' (as Frontinus says in his
quently was the third century. However, there book about the aqueducts of Rome, 1, 10).

are arguments against this conclusion, and the Cicero (Dc Oratore, 111, 170 Xi) even specu-
fundamental question of when such a building lated on the charm which is sometimes pro-
could have been erected in Rome must still be duced b\ merely fulfilling practical require-
presented as problematical. ments. But, as Strabo himself says, his remarks
130 •
ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

refer to the older Romans, whereas the Romans massive foundations, provided the legions with
of the last two centuriesB.C., and particularly new, superior means of conveyance to hold their
those of his time, filled the city with beautiful dominions in check. At the same time they also
buildings of hellenistic types. prepared the way for the future peaceful inter-

Pre-eminent among the utilitarian structures course of the Empire. The streets of Rome and
of the fourth and third centuries were the works other towns were gradually reconstructed in the
of 312 erected by the great censor Appius same way. 8
Claudius. He was the founder of Rome's first, At the same time, however, numerous temples
still almost entirely subterranean aqueduct, the were being built in Rome and the forum was
Aqua Appia, and the great military road to receiving its first embellishment. Temple C in

Capua, the Via Appia, with its viaducts, poly- the Largo Argentina in Rome [35, 126] and the
gonal terraces, and, as far as possible, straight smaller temple embedded in the podium of the
course. In the third century this famous trunk Late Republican Temple A were built about,
road was prolonged to Venusia, Brundisium, and probably before, 300. The podia consist of
and Tarentum, connecting the southern parts of ashlar work of the same kind as in the Servian
Italy with their new, harsh ruler on the Tiber, Wall. The older temple, A, seems to have be-
and at the same time creating the starting point longed to the type with two columns prostyle,
for Rome's wars with the hellenistic kingdoms discussed a propos the Etruscan temples (p. 38 f.)

in the late third and second centuries. Both [149]. Temple C reveals the Etruscan type of
Strabo and Dionysius give the Roman roads one-cella temple with colonnaded alae and
special prominence, and they are, indeed, one closed rear wall projecting right and left of the
of the historically most important achievements cella, mentioned by Vitruvius (iv, 7. 2) and
of the third century. In that century the Romans discussed on pp. 37-8. The
high podium [35]
started to use selce (silex, basaltic lava) instead is, as always in these temples, accessible only by

of gravel and tufa for paving, which, allied to a flight of stairs in front of the roomy prodomus.

126. Rome, Largo Argentina, temples. Temples A and C c. 300 B.C. Plan

N^
 >3'

127. Cosa, Capitolium, c. 150 B.C.; Signia (Segni), Capitolium. Elevations and plans

These podia anel temples are of stone. This, as Capitolium of Cosa, dating from about 1 50
well as the somewhat elongated proportions of [127], corresponds largely to Vitruvius's de-

Temple C, may indicate hellenistic influence. scription (IV, 7; and also to the Capitoline

The forward orientation of the temples is em- Temple of Jupiter Rome). Smaller temples
in

phasized, not only, as in some of the Etruscan [128] are of the Etruscan type described on
temples 20, 33 ], by the open spaces in front but
1
p. 39, with a cella without alae and columns in

on the axis of the cellas.

also by altars the prodomus. As mentioned above, the terra-

Though the temples of Cosa, of which suffi- cottas of" the pediments, the revetments, and

cient elements for a reconstruction remain, the drip-lines sometimes suggest a construction

were built in the second century, the) afford with, as Vitruvius says (IV, 7. 5), mutules pro-
confirmation of the state of the sanctuaries in jecting in front of the facade of the temple and
Rome before their final hellenization. The carrying the tympanum oi the pediment [43].
132 • ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

128. (a) Cosa, Temple B; (b) Cosa, Temple D; (c) Cosa, Port Temple; (d) Norba, temple.
Last centuries B.C. Elevations and plans

Tuscan columns reinforce the impression that A different kind of temple was the so-called
Vitruvius learned much from exactly this type 'Tempio della Pace' in the forum of the colony
of Roman temple with its preserved Etruscan which the Romans founded in 273 in the Luca-
dispositiones and chose various items from nian town of Paestum, with its Greek ante-
among such temples when he attempted to re- cedents. It has the Etrusco-Roman plan with a
establish what genuine Etruscan architecture high podium, stairs only in front, deep pronaus,
had been like. and a cella with alae [129]. In the second period

129. Paestum, Tempio della Pace.

First period c. 270 {hatched),
second period c. 100 B.c.(?). Plan
 133

of the temple (about ioo B.C. ?), the columns on kets in the neighbourhood, and only money-
this traditional Italic substructure were Corin- changers and bankers were allowed to have
thian. Its capitals belonged to the peopled type their businesses there. This 'forensis dignitas',

to which I have already referred as current in to use Yarro's words (quoted by Nonius,
Etruria and which were typical of Pompeii and 532) had a background in the Greek feeling for
south Italy. From Corinthian leafage below the dignity of central fora, expressed already by
spring two volutes of Ionic type with a head Aristotle (Politica, 1331a), and heralded the
between them. The entablature was of stone elegance and systematization of the Forum
with a Doric frieze above the architrave. The Romanum of centuries to come.
first temple seems to have been built during the The conqueror of the Yolsci at Antium, C.
first decades of the Roman colony, and thus -
Maenius, consul in 338, constructed balconies
no doubt already belonged to the Early Etrus- on the upper floors of the tabernae of the forum.
can and Roman sanctuaries, discussed on p. 38, These 'Maeniana' projected above the columns
which introduced the combination of Italic plan in front of the shops, and when the gladiatorial

and Greek superstructure and were destined to shows were introduced to Rome, probably from
predominate in the following centuries. Campania in 264, and it became, according to

In spite of the temples on the south side and Vitruvius (v, custom that they should be
1. 1), a

the paved streets around the central area, the given in the forum, the Maeniana were especi-
Forum Romanum remained a rather shapeless ally convenient and brought in public revenue.
market-place, slightly narrowing towards the About 338 the orators' platform {tribunal) at the

main entrance road on the east side, the Via assembly-place (comitium) was embellished bv
Sacra. Plautus,in Curculio (47b), gives a wonder- the Rostra and the column erected in honour of
fully vivid description of the muddle. He also Maenius, as has alread) been described. 1 " In
makes clear that the part of the Cloaca Maxima thisforum the funerals of the great families also
which passed the forum was an open channel. took place, with a peroration from the Rostra
This old square had no axial disposition, and no and a parade of inherited ceremonial dress,
dominating temple on its upper short side. marks of honour, and ancestral masks, as splen-

.Many old Italic fora probably had the same didly described by Polybius (VI, 53). After the
naive, disorderly character, which contrasts ceremony the mask of the man who had just

strongly not only with what was to be the result died followed those of his ancestors to the
of later, regular town planning but also with the family atrium, where the image was placed 'in

axial orientation native to the Etruscan temples, the most conspicuous position, enclosed in a
and what they and their forecourts [20, $2, 33] wooden shrine".

contributed when central Italian towns were L. Richardson has drawn attention to oval

planned in agreement with modern Etruscan amphitheatre-shaped comitia, or voting sta-

and Greek urbanization. tions. They are so far known to us only from the
Livy (\\\ I, 27; \i .IV, 10) mentions the pri- third and second centuries, at Cosa [138], at

vate houses which, until after a fire in 210 and Faestum, and at \grigentum, \s in the case of
later building operations, lay behind the the Comitium in Rome (the vestibulum curiae), a
butchers' stalls and shops of the forum the curia dominated the site, placed as it was at the
Tabernae \ eteres on the south side and the top of the stairs on the central axis of the court.
\rgentariae on the north side, or Novae as thc\ The same arrangement also exists in the cavea
were then called. In spite of still crowded sur- of the Theatre of Pompey, with the Temple of

roundings they stood out clearly as boundaries Venus Yictrix facing the stage from the top of
for the area of the future regulated forum. In the spectators' gallery. The theatre temples of

the fourth century the dealers in victuals had Latium (below, pp. 105 ft.) ma) also be com-
been banished from the tabernae to special mar- pared. \\ hether the Romans followed old tradi-
134 " ROME DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN ITALY

tionsand stood on the stairs or were seated after staircases directly from the street - the arrange-
the Greek fashion, this architectural type of ment we see in its accomplished Imperial form
assembly building or building for voters seems throughout Ostia and on the Forma Urbis, and
to have been suggested by Greek municipal which can still be seen in old towns or old
architecture. 11 quarters all over Italy. There are, of course, no
Our present material adds very little to what remains preserved of these early insulae, but
has been said about the atria and the domus of rambling plans, cracking walls, ladders or
patricians and nobles (above, p. 106). The best wooden stairs to the upper storeys, wooden
archaeological evidence from the Rome region ceilings and floors, and mud-brick walls were
during this period is a newly excavated house at doubtless typical of them. Such defects were
Cosa which shows an asymmetrical treatment still complained of by historians and poets of
of the atrium-tablinum plan and remains of the first century a.d., in spite of great endeav-
wall-decoration closely related to examples on ours in the last centuries B.C. to check this un-
Delos. Among literary sources Livy (xliv, 16. controlled individual building activity and to
10) relates that the domus of the Scipio family erect many modern insulae. 12
was in the quarter behind the Tabernae Veteres In our sources high tenement houses are con-
on the south side of the forum. Together with sidered unusual in the Mediterranean world.
this domus of one of the best families in Rome They are mentioned as something exceptional
he mentions butchers' stalls and shops, as we see at Parabos in Phoenicia, at Arados in Syria, in
tabernae connected with the atrium-houses in Tyre, and in Carthage. 1 '
Vitruvius is no less

second-century Pompeii. As discussed on p. definite when he explains the high tenement

91 f., the Etruscans may have added peristyles to houses of Rome as a local phenomenon due to

their houses - in any case, peristyles behind the the enormous size of Rome's population, which,
atria were a feature of atrium-houses in third- he says, made it necessary to increase indefi-
century Campania - but there is nothing either nitely the number of dwellings and so to con-
in our sources or in the archaeological material struct high houses and invent for them a less
to prove that that luxury reached Rome at this unsuitable material than mud brick. Rows of
early period, or that the gardens then existed tabernae, as we see them at Pompeii and in the

which became such an important addition to Republican strata of Ostia, and badly planned
the peristyles in Italy [91]. and badly built insulae presumably occupied
Far more important than what we learn about great parts of the town already in the fourth and
the domus is Livy's brief mention (xxi, 62; third centuries.
XXXVI, 37) of tenement houses with upper In 221 another circus, the Circus Flaminius
storeys. He informs us that in 218 an ox fell from of the censor C. Flaminius Nepos, was added
the third storey of a house on the Forum to the racecourse in the valley of the Circus
Boarium, and that in 191 in another part of Maximus. It stood on the Tiber, with one end
Rome, the Carinae, two cows went up the stairs between the Porticus Metelli and the Pons
of a house to the very top floor. Together with Fabricius. The Greek hippodromes no doubt
what Dionysius (x, 32. 5) relates about houses offered a model, but both the temporary theatres
with upper storeys put up already in the fifth and the permanent circus buildings in Rome
century by the plebeians on the Aventine, these seem, until the first century B.C., to have been
events introduce a characteristically Roman either surrounded by sloping earthen ramparts
type of building of the greatest importance for or provided with wooden structures for the
centuries to come: the high tenement house or spectators. The wooden buildings certainly left

insula. There is no reason to doubt that such architectural traditions of importance to the
houses were piled up on the tabernae along the monumental ashlar and concrete architecture of
streets [107, 133] and were accessible by steep the centuries to come. It is typical that still in
 135

155 a permanent theatre under construction Emperor Otho's Etruscan ancestors, the Salvii,
was torn down by order of the senate, on the at Ferento - but it is strikingly inferior to the
grounds that it was inexpedient and would rich, monumental sepulchral halls of some of
damage the public character of the city. So the the great families of Caere and Perugia [72, 73]
plebs in older times still had to stand to see the- (pp. 80-2). Perhaps in its first period, before the
atrical performances, and the wooden theatres present facade in the hellenistic style was built
were always demolished after the entertain- about 100 B.C., the tomb had an adorned rock
ments. 14 facade, as did so many Late Etruscan tombs
Livy reports how the Macedonians at
(xi., 5) with entrances from the hillsides [99]. The
the court ofKing Philip, like the Campanians of famous sarcophagus (now in the Vatican
Cicero's day, poked fun at the appearance of Museum) of the consul of 298, Lucius Corne-
Rome about 200: 'It was not yet made beautiful lius Scipio Barbatus - even if it was added to
in either its public or its private quarters.' That the tomb during the golden age of the Scipiones
epilogue has its companion piece in the tomb of in the second century - and a beautiful sar-
the Scipio family on the Via Appia. Originally cophagus found south of Rome, outside the
it was a rough, rock-cut chamber tomb. It has Aurelian Wall [130], reveal eloquently the pro-
many parallels among the later Etruscan un- gress of Greek influence and taste among the
derrated tombs - for instance, the tomb of the leading Roman families in the third century. 15

130. Sarcophagus from the Via Cristoforo Colombo,

third century B.C. Rome, Palazzo det Conservaton
CHAPTER 6

HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALIC.V

'The beginnings of foreign luxury were intro- 163), commissioned a citizen of Rome, Decimus
duced into the city by the army from Asia' about Cossutius, to rebuild the Olympieion in Athens.
the year 187 B.C., says Livy (xxxix, 6. 7). He Vitruvius adds that this was done 'with great
also affirms (xxv, 40. 2) that already during the skill and supreme knowledge'. This startling

war against Hannibal an enthusiasm for Greek information shows, apart from anything else,

art had been awakened in Rome by the statues that there were already contacts between the
and paintings from Syracuse seen at Marcel- architecture of the hellenistic states and Rome
lus's triumph (212 B.C.). during the sixties of the second century. In
Statements of this kind should not make us Rome, its colonies, and central Italy, we see the

forget that direct influence from Greece or, still beginning of an inspiring struggle between
more, such influence in its reshaped Etruscan Etrusco-Italic traditions and the overwhelming
form, had guided Roman architecture and art riches from the hellenistic towns. This created
from their very first beginnings. What Livy and a new sort of hellenistic architecture. Only very
Pliny mean is that the harsh centuries of 'the rarely is piety towards old buildings as such
early Romans' (to speak with Strabo, v, 3. 8) and attested. The Romulus huts are a special case
of the wars in Italy and against Hannibal were (above, p. 28); another is the fact that in the
over. The theatres of war were now in the midst of the rich resources of Imperial Rome,
hellenistic world. Rome was transformed by a Pliny (xxxv, 158) speaks of the fine terracotta
landslide of influence not only from southern sculpture in Rome and other towns of Italy as

Italy but also directly from the great Eastern 'more deserving of respect than gold, and cer-
capitals of the hellenistic kings. It is of great tainly less baneful'. On the other hand, Cicero

importance to remember that the culture of the in the second Verrine Oration (1 1, 4. 68, 69) says

Greek city-states with their restricted aims and that the Capitoline Temple rebuilt after the fire

scope after Alexander appeared in a far more of 83 B.C. was adorned 'as the majesty of the
temple and the renown of our empire demand' -
irresistibleand international shape throughout
the Mediterranean world. It meant a new epoch that is, with modern hellenistic monumentality.
for the hitherto obstinately old-fashioned town 'Let us feel,' he continues, 'that conflagration to

on the Tiber. In the second century B.C., Cato have been the will of heaven, and its purpose
and the consul and senate, who forbade perma- not to destroy the temple of Almighty Jupiter,
nent theatres, were still trying to uphold ances- but to demand
of us one more splendid and
tral customs, old usages, and the unwritten laws magnificent.' Nothing can better express the
of Rome. victory of hellenistic taste and luxury. But be-
Livy speaks about the new charms of town fore the curia of the senate rebuilt in Sulla's age,

life and new ways of living; Pliny, and even Cicero makes a halt (Dc finibus, V, 2) saying that
Tertullian, still resound with the contemporary the old Curia Hostilia evoked thoughts of Scipio,
reaction against these hellenistic 'licentious Cato, and other famous men of the olden days,
profligacies'. Archaeological material and liter- while the new, Sullan curia 'seems to be smaller
ary sources prove that hellenistic taste pervaded since its enlargement'.
not only the Roman way of life but also archi- Vitruvius, in the fifth and sixth books, de-
tecture. According to Vitruvius (vn, Preface, scribes the new variety of hellenistic architec-

15. 17), the Seleucid king, Antiochus IV (175- ture, which Italic builders could not resist, as
 TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS 137

'consuetudo italica". He points out, over and Egyptian and Cyzicene oeci (saloons), which
over again, recurrent Italic features, but he also none the less were imported to this new Rome
specifies typical architectural designs ot the (\, 11; VI, 3. 7-10). What Yitruvius calls 'con-
Greeks which remained alien to the Roman suetudo italica' was neither pure old-Italic nor

branch of hellenistic architecture - such as fora a copy of hellenistic towns: it was a new inter-

in the form of a square (\, 1. 1) and Greek pretation of the Roman commonwealth aided
theatres (\, 7). In the sixth book he brings out by modern adornments, which the increasing
specially prominently that the Greeks did not renown of the Empire demanded. The influ-

use atria (as the Etruscans and the Romans did) ence of Roman traditions upon foreign elements
and therefore 'do not build their mansions as and the amalgamation of Roman architectural
we do' (VI, 7). The atrium-houses of Pompeii patterns with hellenistic taste created some-
[85, 91, 131] and Republican Ostia preserve the thing new. Howe\er, foreign influence is readily
exclusively Italic plan. Yitruvius thus discloses perceived everywhere.

131. Pompeii, a typical Late Republican amur

on the one hand the legacy of old Rome, its

to us rECHNIQUES tND MATERIALS
Etrusco-Roman temples, its atria, and its in- INPUBLIC BUILDINGS
digenous or long-established buildings, and on
the other hand the hellenistic influence which In discussing theatres pp. ( 1 34 5 ), it has already
pervaded Roman architecture of the previous been said that the Romans before Uigustus's
centuries Eurther, he describes Greek build- time rarely used costly material in public build-
ings with no Italic tradition, such as the palaes- ings. The marble quarries of Luna (Pliny,

tras, the peristyles, and, in private houses, the WW 1, 14; Strabo, V, 2 5) were discovered only
132. Rome, 'Temple of Vesta" on the Tib er, first century B.C. (first half)(?)
 TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS 1 3Q

in the Augustan Age. In 140 B.C., however, the Rubble and concrete could also be employed.
first floor of the Capitoline Temple was con- Walls, entablatures, capitals, and columns of
structed with a diamond pattern (according to tufa or travertine were always covered by stucco
Pliny, XXXVI, 185), and in 146 the ceiling was and painted, whether the buildings were of tufa,
gilded (Pliny, XXXI 1 1, 57). Catulus, who re- travertine, rubble, or concrete. Colourful terra-

built the Capitoline Temple after the fire of 83 cotta revetments on the entablatures remained
B.C., was still both criticized and praised for in favour throughout the Late Republican Age.
having gilded the brass tiling of the roof. The In Vitruvius's eyes the traditional parsimony
victor over Macedonians, Q. Caecilius
the w ith costly materials detracted from Republican
Metellus, was the first to build a marble temple buildings; had they been refined by 'the dignity-
in Rome. That was in 146 B.C. His Temple of conferred by magnificence and great outlay'
Jupiter Stator in a portico by the Tiber (later (v 1 1, Preface, 17), they could, according to him,

known as the Porticus Octaviae) was pointed have been included among the first and greatest
out as the first instance of 'the magnificence or works of architecture.
luxurv of marble' among Roman public build- As Pliny preaches, morals had already lost

ings. The charming, round marble temple by the battle against hellenistic luxury about 100
the Tiber (usually called, without foundation, B.C. in the domus and the villas of the rich. A
the 'Temple of Vesta') [132] seems to belong to house which was regarded as luxurious in 78
the first half of the first century B.C. Preserved B.C., after thirty-five years no longer ranked
from the predecessor of the present temple are among the first hundred in Rome. Sumptuous
foundations of tufa. The marble walls remain to marbles flooded Rome and were even dragged
about two-thirds of their height, and three past the earthenware pediments of the temples

different types of capital and column (twelve to private houses and to temporary theatres. 3
later replaced by columns of the Imperial Age). Pliny sometimes (xxxvi, 8 and 113) even
The entablature is lost, but the Corinthian thinks that Late Republican luxury, in architec-
columns with Attic bases, the capitals, frag- ture and otherwise, surpassed that of the Im-
ments of coffering, the cornice, and the elegant perial Age, or at least - introduced it (XXXVI,
plinth and masonry of the walls indicate that the no).
temple - as has been aptly said - was a hellenistic Ashlar work and mud brick persisted. As the
'intruder upon the Roman scene'. In contrast to temples and other public buildings of Cosa have
the probably somewhat later Italic round shown, rubble came into use already in the third

temples on podia (p. 162 f.), it was also, in the century; in temples from about 100 we meet
Greek fashion, surrounded by steps. Some of with walls of concrete. For the podia of the
the Roman generals may have brought a Greek temples and for the walls of utilitarian build-
architect and the marble from Greece to Rome, ings,opus caementicium (concrete) more and
as Sulla sent Corinthian marble columns from more replaced the older techniques. The con-
the Olympieion in Athens to the Capitoline crete podia were faced with ashlar of tufa or
Temple after the fire of 83. travertine. In the old temple terraces of Norba,
However, as a rule Late Republican public the podium of the Capitolium of Signia [117],
buildings in Rome, though more and more in- and even in some terraces of Roman villas we
fluenced by hellenistic styles and proportions, still see the old-fashioned polygonal work
were constructed until the age of Augustus with (though, of course, stuccoed) on podia. The
tufa from Rome and its surroundings and addi- small irregular cover-blocks of tufa, limestone,
tional travertine from Tivoli. In the first cen- or selce (opus meat urn) [ 124] used for second-

tury B.C., travertine was even used for entire century concrete walls became tidier after about
buildings, thus embarking on the career on 100. The modern name for these more regular,

which it was to continue in Imperial times. but still uneven, facing-blocks is 'quasi- (or
140 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

pseudo-) reticulate'. It heralds the famous regu- frantic builders' activity of that kind was in

lar reticulate work (opus reticulatum) of the Im- Rome during this period, though rows of taber-
perial Age, which, on the evidence we have at nae without superstructure no doubt also re-
present, first appears in the Theatre of Pompey mained along many streets.

(55 B.C.) and also in a few structures erected just Added to that are both Augustus's endeav-
before that sensational building. According to ours to improve the town in a rational way (cf.

Vitruvius (n, 8. 1), in his day everybody used p. 114), continued uncontrolled building, and
such a regular network, though, with his usual the more than five hundred slaves of Crassus

conservatism, he maintains that the old incer- 'who were architects and builders'. He bought
tum was less likely to crack. Excavations at Alba the plots for his most successful speculative in-
Fucens, a sanctuary in the neighbourhood of vestments - building new tenement houses after
Sulmona (the so-called 'Villa d'Ovidio'), and fires and collapses when previous owners had
several buildings in other places show that let them 'go at a trifling price owing to their fear

incertum could persist together with other and uncertainty'. From all this irrational or

later techniques. Small blocks (tufelli) pro- careless building activity there finally arose the

tected door-posts, corners, and other exposed perfection of well-planned, brick-faced insulae
parts of walls, and in these centuries were also which we see all over Ostia from about a.d. 100
used for arches. 4 and on the Forma Urbis [106]. Thus, domestic
architecture developed which was unprece-
dented in the towns of the ancient world, even
TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS
if in certain respects it may seem defective to us.
IN DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
Certainly in Vitruvius's Rome, nobody had
The most spectacular, original, and important conceived the idea of a homogeneous, sturdy,
employment of opus caementicium was con- brick-faced town such as second-century Ostia
nected with the improvements of the tenement presents. The far less perfect tenements of con-
houses (insulae; see p. 134) and with the Roman crete, which Vitruvius hails as solving the prob-
vaults. Vitruvius states (11, 8. 17) that high lems of housing in Rome, were by no means as

houses of mud brick needed walls two or three frequent as his words imply. Dio Cassius
bricks thick, while Roman laws forbade walls in (xxxix, 61), describing the great flood of 54
public property to be more than if, feet thick. B.C., mentions as something typical walls con-

All the same, Rome's crowded population made structed of mud brick, which 'became soaked
it necessary to increase the number of dwelling- through and collapsed while all the animals

places and to build high. For this dilemma, perished in the flood'. Seneca Rhetor (Contro-
Vitruvius recommends insulae with concrete versiae, 11, 1. 11), like other authors of the earlier

walls, strengthened by piers of stone and pro- Imperial Age and like Strabo (v, 3. 7), reports

tected by a layer of baked tiles on top of the con- that fires and collapses were still frequent in
crete walls below the roof.
5
He otherwise dis- Rome, adding that the houses were so high and
trusts concrete - as he does most novel inven- the streets so narrow that there was no escape
tions - and he reports that concrete walls were from such disasters.

not expected to last more than some eighty From the decades after 100 we have archae-
years (11, 8. 8). But high tenement houses with ological evidence showing the kind of domestic
fairly slender walls could be built with concrete. architecture which Vitruvius recommended
Vitruvius therefore accepts the material for this some fifty years later. At Terracina five taber-
purpose and even praises the excellence of the nae of a large insula remain from the beginning
increased accommodation provided by these of the first century B.C. [133]. The house is built

modern high buildings. Vitruvius's keen in- of concrete with a cover of opus incertum. Its

terest in insulae makes us understand just how piers and arches are of small blocks of local lime-
 TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS IN DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 141

[33. Terracina, Via dei Sanniti, tabernae of an insula, early first century B.C. Elevation

stone. In the street along the south side ot the Sacra, towards the Clivus Palatinus. In the
Palatine the remains ofa great Late Republican Republican layers below the rebuilt Ostia of
building, erected some decades later, has piers Imperial times, concrete covered by incertum
and arches of tufa blocks and concrete walls and quasi-reticulate occurs everywhere after a

covered by quasi-reticulate [134]. The same first period of concrete and larger tufa blocks.
kind of technique is used in various remains of The most perfect specimen ofa Late Repub-
walls along the Via Sacra and in a part of the lican tenement house of concrete, from the
crowded old Rome with a brothel and a bath, point of view both of planning and of building
below the Neronian portico and south of the Via technique, is the Roman baths on the north side

134. Rome, building on the south side of the Palatine, the left-hand arch. Late Republican

>* V
142 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

135. Pompeii, Forum Baths, staircase and corridor to the baths, c. 80 B.C.

of the forum of Pompeii (Terme del Foro) [178]. Sullan army in the Social War. This building
Together with other buildings, they were put stands out from the usual architecture of Pom-
up for the colony of Roman veterans, Colonia peii as a typical Roman insula. It is built of con-

Cornelia Veneria, established in 80 B.C. to crete and faced with a quasi-reticulate of lava.

punish the Pompeians for their resistance to the On the east and north side of the bathing estab-
 TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS IN DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 1
43

lishment, which occupies the whole inner part their own down to the pavements. As Varro
of the site, against Via del Foro and Via delle says (Lingua Latina, v, 162): 'After they began
Terme, rows of tabernae are built with at least to take dinner upstairs, all the rooms of the
one upper storey, accessible by a direct stair- upper storey were called cenacula.' An interest-
case from the street; a corridor leads to the ing attempt to build a tenement house with
baths themselves [135]. In other words, here upper storeys and small apartments around an
we see the standard for the rapidly increasing inner court appears in the so-called 'Casa a
number of tenement houses with upper storeys Graticcio' at Herculaneum, but it should not be
in Rome after their first shapeless beginnings: a confused with the great, well-planned blocks,
tenement house built above rows of shops. with central courts surrounded bv tenements

[36. Pompeii, Via dell'Abbondanza, houses with porticoes on the second floor,

built and rebuilt during the last centuries of Pompeii

Both at Pompeii and at Herculaneum one or and with windows and shops towards the street,
even two storeys were often built above atrium which we see in Imperial Ostia and which their
and peristyle houses, with elegant colonnaded discoverer Guido Calza called Palazzi di Tutti.

dining-rooms (cenacula) open towards the Tabernae round the Terme del Foro at Pom-
street [136], or apartments with staircases of peii exhibit the form common to all shops of the
144 ' HELLENIZED ROME CONSUETUDO ITALICA

137. Rome, Porticus Aemilia, begun 193 and restored 174 B.c.(r), before the modern buildings on the site,

showing the alternating arches on the first and second floors

Imperial Age. Above them are the remains of a of less weight and more convenient construc-
balcony like those on the tenement houses of tion. The Porticus Aemilia [125, 137] has
Rome and Ostia. The shops had a wide, open already shown us the most common type, the
entrance from the street and inside a barrel- barrel-vault, as it was probably introduced to

vault with a garret provided with a small win- Rome in the first decades of the second century
dow above the lintel of the door. As in Imperial B.C. The barrel-vaults of the shops of Terra-
times, the garret was certainly reached by cina and Pompeii show how common this man-
wooden stairs or ladders within the shop.' 1

ner of vaulting had become by the beginning of

Together with the progressively higher tene- the first century.
ments of concrete, I have already singled out as As seen in the cooling rooms (frigidaria) in
one of the most important Roman innovations the baths of Pompeii, domes with a large circu-
the vaults, constructed of a mass of concrete lar opening in the centre and resembling the old
cast over a wooden form in contrast to the stone- corbelled domes were moulded of concrete. The
built vaults of the East. Here starts a tradition of portico along the facade of the Tabularium on
craftsmanship of enormous importance for the
Imperial Age, comprising not only the gradu-
ally improving ability to handle a new material
but also an efficient organization of carpenters
to make the centering of the vaults. Vaults on
the principle of the arch, wooden vaults, and
the old corbelled vaults were now replaced
more and more bv the durable concrete vaults
 FOR A I45

the Forum Romanum and the shops of the ter- and having a temple on the longitudinal axis,
race below the Temple of Hercules at Tivoli such as the Kaisareia of Alexandria, Antioch,
show that rectangular domical vaults also and Cyrene." In contrast to the monumental-
existed in Late Republican Rome." Insulae and ized Italic fora of the last centuries B.C., with a
concrete vaults were developed in Rome with dominating temple built against the rear wall at
an energy and to an extent which created new, the upper side, the temples of the Greek piazzas
exclusively Roman types, reducing the possible were detached. This can also be seen in the pre-
basic influences from abroad or from the Etrus- cinct of the Temple of Apollo outside the west-
cans to a matter of secondary interest. ern portico of the Pompeian forum [64]. A
temple area dedicated to Ptolemy III and
Berenice at Hermopolis Magna (Ashmunein)

in Egypt of before 221 B.C. already exhibits the

Monumental architecture, porticoes round the fully developed type of this piazza, with porti-
fora, baths, private palaces, etc., are a different coes and axial symmetry.
matter; here one must distinguish between the It has to be remembered together with these
imported architectural achievements of the hel- direct counterparts to the axial Italic fora - that
lenistic towns - 'non italicae consuetudinis", in in the fourth-century revival of Greek towns
Vitruvius's words and the Italic traditions before and after Alexander, there appears a
from Etruscan architecture of the seventh cen-
tury and through the Roman centuries.
Of great consequence for the future was the
development of the Italic market-place towards
the axial monumentally and splendour of the
Forum of Caesar and the other Imperial fora.
Different elements seem to have contributed.
First, the old traditions of the Etrusco-Italic

temples, with their frontal orientation and their

open space in front of the stairs of the pronaus
[20, 33]. Second, the old market-places with
their rows of shops, which, as the history of the
Forum Romanum shows, were no less deeplj
rooted in Italic life. However, to take the rec-
tangular forum of Pompeii as an example, be-
fore systematization this space had a different

orientation, with a row of common tabernae [38. Cosa, forum and comitium:
without portico along its eastern side, and no (above) plan showing early buildings only;
dominating temple (below) reconstructed section across the front
at its north short side.'
of the basilica, comitium, etc. at a later phase
A third formative component was rectangu-
lar hellenistic piazzas surrounded by porticoes

»"" '
"B « \f

11 11 fl B^^i
—
20 METIIS
146 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

general, increasing predilection for axiality and axis running lengthwise from north to south.
symmetry. It stands in strong contrast to the The tabernae were demolished, and in the sec-
charming free disposition and independence of ond century, along the east, south, and west
the majestic architectural units of Olympia, for sides of the rectangular space, suggested by the
example, or of the Samian Heraeum and the orientation of the Etrusco-Italic temple, two-
Acropolis of Athens. The agoras of Assus, storeyed porticoes with columns and archi-
Miletus, the planning of the acropolis of Perga- traves of tufa were built in the hellenistic style.
mum, or of the centre of Morgantina in Sicily, Behind them, on the east and south sides, there
remind us that also in hellenistic times quite seem to have been private buildings or public
different principles for monumental planning offices. The porticoes of the west side formed a
remained with other kinds of beauty than what screen in front of the Temple of Apollo with a
the new fashion of axiality offered. Yet, the differently orientated peristyle and a basilica,
latter inspired such great, strictly ordered com- which seems to have been built about 120. An
plexes as the Temple of Asklepios in Cos or the important change in this pre-Roman monu-
acropolis of Lindos with the Temple of mental piazza, caused by the Roman colony,
Athena. 10 It is evident that this axial hellenistic was that the temple was transformed into a
architecture made an overwhelming impression Capitolium for the Capitoline triad. From this

upon Roman builders, but it would be rash and combination of an Italic market-place and a
without historical common sense to overlook Greek colonnaded piazza is derived Vitruvius's
that because of their traditions from the rule (v, 1. 2) that Italic fora should be oblong.
Etrusco-Italic temples and sacred precincts, He prescribes that the breadth should be two-
they were predisposed, anyway, towards hellen- thirds of the length.
istic symmetry, though they adapted it to the The forum and the Portico of Hercules at
axial tendencies of Etrusco-Italic architecture. Alba Fucens [139] afford us most instructive
The great Roman shrines - such as those of specimens of axial systematization, both deriv-
Praeneste and Tibur (Tivoli; below, pp. 166 ff.) ing from the regular planning of the entire
- display in fact a more stringent and rigorous colony at the beginning of the first century B.C.
axiality than the hellenistic ones. At Lindos, The oblong forum - and this seems to have been
for instance, no straight axis leads to the temple an innovation - had a longitudinal axis running
and porticoes interrupt the open view to it. from a tribunal on the south-eastern rear wall of
At present, the fora of Cosa [138] and Pom- a basilica (discussed on p. 183), across the
peii [64] are the first known regular Italic basilica and a portico in front of it, and on to a
piazzas. Aligned along the northern long side of temple at the north end. Like the forum of
the forum of Cosa are monumental buildings: Cosa, it recalls Vitruvius's description of the

a basilica, two temples, and the comitium (see forum of Fanum, with a central axis running
p. 133). A central axis ran from Temple C trans- across the basilica and the middle of the forum
versely over the forum - as did the central axis to the Temple of Jupiter on the opposite side.
from the Temple of x^ugustus in Vitruvius's We same arrangement in the oblong
see the
basilica at Fanum (Fano) (v, 1. 7). In the forum Imperial forum of Augusta Raurica near Basel,
at Pompeii, with its longitudinal central axis, though the fora of Alba Fucens and Augusta
we can see still more clearly how the traditions are longitudinal, not transverse like the fora of
of Etruscan temples and old Italic market- Cosa and Fanum. The very narrow Temple of
places united with hellenistic magnificence. Hercules behind the basilica faced south. In it

Even before the Roman colony, c. 150-120, the has been found a splendid statue of Hercules in
old forum received a temple of Etruscan type a grand hellenistic style, and a ciborium built
at its upper north end, with stairs and prodomus against the rear wall. Before the present temple
towards the forum. It thereby obtained a central was built the whole precinct seems to have been
[39. Alba Fucens, forum, basilica, and Temple of Hercules, early first centurj B.( . Plan

_- ~
/ N
/ \
/ \
\

1
\
\
1

\
1

\
[
148 • HELLEMZED ROME 'CONSL'ETUDO ITALICA'

a shapeless open space, though perhaps still a in 210, which, according to Livv (xxvi, 27.
forum. Now a great portico measuring some 115 2), destroyed the shops on the north side. The
by 245 feet (35 by 75 m.) and surrounded by private houses behind the tabernae were re-
walls was built in front of the temple, with a placed later by basilicas: the Aemilia, built by
central axis running from the northern rear the censors in the year 179, M. Fulvius Xobilior
wall of the temple to the presumed
on the exit and M. Aemilius Lepidus, behind the tabernae
south side of the portico. The central court was on the north side, now named Argentariae
open to the sky and only some 30 feet wide. The Novae; and the Sempronia, built in 169 on the
large porticoes right and left of it had two rows site of the old domus of the Scipio family be-
of columns. The whole scheme reminds one hind the Tabernae Yeteres by Tiberius Sem-
both of the basilicas and of the future Imperial pronius Gracchus. The latter basilica and the
fora, and is of importance for the understand- Tabernae Yeteres were demolished when Cae-
ing of both. sar's and Augustus's basilica, the Basilica Julia,

It is interesting to compare the forum of was built. It seems likely that the Tabernae
Brixia (Brescia) as it was regularized when the Argentariae Novae, with maeniana (second
town was transferred from an old hill site to the storey to the portico), were rebuilt in ashlar in
plain. The forum of the new, regularly planned connexion with a restoration of the Basilica
town had about the same size and shape as that Aemilia in 80-78 B.C., if not before. At any rate,
of Pompeii. However, at its upper end, four the Basilica Aemilia and the tabernae, though
small hellenized temples were built and decor- separated by independent walls, remained a
ated in the so-called Second Pompeian Style. unity throughout the Imperial Age. In the man-
They are datable to the decades after 80. B.C., ner well known from Greek agoras, there were
when Gallia Cisalpina became closely attached shops in the two-storeyed porticoes, supersed-
to Rome. This seems to be an instance of Roman ing the old tabernae. That is how Yitruvius de-
regard for local deities and cults after the victory scribes them; and the fora of Paestum and
in the internal wars of the eighties (as seen also Lucus Feroniae (north of Rome) also show us
in the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia at Prae- this kind of two-storeyed structure in the shape
neste and the Hercules Temple of 'Villa he prescribed: Lucus Feroniae, at the end of
at

d'Ovidio' near Sulmona [158, 159]). the Republican Age (no earlier than 50), a por-
The forum of Paestum is another colonnaded, tico with Tuscan columns and a series of taber-
rectangular hellenized market-place, though it nae were built along the west side of the unpaved
had no temple at its upper end to emphasize its rectangular market-place with staircases to the
longitudinal axis. The monumental buildings upper storey.
around, such as the comitium (p. 133), the For the porticoes in the cities of Italy, Yitru-
somewhat later 'Tempio della Pace' on the vius prescribes fairly wide intercolumniations
northern long side [129], and what probably because of the shows given in the fora. In con-
was the Shrine of the Lares on the western trast to the Greek stoas and the porticoes of the
short side, are arranged without any regard to forum of Pompeii, forum porticoes (such as
symmetry. :: those of the Aemilia at the Forum Romanum)
\\ hen the new fashion of systematizing the therefore probably still had wooden architraves
market-place reached the Forum Romanum, in Late Republican times.
the points ot departure were the old tabernae In 78, the irregular group of structures on the
along the northern and southern long sides sloping west short side of the Forum Romanum
(P- 3$) [ I0 5]- The Comitium at the north-west
I was given monumental background in the
a

corner, on the other hand, was an obstacle to shape of the Tabularium [143], a repository for
any axial planning. The beginning of modern the state archives built on the south-east slope
systematization came evidently after a great fire of the Capitoline Hill. Another modern feature
 H \ SI I.I CAS '49

had been added to the old ensemble when in 17 1 ing the constitution from an aristocratic to a
the Archaic Temple of Castor and Pollux was democratic form; for his implication was that
rebuilt in a hellenized style. From helleni/ed speakers ought to address themselves to the
Roman architecture also camefornices, honorific people' behind the Rostra, not to the Senate.
arches bearing statues. L. Stertinius had erected Such new fashions in the life of the forum -

such arches, from spoils brought from Spain, in the hellenized Temple of Castor and Pollux, the
the Circus Maximus and on the Forum Boarium porticoes, and the basilicaswere the immedi-
in front of the Temples ol Fortuna and Mater monumental systemati/a-
ate forerunners of the
Matuta in 106; Scipio erected another in 190 at tion which the Late Republican Age left to
the entrance to the precinct of Jupiter Capito- Caesar and Augustus. In contrast to such com-
linus at the top of the Clivus Capitolinus. This promises between modernization and the old
architectural device of unknown origin, the disorder of the slight!) V-shaped area, outlined
forerunner of the glorious line of marble Im- by the tabernae, stood the inspiring models of
perial triumphal arches, was also introduced to hellenistic piazzas and such accomplished Italic

the ensemble of the helleni/ed Forum Roma- fora as that of Pompeii. must have seemed
It

num by the Fornix Fabianus of 121. It spanned quite natural that Caesar should try to make an
the entrance of the Via Sacra at the east end of axial piazza of the Forum by radical measures,
the forum, commemorating a victory over the abolishing the Comitium, transferring the
Allobroges. No remains of these fornices arc- Curia to its present place on the Forum, and
preserved, but we know that the Fornix Fabi- building new Rostra in the centre of the western
anus was rebuilt in 57 B.C. - no doubt with tufa short side.
and travertine - and probably represented then
the final shape of these monuments before the
BASILK \ s
Augustan marble arches. The central area of the
forum had been paved with tufa slabs before it With the basilicas of the Forum Romanum a
was covered with the travertine pavement of the new kind of building with a great future enters
two uppermost levels. This reminds one of the the history of architecture. Its origins and its

elder Cato's complaint about the moderniza- Greek name have been widely discussed. Here
tion of the forum; according to him, it ought to it may suffice to state that the oldest basilicas
have been paved with small sharp stones in known are Roman, in spite of the adopted
order to prevent people from lounging about. Greek name. Their antecedents were evidently
Cato's words recall the political and social Greek peristyles and colonnaded piazzas. \s a
temper of his time and the altercations con- basic conception valid for all the various types
nected with the development of the forum of basilicas, this may be proposed: a peristyle
which are revealed by formal analysis. \ ery im- with a central space (the na\e) covered bj a roof
portant for the development of the axial piazza supported by timber trusses and surrounded by
of the Imperial Age is a characteristic change in ambulatories (the aisles) on all tour sides. The
the use of the Rostra, which took place in the best archaeological evidence for Late Republi-
second half of the second centurj B.C. All earlier can basilicas is provided bj the basilica of Pom-
popular orators, so Cicero and Plutarch affirm, peii, probabh built about 120 (64, 142]; and by
had, w hile speaking, turned their heads towards those of Cosa [138], Ardea [140], and Alba
the Curia of the senate and the traditional place Fucens, which has already been mentioned
of public assembly, the Comitium. But it [139], all dating from about 100.
seem*, in 145-a politician 'set a new example Livj ( \ \ \ 1 \. 44. 7) informs us that Cato, in

by turning towards the forum as he harangued the face of considerable opposition, bought a
the people . . . , thus by a slight deviation and building plot west of the Curia and the Comi-
change of attitude ... to a certain extent chang- tium in 1 84 and built the first basilica in Rome.
150 '
HELLENIZED ROME CONSUETUDO ITALICA

Plautus speaks in Curculw about a basilica near added to precincts of temples for the benefit of
the Sacellum of Cloacina, and parts of walls in the pilgrims. The basilica of Ardea [140] is

the lowest strata below the Basilica Aemilia may clearly connected with a great temple below the
well be remains of this probably insignificant acropolis. It was probably a shelter for pilgrims
structure. 14 attending the famous sacred rites of the Lauren-
Vitruvius (v, i. 5 ff.) describes two types of tineand Rutulian coast, believed to have been
two-storeyed basilicas. One had columns in two handed down from the time of Aeneas. It had an
storeys, those of the upper tier being smaller open front, and two doors, one in the rear wall
than those of the lower; an upper flooring, he and one to what Vitruvius calls a 'Chalcidian
says, should be constructed in the aisles, carried porch' (chalcidicum), a portico outside the wall
by the lower columns. The other, of somewhat of the south-eastern short side towards the
different character, is represented by the basilica temple. A water cistern behind the rear wall
at Fanum, the building of which Vitruvius him- corroborates the explanation of the building as a
self supervised. There the columns round the resort of visitors to the temples. Neither the
nave went all the way up, but engaged columns cistern nor the doors display any axiality. 15

against the walls of the building carried an Vitruvius prescribes (v, 1. 4) that the basilicas
upper flooring between them and the columns should be constructed on a site adjacent to the
of the nave. According to Vitruvius, it was forum and 'in the warmest possible quarter, so
desirable that the parapets of the balconies in that in winter businessmen may gather in them
the aisles should be so high that people walking without being troubled by the weather'. Like
in the upper storey would not be seen by those the Greek stoas, they of course also served as
transacting business in the nave. shelters against sun and rain. The first indica-
To understand the function of Roman basili- tions of the magistrates beginning to move from
cas, one has to realize that in Late Republican the fora into the basilicas are the 'tribunals' of
times they were attached to the fora as shelters the basilicas of Pompeii and Alba Fucens, and
for businessmen and the public at large, or Vitruvius's statement that he built the tribunal

140. Ardea, basilica, c. 100 B.C. Plan

• •

• • •

IS METRES
 BASILICAS •
151

in his basilica at Fanum in front of the pronaus structure of Grotta Oscura tufa and three bases
of the Temple of Augustus as a semicircle with for columns of tufa with a diameter of about
a curvature inwards 'so that those who are 3 feet 5 inches (1.05 m.). It seems clear that this

standing before the magistrates may not be in old tufa structure had spacious ambulatories
the way of the businessmen in the basilica'. (aisles) round the nave and a front wall along
Yitruvius shows us how he wished to transmit the rear wall of the porticoes and the tabernae
the principles of basilica building to the great towards the Forum. The Basilica Aemilia had
Augustan Age, giving his usual detailed pre- two-storeyed aisles with lower columns on the
scriptions of measurements and proportions of upper floors (as Yitruvius demands, v, 1. 5), as

the ideal basilica and of Egyptian oeci (saloons) had the porticoes with tabernae outside the
in private houses, which resembled basilicas south front wall of the basilica. A coin of 59 B.C.
(vi, 3. 8 f.). Our main sources are the basilica of confirms this, reproducing the basilica as it was
Pompeii and preserved remains of walls at Cosa,
Ardea, and Alba Fucens, which exhibit two
different kinds of basilica plans: the two great
basilicas of the Forum Romanum and the small
basilicas of Cosa, Ardea, and Alba Fucens
turned their long sides towards the public
squares in front of them [138, 139, 140]; the
basilica of Pompeii, on the other hand, faced the
forum with an open entrance on the eastern
short side. The Aemilia and Sempronia were
screened off from the Forum Romanum by the
rows of two-storeyed shops and the porticoes in
front of them, but they were, of course, pro-
vided with entrances to the Forum, as we know
from the Aemilia of the Imperial Age and the
forum basilica of Alba Fucens, which was sep- 141. Coin of 59 B.C. showing the Basilica Aemilia

arated from the colonnade and the forum in as it was after a restoration in 78 B.C.

front of the north-western long side by a wall

with three doors [139]. The basilicas of Ardea after a restoration in 78, with two-storeyed
and Cosa were open towards the squares in front aisles [141]. 17

of them. Their facades are controversial. The All the basilicas had of course some kind of
Tabularium of the Forum Romanum [143] and top lighting for the nave. There is nothing to
the Basilica Julia hadarcaded facades, but it is of indicate that naves with two-storeyed aisles had
course also possible that the aisles of the basili- clerestories above them in the centuries under
cas at Ardea and Cosa were open colonnades discussion. Yitruvius's basilica at Fanum was
along the front like those in front of the rows of lit by windows between the pilasters of the
the shops of the Aemilia and Sempronia. In aisles, and we must probably
upper storey of the
each case this kind of building must have been assume the same arrangement in the great for-
especially useful as a sheltered, directly acces- ensic basilicas in Rome as well as in the basilica
sible appendage enlarging the public open of Pompeii (see below). In the so-called Egyp-
space. 16 tian oeci of private palaces, which Yitruvius
The Aemilia was completely rebuilt on a describes (vi, 3. 9), an architrave above the
higher level between 55 and 34 B.C., but some columns of the lower storey carried joists be-
l6£ inches (42 cm.) below the floor of the Im- tween them and the surrounding walls 'with a
perial basilica are remains of parts of a sub- floor in the upper storey to allow walking under
152 HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

the open sky'. Columns, three-quarters the walls of the basilica, supporting a series of semi-
height of those of the lower storey, carried the columns above them. The interior of the basilica
roof of the nave, and windows set in between resembled Vitruvius'sbasilica at Fanum. The
them faced the promenades or verandas above nave was surrounded by twenty-eight great
the aisles. The tablinum behind the atrium in Ionic columns and roomy ambulatories on all
the so-called 'Casa deH'Atrio a Mosaico' of the four sides. The columns were constructed of
Early Imperial Age at Herculaneum was built kiln-dried bricks, an exceptional procedure in
in this way. 18 The basilicas of Ardea, Cosa, and Late Republican architecture. They were obvi-
Alba Fucens were probably built in the same ously of one giant order and carried the timber
way too, though with lean-to roofs above their truss of a pitched roof above the building. It is

one-storeyed aisles. uncertain if the lower semi-columns along the

The basilica of Pompeii [142] is the best pre- south and north walls carried upper flooring in

served of the known early basilicas. Behind the the aisles, as at Fanum, though the presence of

142. Pompeii, basilica, c. 120 B.c.(?)

two-storeyed porticoes of the forum there was a a second tier of semi-columns suggests such a

chalcidian hall, probably also two-storeyed, motif. Itseems most probable that the building
with five intercolumniations towards the portico was lit by windows between the upper semi-
on one side and the basilica on the other. The columns. The basilica of Pompeii was, of course,
columns in the open entrance from the chal- not so big as the sensational Aemilia in Rome,
cidicum to the basilica were of the same height but was still much larger than the basilicas of
and type as the engaged Ionic columns which Ardea and Cosa, measuring 79 by 196 feet (24

were aligned along the lower parts of the side by 59.85 m.). 18a
i4.v Rome, Tabularium, 78 B.(
144- Tibur (Tivoli), Temple of Hercules Victor,
Late Republican, western facade of terrace

The basilica of Pompeii differed from that of nals in basilicas with their long side towards the
Ardea and the Aemilia in being planned axially. public space were placed in the middle of the
It had a two-storeyed tribunal at its western rear wall with a central axis running trans-
short end, flanked, like the tablina of the atria versely through it.

in private houses,by entrances right and left. Vitruvius's basilica at Fanum was arranged
This structure would have dominated the in- in this way, but Vitruvius - feeling the conflict
view had not been obstructed by
terior, if the between peristyle and axiality - omitted the two
thecolumns on all four sides of the nave. Here middle columns of the long side in front of his
we meet with a conflict between the architec- tribunal and the prodomus and Temple of
tural idea of a Greek peristyle and the un- Augustus behind it. He did this in order not to
Greek, Italic arrangement with concentration interrupt the axis running transversely from
upon a principal room built against or behind that structure in the middle of the rear wall of
the centre of the rear wall. We shall see the same the basilica to the Temple of Jupiter on the
conflict between tablina and peristyles in the other side of the forum. The Hercules Portico
peristyles of the domus. As the basilicas of Cosa of Alba Fucens had already achieved an open
and Alba Fucens [139] have shown, the tribu- view along the central axis to the temple on its
 BASILICAS •
155

145. Rome, Forum Holitorium,

Late Republican portico on the eastern side

upper side [139]. Vitruvius's views inaugurate is one of the stimuli that requires to be remem-
the attempts to focus direction on a dominating bered.
structure in the centre of the rear wall, thus The Tabularium on the Forum Romanum
enabling basilicas to function as monumental [143J, referred to on p. 151 as a part of the sys-
assembly rooms, as an expression of the Roman tematization of the west side of the forum and
state, represented by its officials, and later of because of its arcades and domical vaults, is the
Imperial power, and finally for the Christian only building of the Late Republican Age which
cult. In this last case the axial tendency was yet kept its place in the ensemble of the Imperial
further accentuated and the final goal became forum. 19 The building was erected in 78 by the
the altar in the apse. No doubt a variety of in- consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus for the state
fluences contributed to this type of building, archives. It has a high substructure of concrete
which was to achieve such world-wide and covered by tufa ashlar from Gabii. This sub-
millennial significance, but the conflict, given structure faced the forum and served as a re-
expression by Yitruvius, between Greek peri- taining wall against the Capitoline Hill. A corri-
styles and the straight line from the main en- dor, lit row of small windows, connected
by a

trance to a tribunal in the centre of the rear wall the north and south ends of the building. It was
156 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

from the forum by a door with a flat

accessible precincts. Here the most deep-rooted creative
masonry arch and a relieving arch above. A forces were at stake. In the chapter on Etruscan
direct, barrel-vaulted staircase of sixty-six steps architecture, I have tried to trace the various
led from the forum side of the slope of the Capi- kinds of temples which the Etruscans built and
toline Hill to this corridor and to the famous their early appearance in Etruscan towns (pp.
open gallery above it, with its domically vaulted 35-64). Of the third, second, and first centuries
compartments and rooms inside the building. B.C., which are represented by a large number of
Nothing can be safely confirmed about upper temple remains in central Italy, it should first

storeys above the gallery. However, the pre- of all be stated that these late, hellenized temples
served facade of the first storey, with its arcades still display the main features of Etruscan archi-
framed between engaged Doric columns, and an tecture: the podium, the frontal emphasis, the
entablature built on the flat arch principle, with deep pronaus, and the closed back wall [126].
guttae, belongs to a group of buildings with the The podium of Temple C on the Largo Argen-
same decoration: the Late Republican terrace tina in Rome - like the temple in the church of
of the Temple of Hercules Victor at Tibur St Peter at Alba Fucens - was 13 feet high. It
(Tivoli) [144], part of the portico round the had a simple, vigorous cornice at the top and a

piazza in front of the round Temple of Fortuna straight base. The base and cornice of the
Primigenia at Praeneste, and a Late Republican podium of the Capitolium of Cosa (c. 150) have
portico in the Forum Holitorium in Rome [145]. Tuscan tori of elliptical curvature. The later

As I have pointed out on p. 93, both Greeks and temples have elegant mouldings at top and bot-
Etruscans knew this architectural motif, but the tom of the podia, reminding us of the develop-
Theatre of Marcellus and the Colosseum in ment of Italic altars. The height of the podia of
Rome demonstrate the new monumentality and the second century is mostly between about 6
importance which it acquired at the hands of and 10 feet. When the Capitoline Temple was
Roman builders. reconstructed after the fire of 83, its builder,

Q. Catulus (cf. p. 47), wished to heighten the

old archaic podium to make it match the scale of
TEMPLES
his pediment, though it was already some 1

We now come to the temples of the last centuries feet (3.352 m.) high. Temples of the Imperial
B.C. and their evidence concerning Roman Age such as the Temple of the Magna Mater
respect for the Etrusco-Italic religious tradi- on the Palatine as reconstructed by Augustus in

tion, even where hellenistic influence changed 3 B.C., the Temples of Apollo Sosianus and
the external appearance of temples and sacred Divus Julius, and, later on, the Capitolium of

146. Roman temples: (1) Largo Argentina; (2) Jupiter Stator, 146 B.C.; (3) Forum Holitorium. Plans

• • •
• • • • •
IS METRES
 TEMPLES •
157

147. Rome,
Forum Holitorium
temples. Plan

10 METRES

Ostia - show that this predilection tor high the differences. This is also true of Campanian

podia lived on. temples, as shown by models and above all

\ arious Etruscan types of temples reappeared bv the pre-Roman Temple of Apollo at Pom-
in Late Republican architecture [127, 128, 146]. peii with its combination of peristyle and Italic

But must be clearly stated that between the

it orientation [04]. The same combination of Italic-
old Etruscan and the Late Republican struc- plan and Greek peristyle occurs also in Temple
tures lies much independent development A on the Largo Argentina in Rome in its third

during the rather dark centuries after the Gallic- period,i.e. about 100 B.C. 120, [53], and in the
[

catastrophe of 386. As in the atria of the private two southern temples of the Forum Holitorium
domus (below, p. 186), it is often only basic ele- in Rome, Doric and Ionic hexastyle peripteral

ments which connect Late Republican build- buildings [147] connected with a third temple
ings with their distant Etruscan prototypes. to the north which has a closed back wall. These
Often the traditional pattern is so changed that are perhaps to be dated as late as Augustan
the similarities may seem less important than times
 HELLENIZED ROME CONSUETUDO ITALICA

Ornament tine or tufa columns with travertine capitals, as,

for instance, in the great unidentified temple at

Two main types of embellishment are charac- the Via delle Botteghe Oscure in Rome. As I

teristic of these late temples. On the one hand, have said, marble was still rare in temples and
the terracotta revetments were richly developed, public buildings. In smaller temples the en-
as can be seen all over central Italy and can be tablatures were of stone in the various Greek
especially well studied in the second-century styles [151, 152] with architrave, Ionic frieze or
temples of Cosa [43, 44]. Art historians can Doric frieze of triglyphs and metopes, and
follow a most fascinating gradual unfolding of cornice. The terracotta revetments had always
early hellenistic style, 'perhaps the finest classic followed the successive phases of Greek styles,
style ever achieved in temple terracottas', and but these new hellenized superstructures above
Augustan classicism. Italic-plan temples revolutionized temple archi-
As I have already pointed out, remains of tecture [151] and created models for the Im-
pedimental terracotta sculpture from the sixth perial Age. Vitruvius, conservative as always,

and fifth centuries show that such decoration recommends Tuscan columns for his Etruscan
in a Greek style appeared early in the Etruscan temple. At Cosa all the temples originally had
temples. Pedimental sculpture seems to have Tuscan columns. The same is true of the
been abandoned Greek temples after the
in temples of the Capitolium of Signia (Segni), and
fourth century, though the Hieron at Samo- of Alatri, Alba Fucens, and other places. Tus-
thrace and the Temple of Dionysus at Teos can columns gained increasing popularity in the
indicate a revival in the mid second century. In architecture of the last centuries B.C. and in
Etruscan and Roman architecture, pedimental Imperial times; but in the latest Republican
decoration of terracotta flowered in the cen- temples, Greek columns predominated, as, for

turies after 300, as shown by the splendid pair example, at Cosa, where Temple D in its second
of horses from the so-called Ara della Regina phase (100-75) had Doric capitals, as had the
Temple at Tarquinia, by remains from Falerii southernmost peripteral travertine temple in
Veteres and Orvieto, by the vivid scenes on the the Forum Holitorium and the Temple of
pediments from Talamone (reconstructed in Hercules at Cori [152] of the end of the second
the Museo Archeologico at Florence), and by century. Neither Tuscan nor Doric prevailed in
fragments of pedimental groups from Cosa. 21 Roman Late Republican temples after about
In contrast to the swan-song of traditional 150: the remains display, above all, a predilec-
terracotta decoration stands a more radical, tion for Corinthian capitals [148], capitals with
new-style hellenization with stuccoed Doric, inserted human heads, typical of Pompeii, and
Ionic, or Corinthian columns of tufa or traver- bunchy Corinthian capitals adorned with a

148. Late Republican capitals, (a) Morgan's interpretation of Vitruvius;

(b) Tibur (Tivoli), Temple of Vesta; (c) Cora (Cori), Temple of Castor and Pollux
 TEMPLES 159

great flower. 22 As in the case of the terracotta

revetments, this hellenistic exuberance, which
in Italy became still more excessive, was re-
strained by late hellenistic classicism - as can be
observed, tor instance, in the Ionic capitals of
the so-called Temple of Fortuna \ irilis by the
Tiber [151]. The combination of Corinthian
columns and Doric triglyphs and metopes or
Ionic frieze was now accepted - even by Yitru-
vius (1 V, 1. 2-3). The Tempio della Pace on the
forum of Paestum shows this combination in its
second period (first century B.C.) [129].

Types oj Plan iintl Super si nut lire

As regards Italic (Etruscan) plans, which were

retained for sacred architecture, something has
been said already about the first period of this
temple, about Temples A and C on the Largo
Argentina [ 1 26, 1 46 1, and also about Dionysius's :
golden words concerning the rebuilt Capito-
lium: it 'was erected upon the same founda-
tions [as the temple of 509], and differed from
the ancient structure in nothing but the cost-
149. Relief of the Imperial Age, probably
liness of the materials' (marble columns; cf. representing the Temple of Juno Moneta on the
p. 46, and Dionysius, iv, 61). Arx in Rome, dedicated 374 B.C. Ostia, Museum
A relief showing the Temple of Juno Moneta
on the Arx in Rome, according to Roman tradi- front. The elegant small pseudo-peripteros by
tion dedicated in 374 B.C., proves that temples the Tiber has six Ionic columns with capitals in
with two columns prostyle were still visible in pure Greek style, four in front of the prodomus
Imperial times [149], but especially important and one on each side of it. Travertine is used for
tor the future among these hellenized temples the facing of the concrete podium, and for the
with Italic plan was the type with one or two six free-standing columns of the pronaus and
sets of four columns in front of a cella without the four engaged corner columns of the cella.

alae; the type, that is, already discussed in The walls of the cella are built of tufa. The
Etruscan temples (above, p. 39) and the temples building was, of course, covered by stucco, as
of Cosa [127, 128] and most important for Im- remains show, and it is one of the most elegant
perial times. We meet with Ionic semi-columns combinations of plan and Greek
Italic taste.

decorating the walls of the cella as a pseudo- Both these temples were probably built in the

peripteros - and Ionic columns in the tetrastyle second half of the second centurx B.C. The same
temple at Tibur (Tivoli) 50] next to the Tem-[ 1 plan reappears in Temple 1) on the Largo
pio di Vesta, and in the so-called Temple of Argentina in Rome, with its ten columns round
Fortuna \ irilis by the Tiber in Rome (151]. The the prodomus. The magnificent pseudo-peri-
temple at Tivoli is built of travertine ashlar on a pteros of the Temple of Jupiter Anxur at Terra-
podium of concrete, faced with travertine slabs. cina [164] had six columns on the front above
The cella walls project as antae half the length of the stairs and two columns on each side of the'
the prodomus, with its columns and stairs in prodomus. It is one <>l the great structures
150. Tibur (Tivoli), tetrastyle temple, second centun h.c:. (second halt ")(?)

151. Rome, 'Temple of Fortuna Virilis' on the Tiber, second century B.C. (second half)(?)
i 52. Cori, Temple of Hercules, late second century B.C.

typical of the age of the Sullan regime (82 71)). very popular. Rear-wall wings extended right
The small Doric temple of Cori 1 152] illustrates and left of the cella and often returned at right
the preceding decades. It has four slender angles towards the front with short stretches of
columns in front of the deep Italic prodomus walls ending in antae. W e have already seen this
and two on each side of it. The columns have arrangement in the Archaic Capitoline Temple,
low bases and an unfluted lower part, which - in the first Tempio della Pace at Paestum, and
as is often seen at Pompeii - was probably in Temple C on the Largo Argentina.
stuccoed red. To this group of temples belongs A famous group of temples of this kind which
also the Tempio Tetrastilo next to the Temple I would date to the second century B.C. (though
of Hercules at Ostia [123] and the four small more ancient dates have been proposed) con-
temples on a common podium on the north side sists of the so-called Temple of Juno at Gabii

of the piazza next to the theatre of Ostia (on the I

'55, 156]; the Temple of Jupiter Stator in the
Late Republican level of Regions 1 and 2, i.e. <>l Porticus Metclli (later Octaviae) in Rome [146],

c. 100 80). built in 146 and drawn on a fragment of the

In the second centurj the type with one or Forma Lrbis; the Temple of Diana Tifatina
more cellas, alae, and closed rear wall became (S. \ngelo in I'ormis), as rebuilt in Roman
l62 HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICa'

times; the northernmost temple of the Forum its shape from old Italic huts, but later restora-
Holitorium in Rome, built in the Ionic style Greek style reshaped it entirely. The
tions in the
23
[147], and finally Jupiter Anxur at Terracina. marble temple by the Tiber [ 1 32] (p. 39, above)
1

Then follow the temples of the Imperial Age, has already given us one instance of direct con-
a great number of them marble-faced and ex- tact with pure Greek architecture of this kind
hibiting variations of the type, such as the the Romans combined this Greek influence and
Temple of Divus Julius on the Roman forum, their own traditions in the round temples, too,

the temple at Vienne, the Temple of Minerva in providing them with podia and steps only oppo-
Nerva's forum in Rome and others. site the entrance to the round cella.
The temple of Fiesole [30] has, as I have dis- Temple B on the Largo Argentina [126, 153]
cussed on p. 43, instead of rows of columns had a cella surrounded by sixteen high slender
along the alae of the long sides, side walls ex- Corinthian columns with bases and capitals of
tended from the rear wall to the front of the pro- travertine. The image of the god, in harmony
domus. The temple was rebuilt in the same way with the axiality of the rectangular temple, stood
in Roman times (first century B.C.). against the rear wall opposite the stairs. The
The round Temple of Vesta very likely - as columns and the base and cornice of the podium
the Romans believed (above, p. 27) - inherited allow us to date the temple to about the middle

153. Rome, Temples A and B on the Largo Argentina, c. 100 B.C.

 TEMPLES 163

of the second century, but nothing remains of Most important for the centuries after
the entablature.-
1
Of the first decades of the first Rome's victories in Italy and in the hellenistic

century is the so-called Tempio di Vesta at world, and for the Imperial Age, were the
Tibur (Tivoli) [ 154J. The round cella is of con- temples with three cellas for the Capitoline
crete with a facing of opus incertum. The triad, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, to which
podium has a sturdy base and an elegant cor- Vitruvius (iv, 7) gives much prominence^ 5 As
nice. The eighteen Corinthian columns of discussed earlier on p. 46 f., the great Capitoline
travertine have capitals of the bunchy hellenistic Temple of 509 was the glorious model [34],
type I
[48B], and the frieze has heavy ox-heads both in its archaic grandeur and in its rebuilt
(not bucrania, as became common during the forms of 69 B.C. (after the fire of 83) and of the
Imperial Age), connected by rich festoons. The Flavian Age. The Capitolia became symbols of
elegant door-jambs and windows slope slightly the Roman Empire all over the Mediterranean
towards the top. Between the cella walls and the world. The great prototype in Rome was rebuilt
cornice above the frieze is a panelled ceiling of after the fire of S3, as Cicero emphasizes in the
travertine with two concentric rings of sunk second Verrine Oration (see above, p. 136), as
panels with rosettes. Nothing indicates how the the Roman Empire demanded, but - as the
roof was constructed. actual remains confirm it preserved the orig-

154. Tibur (Tivoli), 'Ten 'I \ esta', early first centun B.<
164 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSLETLDO ITALICA'

inal Etruscan plan with three cellas, colonnaded pressed some forty years after the highlv
alae, and eighteen columns in the pronaus both admired Capitoline Temple had been built,
in 69 and in the Flavian Age. Ovid further re- with its great new pediment and high Greek
ports in the Fasti (11, 669 ff.) that even an old marble columns. We know (above, p. 47) that
altar of Terminus, with a hole in the roof above, the builder of the temple of 69 thought that the
was retained from the old temple, and Pliny podium was too low, but contemporary coins
same about an aedicula of Juventus
relates the seem to prove that the pediments of the new-
in the cella of Minerva (XXXV, 108). The temple were a sensation. Vitruvius's words may
podium of the Capitoline Temple was height- contain recollections of archaic Tuscan temples,
ened by a top layer of ashlar about 16 inches but it is also possible that he and his contempo-
(40 cm.) high, above the twelve earlier courses raries really thought that the temple, in spite of
of blocks measuring about a Greco-Roman foot its high columns, was wanting in height, as did
(also about an English foot; 30-2 cm.). the Romans of the Flavian Age, according to
As I have remarked in discussing the temple Tacitus (Histonae, IV, 53). Vitruvius's state-
of 509, Vitruvius demands that the height of the ment, in any case, should not be ignored. Taci-
columns of an Etruscan temple should be 'one- tus confirms that the high Sullan marble
third of the width of the temple', that is in the columns of 69 B.C. carried a wooden superstruc-
Capitoline Temple 54 feet 5 inches (16.576 m), ture. In his description of the riots in Rome in
which seems unlikely for the building of the a.d. 69, he tells that the pediments, aquilae,
sixth century. But Pliny informs us (xxx\ I,
45) which supported the roof of the Capitoline
that Sulla - who followed the reconstruction of Temple, being of wood, caught and fed the
the Capitoline Temple with special interest - flames of the fire thrown on the roofs by the in-
from 26
brought columns the Olympieion in surgents (Histonae, ill, 71).

Athens 'to be used for temples on the Capitoline The plans of these temples transmitted
Hill'. The height of these Athenian columns is Etruscan traditions to the Imperial Age; some
55 feet 5 inches (16.89 m.), which would be close of them proved to have magnificent futures, as I

to Vidimus's rule for columns. It therefore have pointed out in discussing their Etruscan
seems probable that Vitruvius has accepted a predecessors.
height connected with the hellenized Italic A Roman innovation, it seems, was the
temples, and especially with the high columns Temple of Veiovis, behind the Tabularium, be-
of the Capitoline Temple. Pliny's statement tween the Arx and the Capitolium. It was built
proves - even apart from the precise informa- and rebuilt in the middle of the sec-
in 196 B.C.
tion about the columns from the Olympieion -
ond century, but it was enlarged and received
that the rebuilt temple vied in height with the its final shape in connexion with the building of
highest Greek temples, and that the Capitoline, the Tabularium in 78. Probably in the earlier
by virtue of its columns, belonged to the early period, and in any case by about 1 50, the temple
marble temples of Rome. assumed its peculiar plan: a transverse, closed
For the entablature of the great temples cella, facing south, with a tetrastyle pronaus and

which preserved the Etrusco-Italic ground plan stairs in the centre of the southern long side and

and wide intercolumniations, Vitruvius (ill, of the transverse central axis. The type was kept
3. 5) prescribes architraves consisting of a series with slightly different orientation in 78 and
of wooden beams laid upon the columns. Vitru- during a restoration in Domitian's time, and it

vius mentions this old-fashioned roof construc- returns in the Augustan Temple of Concord on
Temple and for
tion both for the Capitoline the Forum Romanum and in the Capitolium
Pompey's Temple of Hercules. His conclusion which, in Flavian times, replaced the Sullan
that these temples are 'clumsily roofed, low, temples at the upper end of the forum of Brixia
broad' is indeed most startling in being ex- (p. 148).-
 TEMPLES l6 5

Kate Republican temples could not only be imposing terraces and porticoes [155 ft.]. The
connected with fora and temple precincts with comitia of Cosa [ 1 38 and Paestum, with their
]

altars but could also be used in the context of curiae above the amphitheatrical stairs, were
other architectural schemes. The rows of co- Morgantina, with its monu-
like this, as well as

ordinated temples, such as those of the Largo mental between the upper and lower
stairs

Argentina [126], of the Forum Holitorium agora; no doubt the comitium of Rome was
1 147], and of the Republican forum of Brixia similar, too.-" Of these theatre-temples the
must have made a great impression. The earliest are one at Cagliari on Sardinia,29 which
temples of the Largo Argentina originally had is certainly Roman and was probably built in
rectangular forecourts with altars on the central the second century, and the temple of Gabii
axis of the temple, recalling in a strictly system- [!55' >5 n l ( see a ' S() Note 23) already discussed.
atized way the old Etruscan precincts. Later the The hexastvle Corinthian temple with alae and
area in front of them was unified, paved, and flanking rows of terracotta figures (cf. p. 57) 1
4<> 1

finally surrounded by porticoes. lies in the centre of a great rectangular precinct,

A special, highly monumental group of surrounded by walls and facing south. The walls
temples were related by virtue of having semi- of the northern half of the precinct are adorned
circular staircases leading up to the facade and bv colonnades; those of the western and eastern

W~ 'wmf. ••

I- ***

l «

[55. G irj B 1 .1 ?)
1 66 HELLENIZED ROME CONSUETUDO ITALICA

long sides had shops in the porticoes, like the It has the same width as the orchestra and pro-
Tabernae Novae on the Forum Romanum and jects outside the centre of the south wall of the
other Italic and Greek porticoes (p. 148, above). precinct. It seems evident that this theatre was

+
D
+

t
D

DDD t

t
D
H

50 FEET

15 METRES
156. Gabii, theatre-temple, second century B.c.(?) Plan

It is typical of these great sanctuaries that they constructed for shows or ceremonies in front of
are surrounded by a large number of shops. The the temple, and that in contrast to temporary
festivals seem to have been fairs, with a bustle of theatres in Rome at same time (below, pp.
the
dealers and workers. In front of the temple, on 198 ff.) - it imitated the permanent hellenistic
its central axis, is the monumental staircase with theatres.
an orchestra below. It is some 200 feet wide and Some hundred years after the probable date
has about twelve flights of stairs which reach of the theatre-temple of Gabii, about 50 B.C., a

the level of the temple. Behind the orchestra are more grandiose sanctuary of the same kind
still

remains of what certainly was a stage building. was built at Tibur (Tivoli) and dedicated to
 TEMPLES 167

Hercules Victor [157]. The temple, perhaps

reconstructed in Imperial times, lies in the
centre of the back of a great transverse, rec-

[57. Tibur (Tivoli), Temple of Hercules Victor, c. 50 B.C. Reconstruction

tangular terrace. Along the eastern long side as at Gabii. It seems clear again that this sanctu-
behind the temple and along the north and ary was a theatre-temple built for performances
south short sides runs a triple portico with Tus- in front of the temple.
can columns. Above the two outside passages of The temple, its porticoes, and the stage build-
the portico was a double colonnade. In the ing are set on a majestic terrace, constructed,
centre of the western, open, long side of the like the porticoes, of concrete covered with
terrace is a semicircular staircase leading up opus incertum. The mighty wall on the north
from the orchestra to the stairs of the temple. side of the terrace is most spectacular. It has an
Behind the orchestra projects a stage building. elaborate system of inner buttresses and a
[68

158. Praeneste (Palestrina),

Temple of Fortuna Primigenia
c. 80 B.C. Axonometric plan
 i6o

^^»
"Cir
fct

159. Fraencste (Palestrina), general view

facade decorated by arches in two storeys. The Fortuna Primigenia seated, with the infants
lower arches are flanked by strong buttresses of Jupiter and Juno in her lap evidently one of
travertine ashlar, while the upper row of arches the statues of maternal goddesses so common in

has engaged semi-columns and an architrave Italy in the centuries before Christ. Carneades,
like the Tabularium [143]. A vaulted tunnel, visiting Rome in 156-155 as a member of the
28 feet (8.50 m.) wide, runs through the north- famous Athenian delegation of philosophers,
ern part of the terrace, to carry the Via Tibur- remarked that the Fortuna at Praeneste was
tina. It has quadrangular roof lights; rows of more fortunate than most oracles of lots. Cicero
shops with barrel- or domical-vaults make it (De Divinatione, 11, 85 7) mentions this,and
obvious that the tunnel served as a shopping tells us that the origin of the lots was that dreams
centre."
1

admonished a distinguished man of noble birth

A semicircular staircase is also a part ot yet at Palestrina to dig into the rocky hillside of the
another large sanctuary, which belongs to the mountain on which the old independent Prae-
best early pieces of Roman concrete construc- neste with its rich Etruscan past of the seventh

tion and vaulting, vying with the great hellenis- centurv was built (the present village of San
tic ensembles (above, p. 146): the Temple of Pietro). Now this hill town was defended bj

Fortuna Primigenia at Praeneste (Palestrina) polygonal walls with extensions to a later, lower

I
1
58, 159]. Praeneste was famous for a sanctu- town with a forum of its own, lying far below on
ary connected with sortilege and for an image of the southern slopes. It is to this lower town that
170 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia belonged, picturesque caves in the rocky hillside behind
though it extended up the hillside. When the the forum are clearly earlier than Sulla, but all

noble Praenestine, 'disregarding the jeers of his scholars agree that the other monumental build-
fellow-townsmen, split open the rock at the ings round the forum were built after Sulla's

designated place, close to the statue of Fortuna victory of 82. 31 On a terrace behind and above
with Jupiter and Juno in her lap, lots carved on the temple and the forum a large basilican build-

oak with ancient characters appeared in the pit'. ing was erected with a bipartite central nave
And at the same time, Cicero says, honey flowed running east- west [158, 162]. On the south side
from an olive tree in 'the spot where the Temple was a Doric colonnade on the lower level to-
of Fortuna now stands'. There were thus three wards the forum, and above that, on the level of

sacred spots which belonged to the lower, pre- the floor of the basilica, an upper colonnade
Roman Praeneste: the pit where the lots were with Corinthian columns [160]. Along the
found, the statue of Fortuna, and the temple. north side of the bipartite central nave ran an
The end of the ancient town and its freedom aisle with a rear wall decorated with engaged
came when Sulla gave the place to plunder and Corinthian columns [161]. Between them were
executed some 12,000 Praenestini after his vic- elegant high windows with a slight inclination

tory over the younger Marius, who had taken inwards and ornamental tablets right and left.

refuge there in 82 B.C. Sulla then founded a Between this wall and the steep hillside behind
third Praeneste, a colony of his veterans, on the it, which reaches the level of the lowest terrace

plain below the lower pre-Roman Praeneste. of the upper sanctuary, is a narrow barrel-
For historical and archaeological reasons those vaulted space to guard against humidity.
scholars seem to be right who assign both the It is still an open question whether and how
buildings around the forum of the middle town this high building was roofed. As there are no
and the grandiose upper sanctuary with its gutters, it seems clear to me that the two central

theatre, which was built above it, to Sulla's re- naves were covered with a ridge roof, as the sec-
establishment of the old cults of towns he de- tion [162] suggests. They were no doubt two-
feated and to his intense building activity in storeyed. A row of arcades above the rear wall
connexion with the colonies of veterans. of the north aisle and its engaged Corinthian
Concrete, covered by opus incertum and of columns suggests that (to speak with Vitruvius,
course stuccoed, and columns of tufa with bases vi, 3. 9) it 'had a floor in the upper storey to
and capitals of travertine of the local calcareous allow of walking under the open sky'. The same
stone characterize the last great structure. The was probably true of the portico along the south
whole slope on which the lower pre-Roman side of the basilica. The whole structure would

town was built was systematized by parallel thus resemble the Egyptian oeci of Vitruvius,
terraces running east-west, starting at a terrace with verandas on both sides of a central nave
wall and a propylon towards the road below the and windows between pilasters or columns in
32
hill (Via degli Arconi). A row of barrel-vaulted the second storey to light it.

shops, built against the terrace wall, is the low- This somewhat strangely mixed monumental
est part of the sanctuary shops, which continue basilican structure connected buildings in front
on the upper terraces above the forum and the of the two grottoes in the hillside above the
buildings around it. On the highest terrace of temple. Especially important is a rectangular

the town below the upper sanctuary is the forum hall which was built along the eastern short side

of the middle pre-Roman Praeneste, now the of the basilica, the curia [163]. It faces the

piazza of Palestrina; along its north side were a forum, but is on the same higher level as the

temple built of tufa ashlar (partly preserved in Right and left of the entrance above the
basilica.

the cathedral), the curia [163], and the treasury stairsfrom the forum were Corinthian semi-
(aeranum) of the town. The temple and two columns, and above the lintel is a large arched
160. Praeneste (Palestrina), Corinthian above Doric portico in front of the basilica behind the temple, c. 80 B.C.
window. The interior is decorated by Ionic 161. Praeneste (Palestrina), basilica, c. 80 B.C.,

semi-columns, niches between them, and a north wall

podium with a triglyph frieze along the wall

no doubt for statues. The from
central axis ran
the entrance from the forum to the old east
grotto, which now became the apse of the high
hall.

In both grottoes mosaics have been found.

In the eastern hall was a great landscape of the
Nile valley (now in the museum of Palestrina),
and in the western grotto delightful marine
motifs still remain. It seems likely that these

mosaics were added in the Imperial Age. Pliny

(xxxvi, 189) mentions 'lithostrota' before dis-

cussing tessellated floors in Sullan Praeneste,

but it seems evident that in both Varro's and
his usage 'lithostrota' means 'opus sectile', in

contrast to the typical earlier Late Republican

162. Praeneste (Palestrina),

forum and Temple of Fortuna Primigenia,
B.C. Section
 [63. Praeneste (Palcstrina), curia, with aerarium
on the left, c. 80 B.C. (The present ground level is

some six feet higher than the Sullan level)

cement floors with small inserted travertine left rise staircases from the second terrace, end-
chips, the so-called opus signinum. 33 ing in front of colonnaded well houses. From
Whoever visits Praeneste or analyses the plan them great ramps led up to the fourth terrace,
of the upper and lower sanctuaries [ 1 58] sees where the staircase of the central axis starts.
that the buildings round the forum and the upper Along the outer side of the ramps ran covered
part of the sanctuary are unconnected and that porticoes with a closed outside wall (towards
there is no central staircase between them. The the south). In the centre of the ramp building on
upper sanctuary is independent ot the forum the third terrace are niches for statues, which
and a real masterpiece of hellcnistic Italic axi- mark the beginning of the central axis. Along
ality, a triangle with its base on the terrace high the entire rear wall of the fourth terrace a portico
above the basilica between the grottoes. Seven was built with a row of shops interrupted bj the
terraces lead up to a round temple, which is the central staircase and bj two hemic) cles with
apes of the triangle. The third terrace rests Ionic columns and coffered barrel-vaults, some
upon a wall of polygonal work. To its right and 50 feet east and west ol the central staircase. In
174 ' HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETLDO ITALICA'

front of the portico at the west end of the eastern town was the Temple of Fortuna and that the
hemicycle was a small round Corinthian shrine basilica, the hall on the east side of it (the curia
with triglyph friezes above the architrave and in my view), and the two grottoes belonged to
on the high base (now in the museum). Between it, and this has usually been assumed. One of the
the columns above the base were a decorative grottoes could then have been the place where
railing and gratings. Below it was a pit. It seems the lots were found, though Cicero's descrip-
most probable that this was the 'religiously tion makes a site higher up on the slope more
guarded place' where the lots were found. 34 likely. There is, at any rate, nothing to disprove
Following the staircase of the central axis to that the forum was an ordinary civic centre with
the fifth terrace we meet with another row of basilica, aerarium, curia, and an old, unidenti-
barrel-vaulted shops with purely decorative fied temple. To me it seems most probable that
blocked doors and engaged columns on the this was so: that the round temple and the
walls between them. Above them extends the theatre stand on the place of the cult of Fortuna,
sixth terrace, a large piazza with double Corin- and that the upper sanctuary connected the holy
thian porticoes on the east and west sides and places of the Fortuna cult. All the great upper
along the western and eastern ends of the north- sanctuary, viewed as a whole, is focused on the

ern rear wall as well. In the centre of the north round temple, and the theatre would have been
wall, right and left of the central staircase, used for ceremonies in front of it, as at Gabii,
which continues to the seventh terrace, are and later in the sanctuary of Hercules Victor at
arches, and between them piers adorned with Tivoli. Up there - according to the suggestion
engaged columns; behind the compartments accepted by me - the honey would have flowed
of this facade, which recalls the Tabularium from an olive tree when the lots were found a
[143] and the terrace of Hercules Victor, runs a little lower down the slope. 35
barrel-vaulted corridor from south to north, a Another great sanctuary of the Sullan Age
so-called cryptoportico. A cryptoportico of this was built in the old cult centre of Jupiter Anxur
kind evidently offered a sheltered walk for the on the mountain east of Terracina [164]. In-
public on hot summer days, and cold winter structed by the experience of Pyrrhus's and
days as well, as did the cryptoporticoes on the Hannibal's wars, or perhaps because of the
terraces of rich landowners' villas. Above this danger of internal warfare, in the second cen-
piazza, with its commanding view towards the tury the Romans strengthened the defences of
Campagna and the sea, towers the seventh ter- the great roads leading to Rome. In a gorge by
race. Here we encounter, as at Gabii and Tivoli the Via Appia between Formia and Terracina a
(above, pp. 165 ft".), an orchestra and semi- strong fortress was built. The original Via
circular stairs. They are crowned by a semi- Appia, which reaches the old fortified hill town
circular double portico. Behind its centre, in of Terracina over the hills on its east side, was
line with the staircase of the central axis, stands blocked by a strong wall. This wall connected
the round temple. It is the culmination of the the town with a quadrangular castrum fort with
whole layout above the forum buildings, and no barracks perched on the top of the mountain of
doubt had a superstructure visible from the Jupiter Anxur. This great fortification had
terraces which lead up to it. The theatre indi- round towers, a strongly fortified gate where the
cates that the round temple had a central im- Via Appia passes the wall, and barracks on the
portance for the religious performances of the west, east, and north sides of the castrum. Un-
sanctuary, very likely choirs and ritual dances like all earlier known Italic defence-works, it

on the piazza in front of the theatre stairs (the was built entirely of concrete covered by coarse
sixth terrace). opus incertum. Below the open south side of the
How can the piazza (forum) and the upper castrum was added a monumental terrace for
sanctuary be explained? It is of course possible the cult of Jupiter Anxur. Like the fortifications,
that the old temple on the forum of the middle it was built of concrete but covered with a more
 II

ll

164. Terracina, Temple of Jupiter Anxur, c. 80 B.C. Reconstruction showing the terrace, temple, and
castrum (with the beginning of the wall which connected it with the wall of the town). Excavations Museum

165. Terracina, Temple of Jupiter Anxur, c. 80 b.c, terrace

176 HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

refined opus incertum of - so it seems to me - steps between the upper and the lower agora
unmistakably Sullan type. The terrace had a (forum) at Morgantina, Sicily. Below it pro-

most imposing arcaded facade without any trudes the lowest terrace, built of concrete cov-
applied semi-columns or other Greek adorn- ered by opus incertum and reticulatum. On it

ments. It was like, for instance, the amphi- are shops, as in the other great sanctuaries of the
theatre and the podium of the Villa dei Misteri countryside, evidently constructed for fairs
37
at Pompeii [ 1 65 ; cf. 1 75], and of the Late Repub- connected with the sacrifices.
lican pavilion on the beach of Sperlonga. The The Romans were more original in other
terrace of Lindos has already reminded us of the fields of architecture, but a survey of the Late
fact that this kind of straightforward facade was Republican temples gives us the best notion of
not at all alien to hellenistic architecture. As on traditionalistic hellenism in the centuries from
the north side of the sixth terrace of Praeneste, Naevius and Ennius to Cicero and the young
a barrel-vaulted cryptoportico was built behind Vergil. The theatre-temples show us how the
compartments of the
the equally barrel-vaulted fundamental Etruscan and Italic traditions
facade. The great Temple of Jupiter Anxur, could become almost effaced by the variegated
previously described, with ten columns in the combinations and decorations of hellenistic
prodomus (p. 159, above), was built on this ter- architecture. They also show that stone-built
race with a surprising oblique orientation, no theatre buildings were constructed around
doubt due to the old ceremonies of the place. Rome earlier than in the capital itself. Cicero,
Behind the temple, in front of the hillside of the Vergil, and Horace saw the beginning also of
castrum, a portico offered further shelter for the the next age, when met with
this architecture
pilgrims who came/' the marble and classicism of Augustan Rome.
Another of the great Sullan sanctuaries is the Vitruvius was a champion of the latter; the use
Temple of Hercules Curinus, south of Sul- of marble in Italy depended, however, upon
mona, usually called the 'Villa d'Ovidio'. whether it could be found and made ready with-
Against the steep hillside which overlooks the out great expense (1, 2. 8), but he mentions it,

plain 'rich in ice-cold streams' (as Ovid says), for instance, in connexion with the tombs of the
corn, grapes, and olives, three terraces were rich (n, 8. 3).

built. On the highest terrace is the Temple of Closely related to the great systematizations
Hercules, partly constructed of rammed clay of the sanctuaries of Praeneste, Tivoli, and Ter-
(pise). Its location recalls that of the Temple of racina is an imposing bastion which in the sec-
Dionysus on the theatre terrace of Pergamon. ond half of the second century was added to the
The second terrace has a portico and a monu- acropolis of Ferentinum [166, 168]. There also
mental stairway, which connects it with the one recognizes inspiration from the hellenistic
third terrace and reminds us of the imposing world and the riches which the Eastern wars

166. Ferentinum (Ferentino), bastion,

second century B.C. (second half). Elevation
 te.mples •
177

brought to Italy. In the second century the which thrusts forward towards the valley, has a

polygonal walls of Fcrcntinum above the Via low foundation of very rough and large poly-
Latina (above, p. 118) were heightened by a gonal blocks, most likely remains of an older
superstructure of ashlar masonry and provided fortification. Upon this base rests a wall of more
with arched gates [167). In addition to this refined polygonal work, and above this stands
strengthened outer defence, the acropolis was the main part of the bastion, built of ashlar.
reshaped, probably between 150 and 100, by The uppermost part of it contains a great rec-
the erection of the bastion overlooking the tangular subterranean concrete basement con-

*
167. Ferentinum (Fe'rentino), Porta Sanguinaria,
second century B.C.

valley with the road on the western side of the sisting of a rectangular central structure with

town [i68]. J * This is another of the reconstruc- somewhat lower, barrel- vaulted cryptoporticoes

tions of old towns around Rome which display on all four sides. Small, oblique arched win-
evident influence from the hellenistic world. In dows pierce the ashlar facade. They were no
the small towns they were more freely con- doubt built here also as sheltered walks tor hot

verted into Italic modes than in Rome itself, or cold days. \i \osta and in several French
where dense quarters and strong traditions towns shelters of exactly the same kind as on the
hampered even the schemes of a Caesar, an acropolis of Ferentinum were added to fora of
Augustus, and later emperors. The bastion. the Imperial Age.
1 " The central structure sur-
178 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA 1

-
ftom

168. Ferentinum (Ferentino), acropolis, bastion added in the second century B.C. (second half)

rounded by the cryptoporticoes was divided the Roman Senate became like when it was en-
into two parallel longitudinal naves covered by larged and rebuilt by Sulla in 80 and by his son
barrel-vaults. Above them, on the top of the Faustus in 52 B.C.

bastion, stood a large hall with columns on

benches along the side walls. It can be compared
TOWN PLANNING
with the Capitolium of Pompeii (above, p.
146), but was perhaps rather a curia or some After the fora, the temples, and the monumental
other public building. Together with the east- layouts which herald the great architectural
ern hall on the forum of Praeneste, it may give schemes of the Imperial Age, we must now seek
an indication of what the old Curia Hostilia of out, in the numerous tabernae in the towns of
 TOWN PLANN I \<i •
179

central Italy and in the tenement houses in bend of the old polygonal wall on the south-east
Rome, other prominent and characteristic fea- side of the town. 40
tures ot the helleni/ed Italic town: town houses Openings in the walls tor later catapults were
of the wealthy and the bourgeoisie, market also arched. A fine specimen is in that part of the
halls, baths, and theatres. As an introduction to Servian Wall which defends the Aventine [170].
these partly typically Roman innovations, some- It evidently belongs to repairs of the year
87,
thing about the continued development of town when the consuls fortified Rome with trenches.

i x

- v. * ~ S

[69. Ferentinum (Ferentino), Porta Maggiore or 'di Casamari', c. 80-70 B.C.

walls and city planning may be added to what restored the walls, and planted catapults on
has already been said. them. 41
As to the shape of the gates, the type known Among the specially characteristic late walls
from the so-called 'Servian Wall' of Rome, The colons of \lba Fucens,
are the following.
from the castrum of Ostia [123], and from Cosa, which the Romans founded about 300, was an
with a gatehouse projecting on the inside of the important rural centre but also a strong forti-
wall, persisted in the first century. The Porta di fication with the function ot keeping watch over
Casamari of Ferentinum [169] is a very fine the Sammies and the l.truscans. Alba Fucens
example from the seventies. It is built of ashlar, was rcfortificd at the beginning ot the first cen-
provided with two arches, and attached to a tury, in connexion with the internal wars in
170. Rome, 'Servian Wall' at the Aventine, begun
378 B.C., rebuilt with an arch for catapults in 87 B.C.

Italy, by imposing polygonal walls, replacing tangular court with its apse was arranged for
older fortifications of the same kind [172]. They fairs and religious gatherings, like the terraces

have an oblong polygonal terrace on the west of the Temple of Hercules south of Sulmona. 4 -2

side of the town, with strong towers and a super- Concrete became more and more usual both
structure consisting of a concrete wall with for entirely new buildings, such as the great

semi-columns - or perhaps a portico with shops wall between Terracina and the hill of Jupiter
on the inside - and an apse at the south-western Anxur, and for more or less extensive repairs
extremity. The walls are built of concrete cov- and additions to polygonal or ashlar structures.
ered with opus incertum on the outside and Outside the west gate of Terracina the city wall

opus reticulatum inside.The apse, no doubt, was extended some 200 yards along the north
had a wooden roof and may have housed a side of the Via Appia. The most conspicuous
statue. On the central axis towards the north remains are round tower on the north side of
a
end of the terrace stands a high tomb. Whether the same kind as those of the great wall and an
this elegant piazza was built on the top of an imposing square tower standing at the west end
older outer defence work or w hether, with its of this outer work. The lower part of this tower
three types of constructional technique, it stood consists of a structure of very refined polygonal
alone, it seems most probable that the great rec- work of calcareous blocks, with a decorated
 I Ott \ PI \\\ |\(i •
181

frieze above the seven bottom layers. The upper larged Ostia became the seaside suburb of
part is built of concrete covered with opus in- Rome, bushy trading with the Mediterranean
certum and has two arched windows. It seems and the coastal towns of Italy from the mouth of
most likely that this additional fortification was the Tiber. Most probably the wall was built
contemporary with the great south-eastern wall, alter the city had been plundered by Marius. It

and thus should be dated to the second century is a concrete wall faced with opus incertum,
B.( . winch sometimes tends to be reticulate and
Very extensive are the repairs of concrete (it ten assumes the aspect of quasi-reticulate.
with opus incertum on the third-century poly- The wall evidently left the fixer side unfortified.
gonal walls of Fundi. Like the repairs and round It starts with a strong square tower of ashlar
concrete towers of Cora (Cori) 44 they are an elo- work at the north-east corner of the town and
quent witness of the internal wars in Marius's has round concrete towers at each bend. The
and Sulla's times. No less eloquent, moreover, gates are of the internal gatehouse type (see pp.
on the side of the rebellious Italic people, are 1 1 8 and 1 22, above), with the interior faced with
the repairs to the fifth-century wall of Pompeii, ashlar. Their strong military character is em-
where, before the final defeat in 89, square con- phasized by square fianking towers right and
crete towers and other reinforcements of con- left of the entrances.
crete were added to the old walls of tufa ashlar, The enlarged Ostia, which was surrounded
as it stood with its Italic agger on the inside, by this wall, represents one of the two main
4 "
more or less in disuse, in the second century. t\ pes of Late Republican town. It can be studied
The great outer wall of Ostia encircles the in the layers below the brick-faced Ostia of the
outer town, which after about 300 B.C. grew up centuries after A.D. 100. A few temples remained
46
round the old castrum-fort [123]. This en- in the Imperial town [171], but almost all the

171. Ostia, Late Republican temple on the lower level (next to the Temple of Hercules),
with stuccoed tufa columns and opus incertum
 &
9 9r

172. Alba Fucens, founded c. 300 B.C., the walls and the final, regular town-plan early first century. Plan
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 183

atria and shops were destroyed and buried gant shape. Between the two great streets run-
below the level of the new town, which had the ning south-east north-west were the forum,
entirely changed stamp and technique of the the basilica with a portico in front, both facing
greatest days of the Empire. Roads ran from the north, and behind them, facing south, the
gates of the old castrum to Rome (Via Ostiensis ), Temple and Porticus of Hercules, as described
to the sea and the river mouth, and on the south above, pp. 146-8. Porticoes, a theatre, and rows
side of the town to the villages and villas and to of well-built tabernae along the main streets and
the towns with their obsolete river harbours facing south, below the tribunal of the basilica,
along the west coast of Latium: Laurentum, were typical of this replanned, elegant town. It

Lavinium, Ardea, and so to Antium. They now is worth noting that most other towns the
in

became the main streets of Late Republican short ends of the rectangular house blocks
Ostia and remained such, though widened, in (strigae) face the main street perpendicularly (as,

the Imperial town above it. Inside the old for instance, at Cosa) while at Alba Fucens and
castrum fort were two straight, main streets: some other towns long sides of the blocks run
one is the Via Ostiensis, running east to west and parallel with the streets. Scamna seems to have
in modern usage called decumanus; the other, been the usual term for blocks orientated in this
usually called car do, traversed the castrum fort way. 47
from north to south, crossing the decumanus at It is interesting to compare Cosa with Alba
right angles in its centre. The decumanus Fucens, as it was rebuilt some two hundred
passed the eastern part of the added quarters in years later. The polygonal walls and the plan of
a straight line; the riverside between it and the a temple on a hill east of Alba Fucens, now in-
Tiber was reserved, it seems, for warehouses, corporated with the church of S. Pietro, have
etc. But all the rest of the new outer town is old- preserved the old Italic Style, but the concrete
fashioned oblique streets and irregular quarters. faced by opus inccrtum shows a striking differ-
It reminds us of Tacitus's description of the old ence from the rubble of Cosa. Altogether, Cosa
Rome before Nero's fire, with narrow lanes and shows us a Roman colony in the stern age of the
sprawling blocks. The plan of Ostia shows how, earlier wars and conquests, while Alba Fucens
during centuries of peace, trading towns de- displays the enriched and refined colonies of
veloped haphazardly if military demands or Sullan times.
special planning did not impose regularity. The
outer wall of Ostia illustrates how, when war
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTl Kl
came, the defence had to accept such town as it a
stood. Lucus Feroniae of the Augustan Age is an In his description of the Rome of the Neronian
example of another town that grew up in the fire in a.d. 64, Suetonius {Nero, 38) speaks about
same way, according to the needs of daily life. 'the immense number of tenement houses' in

Many towns in Italy no doubt grew up like country towns one would sa\ tabernae - and, in
the enlarged Ostia, but regular town planning contrast to them, an aristocratic minority of
seems to have prevailed. Its development in the 'domus of the leaders of old, still adorned with
first century is well illustrated at Alba Fucens trophies of victory'.

[172J. The town (no doubt regu-

old grid of the Pompeii, 1 lerculaneum, and the I .ate Repub-
lar from its The main
beginnings) was renewed. lican layers at Ostia show that the one-family
streets, which passed through the town from houses of the rich and the well-to-do bourgeoisie
the south-east (where the gate of the great high- filled a much larger place in Fate Republican
way from Rome, the Via Aurelia, was located), towns than in the Imperial Age, with its apart-
were probably inherited from the earlier ment houses. There are also different kinds of
periods, as were the streets which crossed them domus. The closed (testudinate) type of atrium
at right angles running north-east south-west in the Casa dello Scheletro at Hcrculancum,'" a
All this reappeared now in a modernized, ele- stately atrium displuviatum such as the Tomba
184 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

di Mercareccia (above, p. 90) [89], shows that telli, the Tomba dei Vasi Greci at Caere, and the
several old Italic one-family house types known Tomba Rosi at San Giuliano in the modified
from Etruscan tombs and by Vitruvius lived on. form of the rock-cut chamber tombs [82-4].
Vitruvius's main recommendation for domus, Together with the plans of temples, this

that is, for houses of a higher standard (vi, 3), seems to me to be one of the most spectacular
concerns the houses with reception halls called instances of how traditions from archaic Etrus-
atria and hailed also by Varro (Lingua Latum, V, can architecture influenced the building activity
161) as originally Etruscan. In my opinion, of the subsequent centuries, although we have
Vitruvius and Varro are perfectly right in deriv- only Vitruvius's description and the tombs to
ing these atrium-houses from the Etruscans. substantiate the Etruscan ancestry. It seems
Their main features seem to be derived from quite clear that Vitruvius's and Varro's atrium-
Etruscan palaces such as they are represented in houses became the preferred upper-class man-
tombs like the Tomba a Tablino, the Tomba sion of the Etruscan koine. Consequently, as in
degli Scudi e delle Sedie, the Tomba dei Capi- the third chapter (see pp. 75 ff.), I continue to

173. Pompeii, Casa del Chirurgo,

fourth or third centurv B.C.
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 185

compare the main features of these Late Repub- The Late Republican houses which arc-
lican houses with archaic Etruscan tombs. All known today have bedrooms {cubiculd) along
the same, however, the most interesting task is the side walls. In front of the tablina and their
to describe this virtually new kind of house, flanking doors are open wings (alae) extending
created in the last centuries B.C. by innovations right and left to the outer walls of the houses, as
such as the impluvium (p. 186, below) and by described by Yitruvius (\ 1, 3. 4). Yen likely

the victorious Greek taste, and then handed this arrangement was inherited from the Etrus-
over to Imperial times. can palaces, though it could not be reproduced
Like the Etruscan tombs, the Roman atrium- in the tombs, where the beds of the dead are
houses of the third century onwards [85, 91] placed along the "walls of the main hall, in the
were strictly axial and symmetrical. They were side rooms of the tablinum, and in the tablinum
accessible by a forecourt and lobby, the vestibu- itself.

lum, inside which was the main entrance to the In the old days the atrium-houses seem to

house, the fauces. In old atrium-houses the have been mostly free from the bustle of streets
chambers right and left of the fauces were with their tabernae, where wares were dis-

closed towards the street as still can be seen on played, where the daylong pounding of the
the right side of the Casa del Chirurgo [85, 173]. coppersmiths' hammers, the early-rising bakers,
On the opposite side of the atrium, facing the the humming voices from the school, the clink-
entrance from the street, was the tablinum, ing from the moneychangers' are all described
which in Vitruvius's description (vi, 3. 5, 6) and for us by Livy (vi, 25. 9), Martial (xn, 57), and
in other sources, and in the houses as we see others. Later, in connexion with the intensified
them at Pompeii, appears as the original main commercial life of the last centuries B.C., the
room and centre of the household. Pliny (xxxv, owners of atrium-houses yielded, and opened
7) tells us that the tablinum also served as an tabernae to the right and left of the entrances to
archive room and was filled with family docu- the atria. This occurred throughout the town
ments. Originally the tablina seem to have and resembled the butchers' stalls and shops
been the bedchambers of the master of the which Livy (xl v, 16) describes at the atrium-
1

house and his wife. As we see them today, they house of the Scipiones, their aedes, by the
have one side completely open towards the atria, Forum Romanum. These tripartite entrances

but thewooden screen in the Casa del Tramezzo in the facade are a typical feature of Pompeii as

di Legno at Herculaneum and arrangements for we see it.

hangings show that they could be - and they In the material which we have at present, we
probably usually were - separated from the come across at the very beginning both aristo-
atria.
4 '"
Of old there was a dining-table, the car- cratic houses, such as the noble Casa di Sallus-

tibulutn, at the entry to the tablinum, as Varro tio in Pompeii, and middle-class houses with
(Lingua Lai ma, v, 125) describes it from his plain facades, such as the Casa del Chirurgo,
boyhood days. The known Pompeian cartibula interrupting the rows of shops along the busi-
are elegant marble tables which were no longer ness streets. Refined Pompeian houses of the
used for meals in the atria. To the right and left late second and first centuries had pilasters with
of the broad entrances to the tablina are usually flowery Corinthian or Ionic capitals flanking
doors to side rooms or passages. We meet this the main entrances, anticipating the hellenistic
kind of house, described as Etruscan by \ itru- decoration of the interior.
vius and Varro, all over Pompeii, I lerculaneum, The development during the centuries of
50 hellenistic luxury and increasing civic activity
and in the Republican strata of Ostia. It is evi-

dent that Yitruvius, as he often does, has chosen and splendour evidently exerted a great influ-
the best-liked traditional type ot house from the ence upon the atrium-houses (whatever their
last centuries B.C. for his special model. origin), before they attained the rich and varied
l86 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

appearance which we see in Pompeii and Her- description of the ancestral atria with wax
culaneum. A difference between the old Etrus- models of the forefathers in special cupboards
can tombs and the Late Republican houses is (xxxv, 6-7) refers to the old Roman traditions
that the back walls of the tablina have wide win- of the atria; evidently the younger Pliny is right
dows or are left completely open towards gar- in speaking of an atrium built in the ancestral

dens (horti) behind them. When old-fashioned manner (ex more veterum) among all the various
gardens were replaced by elegant Greek peri- modern halls and courts in his Villa Tusca
styles [91], the tablina, which had had such an (Epnt., v, 6. 15; 11, 17. 4).

important function in the tombs and older In the third century we begin to get an over-
atrium-houses, became chiefly elegant passages whelming mass of evidence from atrium-houses
and could be remodelled in various ways or even at Pompeii and Herculaneum, and, about 100,

omitted. 53
at Ostia. Like the Etruscan towns, the Osco-
As was pointed out on pp. 80-1, the Etruscan Samnite towns of Campania in the third and
tombs reproduce reception halls, in front of the second centuries still had their own language,
tablina and side rooms, with flat, richly decor- city life, and upper classes, which developed
ated roofs and supporting Doric or Aeolic- Ionic their own brand of hellenistic culture and built
columns. But in the third century we meet with beautiful atrium-houses. These houses were
the cava aedium tuscanica, atria with valleys tilt- evidently influenced by Rome,
directly by the
ing inward to a roof opening, the compluvium, hellenistic world, and, of course, by Greek
with a rectangular tank, the impluvium, below. 51 neighbours in Naples and farther south. The
This contrivance was useful in towns for keep- public buildings show that the Roman colony,
ing rainwater away from neighbouring houses. the Colonia Cornelia Veneria, affected the life

A still more important reason for the device was of the towns in many ways from about 80, but
probably to collect water from the tiles of the in the domus we can hardly discern any differ-
inward slopes of the roofs. Cisterns were built ence. The hellenistic koine in its Italic shape, the
below the atria for this rainwater (collectt hellenized consuetudo Italica of Vitruvius's fifth

imbres), which Horace in one of his epistles (1, book, had impressed its common pattern upon
15. 15) seems to disapprove of, but which for all refined domestic architecture in central
many places and during sieges were indispens- Italy.

able. Late Republican atria have gracefully Already in the second century, both at Pom-
decorated frames round the tops of the tanks peii and Herculaneum, we see houses with
at

(putealia) in front of the tablina. high atria surrounded by rooms in two storeys.
Material which would allow us to follow this The Casa delle Nozze d'Argento from the Sam-
development between the fifth and the third nite times of Pompeii (second century B.C.) and
century is very scarce. We cannot even establish the Casa del Tramezzo di Legno at Hercu-
when, in the fifth century or later, atrium- laneum (first century A.D.) show especially well
houses became the most typical kind of dwelling these heightened atria. The rooms of the upper
for the upper and middle classes throughout storeys sometimes had windows towards the
central Italy and Campania. At Saepinum, a atria and towards the street in front of their en-
town in the Abruzzi rebuilt by the local popula- trances (the fauces); in many cases these upper
when the old Samnite town was
tion after 293, apartments were accessible by direct staircases
destroyed by the Romans, a regular atrium has from the Neither these flats round the
street.

been excavated, and an impluvium of terra- atria nor round central courts (as in the
flats

cotta withOscan inscriptions found below the Casa a Graticcio at Herculaneum) developed
later stoneimpluvium. Livy mentions a palm into the high tenement houses of the future;
tree which grew in an impluvium in 169 and they seem like a transitional patchwork when
was considered a prodigy. 5 " Pliny's famous compared with the fundamentally different in-
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 187

sulae which we know from the Terme del Foro with a new convivial luxury. As suggested by
at Pompeii and from Imperial Ostia. As seen, Diodorus (V, 40) and mentioned above on p. 92,
for instance, in the Via Stabiana or the Via it is possible that the Ktruscans introduced or
dell'Abbondanza at Pompeii, galleries with ele- even 'invented' peristyles. In any case, from the
gant Greek columns could be arranged above second century they represent the most out-
the entrances to the houses [136]. These, as has standing and charming parts of the atrium-
already been said, were connected with the houses that we know so well in Pompeii, and,
cenacula, the upstair dining-rooms, discussed to say it again, at Ostia a peristyle of about 100
by Varro {Lingua Latina, v, 1(12), which in his remains in the Via della Fortuna Annonaria. 55
day became common and gave their name to all The origin of these porticoes poses no prob-
the upper rooms. In the Casa Sannitica at Her- lems. The old Italic mansions had gardens
culaneum an open gallery with Ionic columns (horti) behind the tablina, surrounded - as
ran round the upper part of the high atrium. Livy describes it from the third century at

For the sake of greater elegance, the old im- Capua (xx 1 1 1, 8. 8; 9. 13) - by a wall facing the
pluvia of tufa or terracotta were replaced in the adjacent street {maceria horn). In the Casa di
later atria by marble basins. As Vitruvius says Sallustio there are remains of a colonnade sur-
and as can be seen in many houses at Pompeii rounding the back of the atrium block, as Vitru-
and Herculaneum, 54 the compluvium could be vius (v I, 5. 3) describes it when discussing villas,

supported by Greek columns at the four angles and as we actually see it in the Villa dei Misteri

or all around the impluvium [91]. The former outside Pompeii. It must have been natural to

arrangement was called 'tetrastyle' and the substitute for this old arrangement porticoes in
latter 'Corinthian'. Corinthian columns became the Greek style, at a time when places made
the fashion of the day. Cicero mentions in the varied by countless columns became character-
second Verrine Oration (147) that columns in- istic for hellenized Italic towns, and when even
tended for an impluvium were brought (prob- in wall paintings of the Second Pompeian Style
ably to some villa) a long way over bad roads. a predilection is shown for colonnaded architec-
Plinv (xv 1 1, 6) reports that six columns of ture. The Greek peristyles, known from private

marble from Mount Hymettus were erected in houses such as those of Olynthus and Delos,
the atrium of the orator Lucius Crassus about palaces, gymnasia and palaestrae, market-
100 B.C., and makes clear that this was consid- places, and other sophisticated town architec-
ered a great luxury during these Late Republi- ture, underwent characteristic alterations in

can centuries, when marble columns were rare The peristyles of the atrium-
their Italic context.
even in public places. houses remained gardens. They were a most
Another most important part of the helleniza- characteristic expression of the Roman love of

tion of atrium-houses was the peristyles (peri- nature. 56 The space in the middle, open to the
styla, peristylia), the square courts surrounded skv, was embellished by greenery. Walking in

by colonnades described by Vitruvius (vi, 3. 7 the open air is very healthy, explains Vitruvius,
and 5.2) and, in their most luxurious shape, speaking of colonnades and walks in general

by Cicero in his account of Clodius's domus on (v, 9. 5). The 'iucundissimum' murmur of ele-
the Palatine (De domo, 116) [91]. Peristyles gant fountains, which the Romans loved, was
were built behind the atria and tablina in town often to be heard, as can be understood from
houses (Vitruvius, VI, 5. 3). The colonnades, Pompeii and as is described by the younger
which presented a delightful view behind the Pliny {Epist., V, 6).

open back walls of the tablina, had various kinds The Romans introduced strict axiality and
of columns slender modernized I )oric columns symmetry into their peristyles too. Of course,

as well as Corinthian, Tuscan, and Ionic. They this also exists in Greek peristyles (for instance,

were surrounded by living-rooms (conclavia) in the hellenistic gymnasium ot Miletus), but

 HELLENIZED ROME CONSUETUDO ITALICA

more Greek architecture is a

characteristic of aisles had only one storey, and above that, as in
rooms round the peristyle.
free disposition of the Corinthian oeci, an upper floor for prom-
At Pompeii, on the other hand, over and over enading under the open sky. Windows in the
again tablina occur with side rooms in the walls between the upper columns of the nave
centres of the upper sides of the peristyles, re- admitted light to the interior. Vitruvius further
peating the principal motif of the atria. The singles out so-called Cyzicene oeci as being
palaces of the Imperial Age, with their predilec- particularly foreign to Italic manners of build-
tion for open doors or niches flanked by side ing. They had two sets of dining-couches, facing
doors as the centre motifs of the back wall of each other, and windows on the right and left 'so

their courts and halls, still carry on the axiality that views of the garden may be had from in-
1
of Late Republican atrium-houses and peri- doors . The Casa di Giulia Felice at Pompeii
styles. In addition, actual atrium-houses sur- and the main triclinium of the reception wing of
vived, as is seen on the Forma Urbis, in Imperial the Domus Flavia on the Palatine show how
Ostia, and also in the younger Pliny's villas this disposition lived on in the Imperial Age. 59
57
(cf. p. 106). In the eighth region, in the southern part of
Among the conclavia and dining-rooms Pompeii and accessible from the Via della
drawn up round the peristyles were Corinthian Regina, there is a row of atrium-houses orig-
tetrastyle and Egyptian oeci. The side of the inally dating from the third century. On the
oecus towards the peristyle was left open. As in level of thetown they have atria and tablina of
the Casa del Labirinto at Pompeii, the Corin- the usual kind. But when at the end of the sec-
thian oeci had barrel-vaults and side rooms with ond century the fortifications on this side were
flat ceilings to allow walking above them under given up, and especially in the age of the Sullan
the open sky. The best-known tetrastyle oecus colony, the old houses were enlarged by struc-
belongs to the left side wall of the peristyle in tures which covered the hillside. Projecting
the Casa delle Nozze di Argento at Pompeii. It lower storeys supported by terraces were pro-
has an antechamber in front of the barrel- vided, and corridors, staircases, loggias, and
vaulted saloon with its four columns. Still more windows facing the marvellous view towards
elaborate were the Egyptian oeci. A fine speci- the plain, the sea, and the mountains [174]. The
men from Imperial times is the oecus Aegyptius sources here must be Etruscan terrace houses
that serves as tablinum in the Casa dell'Atrio a and coastal villas of stepped outline known from
Mosaico at Herculaneum, 58 but Vitruvius wall paintings at Pompeii [177].
60

already gives us a full description (vi, 3. 9). The The beautiful Casa dei Grifi, excavated be-
Egyptian oeci resembled basilicas, though the low the Domus Flavia on the northern slope of

174. Pompeii, one of the houses

on the south-western slope
('the House of General Championnet'),
a second-century atrium-house (left) with additional storeys
built against the hillside in the first century B.C. Section
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 11

the Palatine in Rome, is a terrace house of a marble slabs' (Vitruvius, VI 1, 5. i)and is known
similar kind. Against the hillside are built ele- in the Greek world from the fourth century on-
gant barrel-vaulted rooms with pavement mo- wards. \\ e ha\e met it in Sicily during the early
saics and paintings and stuccoes in the earliest third century and see it in Rome and at Pompeii
Second Pompeian Style. The date must be the from the second century or even earlier. The
early first century. The rooms were probably Second Style reproduces the overwhelming
lit by doors or windows in the destroyed north architectural motif of the day - the colonnaded
wall. Very likely there was an atrium on the sur- exterior and interior. It widened the impression
face of the Palatine, from which the still-existing of the room by painted columns, which appeared
staircase led down to the rooms in front of the to jut out, 'although the picture is perfectly flat'

hill. At the southern edge of the Palatine, south (Vitruvius, vi, 2. 2). The colonnades were, to
of the early Augustan 'Casa di Livia', are also use Vitruvius's words again, 'copied from actual
Late Republican remains, state rooms decor- realities' (\ 11, 5. 3). The Second Style began in
ated in the typical style of c. 90-60. It seems at the early first century.
least possible that terraces built against the Besides the paintings there were pavements
southern slope of the Palatine with a view to- with variegated sectile work, lithostroton, mo-
wards the Circus Maximus were added to this saics, and an increasing wealth of other luxur-
house, just as on the southern hillside of Pom- ious decorations such as costly marbles - in

peii. Perhapswas the house of one of

this short, all the elegance of the house of Lepidus,
Augustus's friends and freedmen, from which built in 78 and then considered the finest of its

Augustus, and later Tiberius, used to watch the age, but thirty-five years later not considered
bl
games in the Circus. fit even to occupy the hundredth place (Pliny,

Houses of this kind in Rome, the remains of \\\\ 1, 100). Decorations at Pompeii of about
large atrium-houses in Late Republican layers 100 and later show elegant modillions and other
below Imperial Ostia, and the peristyle men- refinements, which later became typical of the
tioned on p. 187 show us the Roman back- marble architecture of Early Imperial Rome.
ground of the kind of town architecture which There is no reason to doubt that they were also
Pompeii and Herculaneum reflect in such a to be found in the decoration of Late Republi-
charming way. Wholly to understand Cam- can palaces of the capital. In the Caesarian and
panian towns and villas, we must look to Rome early Augustan Age the most important type of
and to the hellenistic towns of Italy and the decoration was the great garden paintings and
eastern countries. This delightful domestic paintings like the megalography of the Villa dei
architecture, which spread to towns in the Misteri and of the Boscoreale villa, as well as the
countryside such as Pompeii and no doubt re- Odvssey landscapes from the Esquiline (now in
ceived something of a new flavour there, was the Vatican Museum). Vitruvius devotes a

accompanied by wall paintings in the so-called special paragraph to this (\ 11, 5. 2).

Pompeian styles. To the period discussed in Suetonius {Augustus, 72) implies that people
this chapter belong the so-called First and Sec- were amazed that Augustus in his house on the
ond Pompeian Styles. Painters from Rome, Palatine had only small peristyles, that the
Greek towns, and, no doubt, local painters who columns were of stuccoed Alban stone {peper-
adopted the metropolitan ways of decoration ino), and that 'the rooms [were] without any

gave the rooms an entirely different appearance. marble decoration or handsome pavements'.
The old-fashioned walls, with a fairly high dado \ itruvius (\ 1, 5. 2),summarizing the demands
and a wave pattern above [74], were no longer of the new age, recommends handsome and
acceptable (cf. p. 81). The First Style (or roomv apartments tor advocates, public
Masonry Style) was evidently hellenistic and speakers, and their meetings. 'For men of rank',
international. It imitates 'different kinds of he continues, must be constructed 'lofty en-
190 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

trance courts in a regal style, and most spacious rivers Fibrenus and Liris below Arpinum (De
atria and peristyles, with plantations and walks Legibus, 11, 1). While his grandfather was alive
of some extent in them, appropriate to their it was as small as the old villas of unshorn Cato
dignity. They need also libraries, picture gal- and other idolized heroes of ancient and simple
leries, and basilicas, finished in a style similar to times. Cicero's father rebuilt and enlarged it

that of great public buildings [like the Egyptian and thus achieved the right hellenistic atmos-
oecus; above, p. 188], since public councils as phere for his 'life of study'. Yards for cattle and
well as private lawsuits and hearings before farming purposes were typical of the old rural
arbitrators are very often held in the houses of mansions. There are a few such villas preserved
such men.' with yards surrounded by a crowd of rooms
If one compares these modern Italic houses without any axial disposition. The whole was
with their hellenistic counterparts - such as the purely utilitarian, judging by Roman descrip-
houses of Delos, the peristyle houses of Mor- tions of these rural dwellings. Apart from these
gantina, or the House of the Columns at Ptole- larger villas there were also, of course, villages
mais near Cyrene 63 - the first general impression and farms with small and simple buildings.
is so very similar that one can almost forget the Such unpretentious holdings were revived in
basic difference not only between Greek megara veteran colonies from Sulla's time onwards. 64
and Italic atria (emphasized by Vitruvius, VI, The Villa dei Misteri near Pompeii demon-
3 and 7) but also between the symmetry always strates best of all the changes due to the ele-
aimed at in Roman houses and the easy-going gance of the houses in town. Though remaining
arrangement which prevailed in Greek man- a farming centre, about 200 the villa became
sions. Of the intention in these Late Republican what the ancients called a 'villa pseudo-urbana',
houses to be hellenistic and relaxed there can be or 'suburbana' or 'urbana'. It was built on a
no doubt, even if we did not have Strabo (v, 4. 7) high podium with plain arches [175], a basis
to tell us of it with reference to Campania. villae as Cicero stylesit (Ad Quint um fratrem,

111,1.5). Such podia, family tombs, and cisterns

became typical of all country seats. The podia
were built of concrete covered by incertum,
The attitude is still more evident in the Roman reticulate, or polygonal work and had internal,

villas, whether, like Horace's small farm in the barrel-vaulted cryptoporticoes with slanting
Sabine country with its household of five coloni side openings along the sides, a convenience for
(Epist., 1, 14), they remained agricultural (as the walks on hot or cold days, as was discussed in
word villa originally implies), or whether they relation to the public buildings of Praeneste,
became villas in our sense of the word, country Ferentinum, and Terracina.
residences, to which the owners - as Bassus says We can follow these villa terraces back to the
in a witty epigram by Martial (ill, 47) - went third century. On the rich plain around Cosa
for relaxation with a carriage crammed full of there are several very extensive terraces built
all the abundance of the rich countryside bought of rubble which date from the second century
in town. As a contrast, with Seneca (Epist., [176]. They obviously reveal the presence of
LXXXVI, 5), we may hail Scipio cultivating the great Roman estates which, after the victories
soil with his own hands, as the old Romans used over the Etruscans in the third century, safe-
to do. In the second century B.C. the luxury of guarded by the fortified colony of Cosa, re-
the towns invaded these villas, though the really organized agriculture in this fertile countryside.
rural villas evidently often kept their old form One of these villa terraces in Valle d'Oro, the
and probably, in many cases, remained rustic. so-called Ballantino, is faced by polygonal work
Cicero makes the difference very clear when and has along its western side projecting round
speaking of his family home, the farm on the towers, constructed of coarse rubble covered
 i9i

175- Pompeii, Villa dei Misteri,

basis villac (podium)

by rather slipshod ashlar work. Above the lower est terrace are turrets with dovecots of the same
part of these turrets lies a protective layer of type as in the Yalle d'Oro villa. They alternate
roof tiles with fringes, as Vitruvius prescribes with sturdy buttresses. Below the second ter-
(i i, 8. 17, 18) for walls both of concrete and of race is a system of barrel-vaulted corridors,
wattle and daub. This solid lower part of the which may have served as cryptoporticoes or

turrets carries an upper structure with two suc- storehouses or both. They are accessible from
cessive sets of arched dovecots. Above the upper the lowest terrace by a row of arches. Between
row of these arches is a second protecting layer them are sloping buttresses crowned In traver-
of roof tiles. The most imposing basis \ iliac tine slabs with simple mouldings. On the high-
around Cosa is called Sette Finestre. It consists est and third terrace the manor house was built,

of three wide terraces built of coarse rubble and dominating the plain as nowadays a medieval
facing north-west, \long the facade of the low- farmhouse does
192 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

176. Cosa, villa, second century B.C.

The first structure on the large terrace of the door, while in country seats peristyles come
Villa dei Misteri outside Pompeii was a rec- first, and then atria surrounded by paved colon-
tangular building of about 200 with a courtyard nades'. 66
- and probably also a rural side yard - sur- This arrangement seems to have been adop-
rounded by walls. From the entrance to the ted in the Late Republican Villa Suburbana dei
main court a central axis leads to an atrium Papiri (Villa of the Pisones) outside Hercu-
without alae and to a tablinum, accessible by- laneum in its first stage and in the so-called

two doors at the corners of the atrium. A portico Villa di Diomede near Pompeii, also in its first

of the same kind as that in the Casa di Sallustio stage. To these can also be added a large, luxur-
in Pompeii, with a view towards the coast and ious villa below Tivoli with walls covered by
the sea, was at the back of these central rooms incertum and reticulate. It was partly re-used
and chambers. During the first century the villa when Hadrian built his famous villa on the
67
received paintings in the Second Pompeian same site.

Style, with architectural and figured motifs, in- The atrium and peristyle villas and their

cluding the famous Dionysiac paintings. In the podia as also the tripartite arrangement for

second half of the second century a peristyle the upper sides of halls and courtyards were
was built round the main court in front of the extremely important for the development of
atrium. The final result was thus exactly in Roman palaces. The same is true of the two
accordance with what Yitruvius records (vi, 5. other kinds of villas: the so-called portico and
3): 'in town, atria are usually next to the front landscape villas. The one- or two-storey facades
 VILLAS •
193

of seaside portico villas are a favourite subject of different origin from the peristyle villas. Like
the Pompeian painters of the Early Imperial the Roman insulae, they evolved from a row of
Age [177]. Many of these villas had a quite rooms with wide openings facing a courtyard, a

K
•

l/ **
jiff™-" 1

fi >

129 •*•

.<»
177. Early Imperial Age paintings
from Pompeii
showing terraced villas by the sea
IO4 ' HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSIETLDO ITALICA'

road, the coast, or a view. This type of house is hall. Similar is a nymphaeum in the Villa di S.
known all over the Mediterranean countries Antonio at Tibur (Tivoli). This has an apse, and
from the Bronze Age onwards. At the very end along the side walls semi-columns carried four
of the Late Republican period architects appar- arches below an architrave. The capitals of these
ently took it up and gave it all the hellenistic semi-columns, of the four arches, and of two
charm of paintings, colonnades, and terraces columns which flank the apse were all Corin-
with fine views. The portico could also be used thian and of travertine. Mosaic panels decorate
as a screen in front of a peristyle villa - as in the the apse ceiling. On the lowest terrace of a large
western half of Nero's Golden House in Rome - villa at Formia, the so-called Villa di Cicerone,
but the original form was a long, narrow house there are two Late Republican nymphaea with
with a row of open rooms behind a colonnade, wells in the apses and a marvellous view to-
as we see it in the delightful 'Villa di Arianna' at wards the sea. They were redecorated and
Stabiae (above Castellammare di Stabia). w In partly rebuilt in the Imperial Age, but the
all the villas one should also remember Agrip- larger of the two evidently had a nave with
pa's speech, referred to by Pliny (WW, 26), columns of somewhat Tuscan type, narrow
about pictures and statues banished to the villas aisles, and a barrel-vaulted nave. It is 29 feet

[in villarum exilia), which he wished to make (8.70 m.) wide. These grottoes are the predeces-
public property instead. Pliny (XXXV, 130) gives sors of the still grander nymphaea of the Im-
an illustration of this, reporting that the famous perial Age - like, for instance, the fantastic cave,

Late Republican orator Hortensius had Cydias's with its pools and its four Homeric marble
painting of the Argonauts in a special pavilion groups and other sculpture, w hich, like a gigan-
at his villa in Tusculum. tic heathen presepio, faces the sea at Sperlonga.
Artificial or natural grottoes also still exist, Together with the nymphaea and the crypto-
with elegant decoration, mosaic floors, walls porticoes one has to remember subterranean
adorned with shells and pumice stone, and so halls, 'aestivi specus', constructed as shelters
on. Roman poetry very often dwells upon against the heat of the warm summer months.
romantic specus or speluncae, like the Cave of The speluncae are often connected with the
the Muses, mentioned by Juvenal (m, 10 ff.) type of villa which I venture to call the 'land-
south of the Caelian in Rome ; their Late Repub- scape villa'. The stuccoes from the Villa Far-
lican refinement is obviously due to hellenistic nesina in Rome give us a delightful picture of
influence, as the descriptions of Greek grottoes them. We see before us grounds laid out in imi-

and the names nymphaea and musaea suggest. tation of natural scenery, towers, bridges, pavi-
In Greek Locri models of caves with wells and lions, statues, trees, and fields. Besides this,

nymphs have been found, and a small barrel- Pliny (XXXV, 116) gives an enchanting sum-
vaulted, apsidal grotto with a well outside the mary of the paintings of all these rural amenities,
walls ot Bovillae, near Albano, obviously con- including arriving or departing ships, donkeys
tinues this tradition. Vault and walls are built of or carts, and anglers, hunters, and labourers in

rather rustic stone and should probably be the vineyards. Horace (0</., 11, 15) tells us of
dated to the second century. Soon this kind of lakes larger than Lake Lucrino, and Atticus (in

shelter for hot days assumed monumentality; Cicero's De Legibus, 11, 1) derides 'the artificial
highly sophisticated nymphaea were built in streams which some of our friends call "Xiles"
front of natural grottoes, but could also be or "Euripi" ', comparing them with the real
wholly artificial. A charming building of this rivers Fibrenus and Liris at Cicero's family villa

kind is the barrel-vaulted so-called Doric and the lovely island in the Fibrenus. Varro (De
Nymphaeum below Castelgandolfo, facing the Re Rustled, in, 5. 8-17) describes his villa at
Alban lake, which has three beautifullv decor- Casinum, which, according to him, surpassed
ated entrances to a cave behind the rectangular the improvements of the villa of Lucullus at
 BATHS, IHI VI KIN, \\I) OTHER PUBLIC HI ILDINGS [95

Tusculum: there were a canal with bridges, larger, and more and more luxurious too.

groves, fishponds, and colonnades covered with Seneca notes that the bath [balneolum) in Scipio
a lump net, and filled with all kinds of birds. Mricanus's villa at Liternum in Campania was
Another avian was round and domed, with small and dark, 'according to the old st\lc\ 'for
columns and a net again preventing the birds our ancestors did not think thai one could have
from escaping into a surrounding wood planted a hot bath except in darkness' (Epist., i.xxw i,

with large trees. Inside the dome, the morning 4). That was no doubt also true of the old public
and evening stars circled near the lower part of baths, bul in the second centur) at 1'ompeii
the hemisphere, and a compass of the eight they began to grow more elaborate. \ iter a

winds indicated the direction of the wind. dressing-room {apodyterium) followed the warm
In the Roman villas a love of nature, the old tepidarium and the hot caldarium. We see this
agricultural traditions of Italy, and the fanciful system, obviously Greek in origin, in theStabian
luxury and refinement of hellenistic palatial Baths of the second centurj and the Forum
architecture and pleasure grounds {napdSciaoi) Baths at Pompeii built for the Roman colony
met. All that has to be kept in mind also for about Ho B.C. [ 178]. The caldaria have an apse
vv hat Martial (xi 1, 57. 21) calls 'rus in urbe', i.e. with a round basin tor cold water {schola labri)
landscape gardens in Rome itself, like that ol and, at the other end of the room, a rectangular
Nero's Golden House. According to Tacitus bath-tub with hot water. Both these baths have
( Inn., XV, 42), in the eyes of the Romans the domed rooms with an aperture left in the middle
greatest marvel of this palace was that it was a of the dome and round basins for cold water
villa brought to the town, with its gro\es, pas- (frigidaria), attached to the dressing-rooms.
tures, herds, wild animals, and artificial rural Vitruvius (V, 10. 5) recommends rooms of the
""
solitude. same kind next to the tepidarium for steam
baths. In such laconica, as \ itruvius calls them,
a bronze disc hung from the aperture in the
BATHS, THEATRES,
dome; 'by raising or lowering it, the tempera-
AND OTHER PUBLIC BUILDINGS
ture of the sweat bath can be regulated'. These
Pompeii shows, and Vitruvius in his fifth book features remained unchanged in all later baths,
describes, how hellenistic accomplishments however grand and sumptuous the) became in

were offered to the public at large and became the Imperial \ge. In the Late Republican baths,
consuetude italica in the last centuries B.C. The domes seem to have been the only form of
display of works of art, for instance, and the masonry vaulting. Vitruvius discusses wooden
fornices (triumphal arches), also with statues, vaults with a framework tiled on the underside,
were now part of the everyday life of the citi- and describes how the) should be constructed
zens. An example is the fornix at Cosa, dating (v, 10.3). Great vaulted halls came only with the
from after 150. The so-called decumanus at Imperial Age. The first instance known to us is
Ostia has, in front of a granary of the early first a large rotunda with a mighty dome built of
century A.D., porticoes facing the theatre on the concrete on the seashore at Baiae. It belongs to
opposite, north side of the street. This kind of the Late Republican or Augustan Age
public amenity was obviously inherited by the The balnea ol the towns and villas became
Imperial Age from Late Republican towns. 7 " hot-air baths, but to start with they were heated
by pans containing charcoal. \ brazier remains

Baths and Palaestrae

in the tepidarium of the Forum Baths of Pom-
peii. About 100 B.C. another system existed
The domus and villas, with their peristyles and with hot air conducted from a furnace room
other luxuries, also had baths (balneae, balineae, below the floors, which were supported In
balnea, balneolae), and thej grew larger and pillars ol brick The advantage ol the new sys-
196 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

15 METRES
178. Pompeii, Forum Baths, c. 80 B.C. Plan

1. Dressing room (apodyterium) 3. Warm room (tepidarium)

2. Cold room (frigidarium) 4. Hot room (caldarium)

tem was that the rooms were free of smoke, dust, From the Augustan Age onwards we see in
etc. This system spread to baths, and also Rome and the provinces large-scale bathing
palaces and private houses, throughout the establishments, known as thermae, built on
Roman Empire. It lived on in Byzantine and large terraces, surrounded by gardens, and with
Turkish baths and also in medieval Europe. central halls, palaestrae, etc., planned with
The Romans ascribed the 'invention' of pensiles strict axiality. All this - as far as we know - was
balineae to a rich and enterprising Roman, G. unfamiliar to the Late Republican architects,
Sergius Orata, who lived at the beginning of the but as the Stabian and Forum Baths at Pompeii
first century B.C. and was also the first to have show, peristyles were then already added to the

oyster ponds.However, excavations in Greece balnear rooms. The swimming pool of the
have shown that the Greeks were again the first. Stabian Baths confirms that palaestrae at the
 BATHS, THEATRES, AND OTHER PI H I.I (. HI II l)l\(.s 197

back were there for the purpose of gymnastic metric plan of the balneolae which the architects
exercise. of Late Republican days had provided for prac-
This combination of bath and palaestra marks tical demands in hellenized Italic towns, lived
an important step towards the great symmetri- on side by side with the majestic, axial architec-

cal unities of the centuries to come. Yitruvius ture of Imperial Age thermae. Several small
affirms that palaestrae were not part of the baths on the Forma Lrbis with irregular courts
Roman tradition (v, 11. 1), but were Greek and the usual bathrooms alongside them prove
meeting-places, where 'rhetoricians and others the same. The catalogue of the regions ot Rome
who delight in learning" gathered in the peri- in the fourth century A.D. lists 1 1 thermae and
Styles, while gymnastics were practised around 856 balneolae. The latter, no doubt, usually kept
them. Behind the principal palaestra, Yitruvius the informal Late Republican pattern.
describes stadia, running tracks, etc., such as at Pompeii and the Terme
The Forum Baths
had existed in Late Republican and Augustan di Nettuno of Imperial Ostia have one more
times on theCampus Martius, with the yellow feature worth mentioning: narrow rows of
Tiber swimming and diving. According to
for tabernae surrounded the whole establishment,
Livy(xxix, ii). 11 ff.), the conservative Romans with upper apartments accessible by direct
censured Scipio Africanus because in Magna staircases from the street. This of course made
Graecia he strolled about in the palaestrae, the baths more profitable. In Imperial times we
wearing a Greek mantle and sandals, and giving see the same rows of shops with lodgings above
his attention to Greek and physical
books in them facing the streets around the peristyles of
exercise. In contrast to this, the Osco-Samnites and even in the portico
the granaries (horrea),
of Pompeii already in the second centurj added around the facade of the Circus Maximus in
a great square peristyle surrounded by porticoes Rome and of the theatre at Ostia.

(a palaestra-inspired feature) to their theatre, as

Yitruvius recommends (v, 9. 1), and as Pompey
did when he erected his theatre in Rome. The
Circuses
peristyle was built behind the stage, but above
the theatre the Osco-Samnite Pompeians also Another aspect ot town lite, the entertainment
had a small, gracious palaestra, a rectangular of the people, was provided for in olden days hv
peristyle, but without running tracks, etc. I64]. the Circus Maximus, for horse-races and differ-

The function of this palaestra was proclaimed ent kinds of games. It lay in the long valley be-

by a very fine copy of Polyclitus's Doryphorus tween the slopes of the Palatine and the Aven-
in front of the south portico. In Imperial times tine [105]. Later, other circuses and theatres

this palaestra was shortened by a Temple of I sis followed, and finally in the Flavian Age the
on its eastern side, and the great quadriportico Colosseum was dedicated in v. I). So. \s 1 have
behind the stage was reshaped and used as a said above, there is no reason to doubt that the
barracks for the gladiators tradition of the circus went back to the age of

We cannot say if second-century Rome the kings. Livy (VIII, 20. 1) reports that the first

approved of the combination of a typically permanent carceres (starting gates) were built
Greek palaestra with the bath-houses as thej in 329 B.C., though thev were probably of wood.
developed in Italic practice. It may have been They were at the straight, western end of the

connected with the uninhibited way of life of circus. Cicero (/-><• divinatione, i, io8) quotes

the Campanian towns. In any case, the Forum Ennius describing how the spectators waited
Baths of the Roman colony at Pompeii prove eagerly for the chariots to come out of the
that the novelty was accepted in Rome about painted gates. In 174 the censors restored the
100 B.C. Among many other baths, the Central carceres. Sonic twentj years before, in 196, L.
Baths of Pompeii and the Terme di N'cttuno Stertinius, as an exvoto for his victories in Spain,
on the decumanus of Ostia show that the asj m- had erected an arch with gilded statues, the For-
 HELLENIZED ROME CONSL'ETUDO ITALICA

nix Stertinii (of the same kind as is known some- scourge, had introduced Greek games and
what later from the Forum Romanum and horse races in the sixth century, following
Cosa), at the curved east end of the racecourse. advice from Delphi. These lustriones, as they
Gradually the course was surrounded by were called (from ister, the Etruscan word for
wooden seats. It was divided lengthwise by a players), 'danced to the strains of the flute and
low wall, the spina, around which the races were performed not ungraceful motions in the Tus-
run. Conical columns, the metae, stood at the can fashion without any singing, and without
ends of the spina, marking the turning-points. imitating the action of singers'. This tale of
In Augustan days (Dionysius, 1 1 1, 68) the spec- Livy's illustrates the beginnings of Roman
tators' stands had three storeys, the lowest with scenic entertainments. Already about 240 B.C.
stone seats and the two upper with wooden a Greek from Tarentum, Livius Andronicus,
seats. On the outside of the circus were shops had devised for the Romans a play with a plot.

with dwellings over them, and between the Other Greek theatrical performances - com-
shops were entrances with stairs for the spec- edies, tragedies, and satirical plays in Latin -
tators. Probably the lowest rows of seats were soon became a feature of Roman festivals such
built on the slope of the northern and southern as theLudi Romani, Plebeii, Apollinares, Mega-
hillsides, whereas the upper seats and the build- lenses, Florales, and Ceriales, as well as of
ing around the curved eastern side were sup- burials and the consecration of temples. Plautus
ported by wooden structures. and Terence bring all this to life for us.' J
In 220 the censor C. Flaminius built another The theatres which were erected for these
circus, the Circus Flaminius, on the low, flat early plays in Rome itself were of wood, and
riverside by the Tiber, with its southern end at evidently imitated temporary stages in the
the crossing to the Tiber island. How was this towns of south Italy, while - as the history of
circus constructed, since there was no natural sanctuaries around Rome has shown - outside
slope? Perhaps, like a theatre at Capua of about Rome and its closest environs permanent, stone-
ioo B.C., a small theatre at Gioiosa Ionica, or the built theatres were admitted, at least if they were
stadium of Olympia, the seats were on artificial connected with temples, already about 100 B.C.

embankments around the stage; but it seems It should always be remembered that both the
more probable that wooden structures were great hellenistic permanent theatres, embody-
erected and that they were among the first of ing traditions from the fifth century, and the
their kind. 72 temporary wooden structures of south Italy

were known from the beginnings in Rome. In

south Italy, after the fashion of the neighbour-
Theatres
ing Greek towns, permanent theatres were
The history of the Roman theatres exemplifies erected a hundred years earlier than in Rome:
especially clearly how Greek culture was grafted the highly hellenized Osco-Samnites of Pom-
on to the old and warlike Italic life. Theatres peii, for example, built a permanent theatre in

came late. No doubt in central Italy rustic the second century [179]. In Rome, Pompey's
dances and recitations of verse were performed theatre, built when he had returned from
in the early days by 'fauns and native bards', to Greece with the theatre of Mitylene in mind,
quote Cicero (Brutus, 71), but, according to was the first, and dates only from 55 B.C.
Livy (VII, 2), a change took place in Rome in At first the theatre at Pompeii simply had tufa
the fourth century. Among attempts to mitigate or limestone seats resting on the southern hill-
the effects of a plague in 364 B.C. was the addi- side of the town, which was north-east of the
tion to the Roman circus of players who had archaic Greek temple. We can follow this de-
been brought from some Etruscan town, just as, velopment with the help of Vitruvius (v, 6. 2)

according to Herodotus (1, 167), the inhabitants and see how sectors of seats (cunei) were divided
of Caere, in an attempt to get rid of a national from each other in a regular way by passage-
 BATHS, THEATRES, AND OTHER PUBLIC Bl ILDINGS 199

179. Pompeii, Large Theatre, ways, and how curved cross aisles {praecinc-
second century B.C. Plan of final state tiones) after Greek models became accepted
1. Parodoi practice. The large, square peristyle mentioned
2. Cunei on p. H)7 lay behind the stage. Elegant, stuccoed
3. Praecinctiones
Doric columns, with an untluted lower part that
4. Pulpitum
was painted red, adorned the porticoes on all
5. Scaena
Slot for aulaeum sides of the peristyle. Vitruvius (\, 9) gives de-
6.

7. Orchestra tailed rules (no doubt Greek) tor building these

porticoes behind stage-houses, explaining how
200 • HELLENIZED ROME CONSUETUDO ITALICA

useful they were for the public when showers Praeneste, and Tivoli [157, 158] show - is that
interrupted the plays, for walks in the open air, they were semicircular.
and for 'getting ready all the stage properties'. Vitruvius (v, 6-7) contrasts the final arrange-
He also strongly emphasizes how indispensable ment in Italy with that of hellenistic theatres.
they became for storing wood in times of siege According to him, the stages {pulpit a) of Roman
and war. The theatres of Pompey and Balbus in theatres should always be deeper than those of
Rome and the theatre of Ostia with their large the Greeks and 'raised not more than five feet
1
:

peristyles prove that what Vitruvius recom- this was because the orchestras in Roman
mends, and what the Osco-Samnites had built theatres contained seats reserved for the sena-
hundred years before, became accepted
at least a tors. Here we see how the demands of Roman
in Late Republican and Augustan Rome, social life, together with the kind of shows per-

whether the Romans took the idea from Cam- formed, contributed to the final shape of the
pania and south Italy or whether Pompey Roman theatres.
brought it with him from Greece. A terracotta model of a stage building of
From the first, like the Greek theatres, the about 300 B.C. [180] from a town in southern
theatre at Pompeii had a narrow stage-house Italy displays a permanent scaenae frons with
behind the stage. The stage podium (pulpititm, the same main characteristics that the Romans
Xoyeiov) was wide, but, perhaps also after the adopted. It seems that they almost immediately

Greek fashion, raised fairly high above the imitated Greek stage-decorations and - if a
It had side wings (napaoKijvia) which
orchestra. short note did not suffice to indicate the setting -
converged inwards to the facade of the stage- that for tragedies they were decorated as palace
house. This facade (the scaenae frons), the stage- facades with columns, for comedies as private
front, and the stage itself could all - with some dwellings with balconies, windows, and upper
degree of confusion - be referred to as the pro- storeys (cenacula : Plautus, Amphitruu, 863), for
scaenium. satyr-plays with trees, caverns, mountains, and
Wide and low stages were characteristic of other rustic properties (Vitruvius, V, 6. 9).
the wooden theatres in Rome and of their later According to Vitruvius, and as the stage model
tradition. It is obvious that Rome took the main just referred to shows, the palace sets had double
elements of theatrical architecture from the doors in the centre decorated like those of a
Greeks, though to start with not from the royal palace and to the right and left the 'doors
hellenistic theatres known from excavations in of the guest chambers'. Another original feature
Greece and described by Vitruvius, but from inherited from south Italy and the Greeks was
the roomy stages of the popular comedies in revolving pieces of machinery {nepiaKtoi) to
Italy. These could be high and supported by the right and left of the doors, each with three
columns, or low with stairs leading up to the decorated faces, to indicate the mood. The exits
pulpitum from some open space - a sacred pre- on the short sides were considered to be entran-
cinct, the arena of a circus, or wherever the ces, 'one from the forum, the other from abroad'.
shows were performed - as retained in Roman The Romans also adopted from the Greeks cur-
theatres. The contemporary Greek stages are tains (siparia) which were hung before parts of
delightfully illustrated in south Italian vase the scaenae frons and could be drawn up or to
paintings. In contrast to them and to the Roman the side, and others (aulaea) that were lowered
stages, hellenistic theatres had narrow stages at the beginning of a show and raised at its end
raised up some 10 feet. The chorus and support- from a trench along the front side of the stage.
ing artists gave their performances in the orch- The theatre at Pompeii shows such an arrange-
estra, in front of the stage. These orchestras ment, and we are told that pictorial hangings
were roomier than the Roman ones. A charac- were brought to Rome already in the second
teristic of the latter - as the theatres of Gabii, century from the royal palace of Pergamon and
 BATHS, THEATRES, AND OTHER PUBLIC BUILDINGS 201

i. So. Terracotta model of a stage building,

c. 300 B.C. Saples, Museo Vazionale

used as drop-scenes. But, like all the other allotting seats to the plebsin temporary theatres.
elements ot "the Roman stage, this achieved iis Our sources sometimes confuse 1 his with the

final shape only in the Imperial \ge, and for reaction against permanent theatres, but Taci-

Late Republican times can only be traced in tus {.Inn., \i\, 20) gives a precise summary of
literal \ sources and from insufficient remains. the main fads: 'To go further hack into the past,

\t the beginning there were objections not the people stood to watch. Seats in t heal res, it

onlv to ( rreek entertainments as such hut also to was feared, might tempt them to pass whole
202 • HELLENIZED ROME CONSUETUDO ITALICA

days in indolence.' In any case, in Plautus's facing the Circus valley. He is indignant when
comedies we already encounter a theatre with he tells how Clodius at a celebration of the

wooden seats: a cavea, as the Latin word is. Megalensia let slaves loose in one theatre and
Until 194 plebeians and senators were accom- ejected every free man from another (25, 26).
modated together, but in that year Scipio Afri- This, as well as the mimes of the Ludi Florales
canus and the censors ordered the curule aediles in front of the Temple of Flora on the Aventine,
to separate the senatorial seats from those of the directly recalls the theatres in front of the
commoners at the Ludi Romani. The seats temple at Gabii and the round Temple of For-
could be constructed on earthen embankments tuna Primigenia at Praeneste (as I interpret it),

or hillsides - like the stone seats of Greek the theatre below the great temple of Pietrab-
theatres and the theatre at Pompeii - but they bondante, and that of Hercules Victor at Tivoli.

could also, of course, be erected on a flat site, a One should, in any case, remember that plays
technique which became important for the were performed at funerals as well and that in

large permanent theatres of Rome in the cen- 167, according to Polybius (Athenaeus, xiv,
turies to come. 74 6i5a-e), Lucius Anicius built a very large stage
The seating regulations in Scipio Africanus's in the Circus Maximus. He summoned dis-

time, i.e. in 194, show us how one of these tem- tinguished musicians from Greece and posted
porary structures operated. In 179 Livy (xl, 51) them with the chorus in the orchestra 'at the
mentions a stage building and seats for spec- front of the stage' (eni to npvaKtjviov). Finally,
tators at the Temple of Apollo, no doubt the four boxers climbed on to the stage, accom-
temple behind the Theatre of Marcellus that in panied by trumpeters and horn players. 75
its rebuilt Augustan shape was called Sosianus. The theatre that Lucius Mummius built after
Like the theatres of Gabii, Praeneste, and his victory in Greece, in 145-144 (cf. Tacitus,
Tivoli, the theatre here was closely connected Annates, xiv, 21), was no doubt decorated by
with a sanctuary; the Augustan Sosianus marbles which he had brought from Corinth.
Temple and the Theatre of Marcellus certainly It appears to have been an early and sensational
renewed this connexion. Livy's words (xli, 27. stage building. Among the wasteful luxuries of
5) referring to 174, about 'a stage placed at the these temporary structures were cloths that
disposal of the aediles and praetors', whose duty were used as awnings. This convenience, used
it was to arrange plays, may indicate a more by the Etruscans already in archaic times (see

permanent building. However, as already men- p. 75), now became common; in Caesar's time
tioned, after the censor Lucius Cassius had it spread to the gladiatorial games on the Forum
begun to build a permanent theatre in 154, it Romanum and to the adjoining streets (Pliny,

was demolished on a motion of P. Scipio Nasica, xix, 23). In 99 Claudius Pulcher adorned his
as a potential hotbed of sedition and because it theatre with paintings, which, according to
seemed 'far from desirable that the Romans Pliny (xxxv, 23), were so realistic that crows
should be accustomed to Greek pleasures'. tried to alight on the roof tiles, and at the games
According to Velleius Paterculus, it was 'located of Scribonius Libo in 63 the architect Valerius
in the direction of the Palatine from the Luper- of Ostia (Pliny, xxxvi, 102) roofed the theatre.
cal', that on the south-western slope of the
is, Roman stage-houses (scaenae) soon came to be
Palatine, below the Temple of Magna Mater, decorated with gold, silver, ivory, or marble
and had seats facing the valley of the Circus facades and columns from Mount Hymettus,
Maximus. The Ludi Megalenses were cele- and later on from still more famous quarries,

brated in front of this temple, 'in the very sight and columns from the temporary theatres were
of the goddess', as Cicero says (De haruspicum later used in the palaces of the Roman politi-

responsis, 24). Cicero clearly indicates that there cians. Pliny echoes the contemporary indigna-
were two theatres on the slope of the Palatine tion at this corrupting private luxury. The
 BATHS, THEATRES, AND OTHER PUBLIC BUILDINGS •
203

climax ot all this short-lived magnificence - the close to each other, facing in opposite directions
Romans outdid the luxury of the Campanians and balanced on revolving pivots. Here, as in
and Greeks in the first century was the theatre front of the Temple of Magna Mater, we have
erected by M. Aemilius Scaurus during his two theatres in which performances of different
aedileship in 58. Pliny affirms that it 'surpassed plays were given simultaneously. These theatres
not merely those erected for a limited period but could revolve, even with spectators remaining
even those intended to last forever'. in their seats, so that Curio was able to convert
Details no doubt became exaggerated and his two theatres into an amphitheatre for gladia-
even legendary before they reached Pliny, but torial combats. For practical reasons we must
his description makes the main arrangement assume that this amphitheatre was round, like
clear and shows how Roman architects en- the Imperial amphitheatre of Lucus Feroniae,
riched the stage. It is also of considerable inter- or the cistern represented in the Egyptian land-
est for the great theatres of the Imperial Age. scape of the great mosaic at Praeneste. We do
To understand the link between the stages of not know by what means it was rotated and thus
south Italy and the later splendours, it is essen- have the same problem as with the main, circu-
tial to read Pliny's chapter about Scaurus's lar banqueting hall in Nero's Golden House,
theatre, even if it is too highly coloured. Tacitus which, according to Suetonius (Nero, 31), re-
dryly remarks (Ann., XIV, 21) that it was a volved constantly night and day. According to
measure ofeconomy to build permanent Pliny, the device put Curio's spectators in as
theatres instead of wooden structures which great danger as the gladiators. When the pivots
had to be reared and razed, year after year. wore out, he kept the amphitheatre and re-
Scaurus's stage had three storeys: the lowest erected in it two stages, back to back. They
was of Lucullean marble (either veneer or solid could then be moved aside to make room for the
blocks), while the middle one was faced with gladiators. As in the case of some of the theatres.
glass mosaic and the top one with gilded plates. Curio's amphitheatre was built on flat ground
According to Pliny there were 360 columns in with free-standing spectators' seating which
front, the lowest to be 38 feet high. For the had to be wholly constructed. 76
bronze statues in the spaces between the The amphitheatre at Pompeii, built by two
columns, Pliny gives the fantastic number of Roman magistrates (duoviri) for the veterans of
3,000. He also reports that the auditorium ac- the Colonia Cornelia Veneria after 80, shows us
commodated 80,000 spectators, while Pompcv 's how early amphitheatres were constructed
theatre some ten years later had seats for only 1 181]. They did not yet have subterranean
40,000 (though the fact is that the latter had quarters for the gladiators, animals, equipment,
room for only about 10,000). To this we have to etc. Like the later and more famous ones, this
add the luxurious costumes of the actors, and first-known amphitheatre was oval. It measured
paintings such as those in the Theatre of 500 by 350 feet (150 by 105 m.) and could hold
Claudius Pulcher. Whether the canal (euripus) some 20,000 spectators. To start with, the spec-
in whichhippopotamus and five crocodiles
a tators evidently sat either on earthen slopes or
were exhibited at the games during Scaurus's on artificial embankments converging towards
aedileship was actually part of the theatre is not the arena, with or without wooden benches.
certain. The mass of earth - as in the theatre of Pietrab-
The next sensational innovation seems to bondante was surrounded by a broad struc-
have been a theatre erected in 52 by C. Scri- ture of concrete, covered bj opus incertum and
bonius Curio in honour of his father's funeral. strengthened by buttresses joined by arches.
Curio, as Pliny says (XXXVI, 1 16-20), could not This is one of the most impressive plain arcaded
hope to outstrip Scaurus with costly embellish- facades in Italy. Stone seats were added later.

ments, but he built two large wooden theatres The two lower rows evidently reserved for
 Pompeii, amphitheatre, after 80 B.C.

magistrates, etc. - were accessible from a corri- As in the theatres, awnings were stretched from
dor which was built on the level of the arena and poles above the whole interior. 77
had special entrances. The two main entrances What we can trace of the first period in the
to the arena were on the main north-west- theatre of Pompeii and see in the Roman amphi-
south-east axis; the latter was blocked by the theatre of Sulla's Colonia Cornelia Veneria is

city wall, but was reached by a corridor from the obviously important for a full understanding of
west facade. Two great double staircases out- some of the greatest Roman architectural crea-
side the west side of the amphitheatre and single tions: the great theatres and amphitheatres of
outside staircases towards the northern and the Imperial Age. They reveal formative and
southern ends of the structure led to the top of creative traditions stemming from south Italy
the galleries - in striking contrast to the inner and from the great permanent hellenistic
entrances to the cavea of the theatres and theatres with their pedigree going back to the
amphitheatres of the Imperial Age. Below the sixth century, and their encounter with the
central double staircase on the west side was a social and political conditions of Rome and the
narrow passage, which has been explained as a demands of Roman taste, as well as from the
reserved entrance for the magistrate in charge temporary wooden theatres in Rome.
of the games or as a gate of Libitina, the goddess From these early attempts of a temporary
of corpses, through which dead gladiators were character - an outburst of a nouveau riche pas-
carried out. The sectors of seats were divided sion for show - it is a far cry to the first great
into three tiers, the uppermost perhaps for permanent theatre in Rome, the Theatre of
women. The upper terrace as we see it, with Pompey, and also to the two slightly earlier
arched boxes, was evidently of later construc- theatres at Pompeii (as remodelled for the
tion, for its building material is different from Roman colonia), the theatres of the Latin sanc-
that of the lower parts of the facade. A parapet tuaries, and the contemporary theatre of Alba
with a metal fence protected the spectators from Fucens. In them, the low, wide stage and the
the arena, and another parapet separated the cavea became a unified block, in contrast to the
distinguished spectators in the lower seats from Greek theatres with their open side entrances
the upper tiers (just as the aristocracy came to be to the orchestra (parodoi), right and left of the
separated from the plebs in Roman theatres). stage. Instead, barrel-vaulted entrances to the
 BATHS, THEATRES, AND OTHER PUBLIC BUILDINGS 205

semicircular orchestra were built on both sides. in addition to semicircular stairs right and left

Rows of seats continued above the barrel-vaults, of the seats round the orchestra. Calculated to
exactly as Vitruvius prescribes; this innovation hold an audience of 1,500, the five sectors of
can be seen in the theatre at Pompeii as rebuilt seats and their passageways were not inter-
to serve the Roman colony [79]. [
At this time it rupted b\ cross aisles {praecinctiones). As in the
received a low Roman stage, and also a curious remodelled larger theatre, vaulted entrances
circular water basin in the orchestra with a dia- lead to the orchestra; above them were plat-
meter of 2} (710 m.), whose use has been
feet forms {tribunalia) and behind them three rows
much discussed. Most likely the water was in- of seats. The stage was low and wide.

troduced for performances by nude panto- The Fuccns belongs to the

theatre of Alba
mimists. It could hardly have been used in the same epoch. It was enlarged in Early Imperial
orchestras of Roman where the sena-
theatres, times, and only some parts of its cavea remain.
tors had reserved There was an extensive
seats. Most of the seats rested upon the living rock of
restoration of the theatre in Augustan times, the Pettorino Hill east of the town, but the
but the stage took its final form only alter the north-west side of the cavea was completed by a

earthquake of a.d. 62. During the Augustan structure of concrete. The ends of the tiers of
period a covered corridor {crypto) with six doors seats were supported by grandiose terrace walls
{vomitoria), leading to the six staircases be- (analemmata) of polygonal work. In front of
tween the five sectors (cunci) of the cavea, was them was a portico leading to the side entrances

built above the cavea.'" (parodoi), which otherwise were open, as in

Together with the amphitheatre, the small Greek theatres. There are no vaulted entrances,
Roofed Theatre at Pompeii is, together with the and the theatre of Alba Fucens was thus not, in

theatre-temples, the earliest complete archae- the Roman way, united in a great block com-
ological evidence of the great achievements of prising stage-house, stage, and cavea. We meet
Roman architects (such as Valerius of Ostia) the same arrangement in the plan of Pompey's
during the two hundred years or so of tempor- theatre on the Forma Urbis. On the stage are

ar\ theatres. This theatrum tectum (to use the pits for movable scaffolding, but behind its low
name given to it in the dedicatory inscription) and wide platform only vestiges of the stage-
was built at the expense of the same Roman house remain. The portico and a short cross

magistrates who constructed the amphitheatre street connected the theatre with the eastern
for the Roman colonia. It was a concert hall for main street of \lba Fucens, the Via dei Pilastri,
music and recitation, added to the enlarged and and with the Temple and Portico of Hercules on
modernized great theatre on the east side of its the other side | [39]."
stage. Thus Roman Pompeii received what The final summing-up of this stage of Roman

Statius in his Silvae (i 1

1, 5. ui ) describes from theatrical architecture is the Theatre of Pom-
Naples : a great group consisting of an open and pey, built during Pompey's second consulship
a covered theatre. The hall had a wooden roof in 55 B.C. and dedicated in 52. We know this

without supports. Such roofing was one ot the revolutionary structure from the plan on the
great prides of Imperial Rome, and the The- Forma L rbis, numerous literary sources, t In-

atrum Tectum is the first specimen known to us considerable remains of the substructure of the
of that daring construction. The theatre is ot cavea, which was built in concrete covered by
concrete, surrounded by a rectangular outer reticulate, and other parts ot the great group on
wall and faced with opus incertum which has the Campus Martins. Tacitus ( inn., XIII, 54)

strengthening additions of tiles and tends to- tells us of the barbarians who visited Rome in

wards being reticulate. The high walls slice the Nero's time and were guided to 'the usual places

cavea to right and left. The back corners of the shown to barbarians, among them the 'Theatre
rectangular building were used tor entrances. of Pompey'. To Nero, who on one occasion
2o6 •
HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

gilded whole facade, it seemed small,

the were other shrines of Honor, Virtus, Felicitas,

especially compared with the gilded facade of and one more goddess. 82
his Domus Aurea but Dio Cassius (x x x x, 38)
; i Plutarch (Pompey, 42, 4) says that Pompey
affirms that the Romans took pride in the theatre very much admired the theatre of Mitylene and
even in his time, and Ammianus Marcellinus 'had a model of it made, intending to erect one
mentions it as one of the great monuments of in Rome to the same design, but larger and more
fourth-century Rome (xvi, 10. 14). It was vari- magnificent'. There has been much speculation
1

ously referred to as 'the marble theatre , 'the about this statement and about what Pompey
great theatre', and sometimes simply as 'the actually took over. It should certainly be kept in
theatre'. mind that all the main features of Pompey's
The plan on the Forma Urbis, dated between theatre agree with what the Romans and Cam-
a.d. 203 and 211, reveals the same arrangement panians had already achieved from the third
as the theatre of Alba Fucens: a low, wide stage, century onwards in their adaptation of Greek
open parodoi with porticoes, and a semicircular features. For example, the concave or amphithe-
orchestra. To begin with the stage-house was atrical comitia [138], with a curia on the central
probably wooden, but Pliny mentions that it axis on top of the stairs, show the same dis-

held copies of celebrated sculptures of high position as the Theatre of Pompey. The theatre-
quality and that around it were statues of temples of Gabii, Praeneste, Tivoli, and Pietrab-
fourteen nations (vn, 34; xxxvi, 41). As in the bondante afford equally striking parallels. 83

theatre at Pompeii, there was a great rectangular

peristyle behind the stage-house with roomy
UTILITARIAN ARCHITECTURE
recesses (exedrae spatiosae) provided with seats
for philosophers, etc., in conformity with Vitru- To turn now to utilitarian architecture, one
vius's rules (v, 9; 11. 2). The senate was prob- must first of all recall the Porticus Aemilia (see
ably assembled in one of these exedrae, which p. 128 f.)[ 1 25] on the quay of the Tiber, south of
contained a statue of Pompey, or perhaps in the Aventine. Behind, warehouses granaries -
some other hall connected with the peristyle, on were built by Servius Sulpicius Galba, who was
the occasion when Caesar was murdered. 81 An consul in 108 B.C. Evidently Rome adopted the
important novelty was that the entrances were system of the hellenistic world known from
no longer external but placed inside, as in the Rhodes, where, according to Strabo (xiv, 2. 5),

later theatres and amphitheatres of the Im- the people were supplied with provisions and
perial Age; we do not know whether this re- the needy supported by the well-to-do. As early
flected the arrangements in the wooden theatres as the fifth and fourth centuries, and long before
or was a new architectural scheme. any far-reaching Mediterranean trade had
In contrast to the rectangular building of the started, our sources repeatedly tell us about
small theatre at Pompeii, the facade of Pom- supplies of corn and food from Sicily, Cumae,
pey 's theatre followed the curved outline of the and the Etruscan coastal towns that were
cavea. Our sources praise especially the fact brought to Rome in river-boats via the Tiber,

that Pompey placed a shrine of Venus above the or from Ostia. Famine threatened if the Tiber
cavea, and that the steps to it served as a most became unnavigable, if internal strife hampered
monumental ascent to that temple. It was said agriculture, or if the magistrates lacked proper
that Pompey did this to disarm opposition to the care. It is evident that some kind of granaries
permanent theatre as such, and indeed in his became necessary along the riverside long be-

public invitation to the dedication he an- fore these. The Romans ascribed the Columna
nounced it not as a theatre but as a Temple of Minucia (above, p. 99), which was erected
Venus, 'under which we have placed steps for somewhere outside the Porta Trigemina in the
spectators of shows'. On top of the cavea there south-western part of the great city wall of 378
 UTILITARIAN ARCHITECTURE 207

B.C., to Lucius Minucius, a magistrate who in then took their cargoes, brought them to the
430, B.C. was in charge of the provision of Rome's riverside harbours of Rome, and took back car-
grain and food, and who took possession of the goes in exchange; or they relieved the overseas
stores brought to the town by the demagogue ships of part of their cargo so that they could
Maelius and distributed them on easy terms to be towed to Rome. In other words, Ostia had
the people. This tale, legendary or not, attests only an old-fashioned river harbour like those
that the surroundings of Galba's granary were along the Laurentine and Rutulian coast, from
thought of as an early centre for the import of which the new commercial centre took over the
victuals. Horrea publica are known to us only legend of Aeneas. The need for granaries, etc.,
from the Imperial Age; Late Republican horrea at Ostia for its own consumption and for tem-
may have been walled and citadel-like, like the porary storage was probably met by wooden
granaries of Syracuse, and they probably had warehouses on the riverside east of the castrum
courtyards surrounded by storage rooms of the and north of the decumanus [123], which was
same type as the tabernae. All the horrea of Im- vacant until the first century B.C. In the second
perial Rome exhibit such a plan, and the mar- half of the century, rows of tabernae in reticulate
ket* of hellenistic towns seem to have been the (the so-called Magazzini Repubblicani), sur-
origin. In the Near East the tradition has lived rounded by porticoes with tufa piers, were built
on through the centuries in caravanserais on the north side of the decumanus, towards the
(khans). 84 east gate of Ostia's city wall.
85

Strabo, with Greek towns and their harbours As seen in the Hercules Victor terrace at
in mind, notes (v, 3. 5) with amazement that the Tivoli (pp. 166-9), streets lined with shops were
port-town of Rome was "harbourless on account sometimes united in a way that suggests a shop-
of the silting up'. The merchant ships anchored ping centre and are reminiscent of the tunnels
outside the mouth of the Tiber at Ostia. Tenders of tent-makers and saddlers in the old bazaars

[82. Ferentinum (Ferentino), Via Latina,

market hall, c. 100 B.C.
208 • HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSl'ETL'DO ITALIC.*'

of Aleppo. Buttressing the citadels of Feren- was constructed of tufa ashlar blocks faced with
tinum and Tibur (Tivoli) are warehouses of travertine. In 109 the Pons Mulvius (Ponte
concrete, dating from about ioo B.C. and faced Molle) of 220 on the Via Flaminia north-west of
with opus incertum. They had high, broad Rome was replaced by a bridge of tufa ashlar
barrel-vaulted corridors running transversely with arches of travertine - part of which can
from the streets towards the hillsides [182], and still be seen in the present bridge. Livy (xli, 27.
they recall the stone-built barrel-vaulted struc- 5) relates that the censors of 174, when re-
tures, on which a great podium was raised, that ordering the roads outside Rome with gravel
Herod built at Caesarea Maritima in Palestine. and footpaths, also built bridges, and these were
The latter were probably warehouses too, but probably arched. Beautiful early examples are
the warehouses at Ferentinum and Tivoli were the bridge on the Via Amerina, constructed in
more accomplished and had a row of five shops the third century [121], and the old, low one
along one side. At Ferentinum these tabernae below the Ponte di Nona on the Via Praenes-
are barrel-vaulted. The floor of the 'nave' in tina/'
front of them rises by low and broad steps to- The arch also revolutionized a field of utili-

wards its inner end. The entrance was about 26 tarian architecture where even a Greek like

feet high. The Tivoli warehouse is more ele- Strabo (v, 3. 8) admits that the Romans were
gant, and, moreover, the height of the entrance outstanding: aqueducts and sewers. Marza-
was about 30 feet, and that of the first shop in- botto shows how the Etruscans solved the prob-
side the entrance arch some 35 feet. The first lem of sewerage by channels covered by slabs.
two shops have high barrel-vaults, and the three We have seen that the largest of the Roman
inner ones are covered by apsidal vaults/' It sewers, the Cloaca Maxima originally a stream
seems evident that the souks, warehouses, and running obliquely through the forum - was
covered streets of the Orient served as models, probably an open channel still in the second
but concrete and vaulting made it possible for century, at least on the forum. Otherwise, the
the Roman builders to develop the borrowed sewers may have been more or less similar to
ideas in a new and monumental way. The archi- those of Marzabotto. In any case, at the end of
tectural tradition stemming from these Late the second century the Cloaca Maxima was
Republican innovations was evidently an in- vaulted with close-fitting stones (Strabo, loc.

spiring factor when, in the second century a.d., til.) and widened. Strabo writes that 'sewers in
the monumental warehouses were built outside some places were roomy enough even for
the Forum of Trajan and at Ostia. wagons loaded with hay to pass through them'.
As the lofty entrances to the warehouses of Perhaps that was due to reconstructions during
Tivoli and Ferentinum show, in the last cen- the Augustan Age, but parts of vaults survive
turies B.C. arches became the rule for city gates which must be much older than that; for ex-

and for facades with or without flanking ample, the three concentric arches at the mouth
columns, as well as for fornices, heralding the of the Cloaca Maxima on the left bank of the
triumphal arches of the Empire. They are also a Tiber opposite the island (to judge from the
most important part of utilitarian architecture. material) must be dated as early as about 100
In 179 the Pons Aemilius in Rome was equipped B.C., though some attribute them to Agrippa. 88

with stone-built piers of tufa ashlar work sup- The first aqueduct by the Romans was
built
porting a wooden bridge; Livy (XL, 51. 4) re- the Appia of 312 B.C. The channel was almost
ports that the censors of 142 built arches entirely subterranean, like that of its successor
(fornices) on these supports. Later, in 62, the Anio Yetus of 272. After countless centuries
magistrate in charge of roads, L. Fabricius, with the provision of water by the Tiber and by
built the beautiful Pons Fabricius between the wells, and after the great, though primitive,
left bank of the Tiber and the Tiber island. It undertaking of Appius Claudius, the great revo-
 fOMBS WD CEMETERIES 200.

lution in this field was the \qua Marcia, built in cornice. Above was a wall of ashlar w ith demi-

144 140 by Quintus Marcius Rex. The chan- columns of tufa (peperino); only a piece of the

nel (specus) was lined with a thick cement of wall and the base of one Attic- Ionic column are

lime and pounded terracotta, and, like the preserved. To the right of the original rock-cut
Etruscan sewers, covered by slabs. Since the door of the podium is an arched entrance of tufa
flow of the current was carefully calculated, it blocks (Anio tufa) which leads to an added
brought a constant stream of water into the gallery. The podium was once decorated with a
town. It was carried by arches, which starts one historical painting, but was covered b\ plain
of the greatest architectural traditions of Im- paint both before and after that decoration.
perial Rome. The arches and their piers were While the facade of the Scipiones is typical of

built of tufa ashlar, a proof of how the Romans stuccoed and painted Roman architecture, the

trusted their various tufas and also of how in- rock-cut chamber tomb of the Sempronii on the
geniously they economized by using especially slope of the Quirinal has an elegant travertine-
strong blocks only where they were needed, and facade with an arched entrance through a high
cheaper kinds where they were not. This is podium, crowned by a delightful floral frieze
typical for the Late Republican centuries. Fron- and dentils under the moulding of the cornice.
tinus, in hisfamous work on the aqueducts of Tomb chambers of tufa ashlar have been
Rome, in discussing the Marcia (1, 7) tells us excavated on the Esquiline. A much-discussed
that when the officials in charge of the Sibylline historical painting in one of them represents a

hooks were consulting them for another pur- transaction between a Roman general and prob-

pose, they discovered that the water from the ablv an enemy and is generally dated to the late-

Ri\er Anio, which furnished the Marcia with third or earl) second century. In the Via di S.

water, ought not to be brought to the Capitol. Croce in Gerusalemme, south-east of Republi-
Marcius Rex's influence overcame these can Rome, are chamber tombs with plain

scruples, but the episode indicates that the new facades of tufa ashlar, built by well-to-do freed-
high aqueducts were felt to have broken the men of noble Roman families. One is decorated
continuity of time-honoured traditions." " This with sculptured shields, as were the halls of
is one of the most impressive instances of the archaic Etruscan tombs and as is seen in Roman
clash between old Roman habits and new struc- architecture through the centuries. Above the
tural ideas. doors of two others were travertine slabs with
portraits in niches, characteristic of the Roman
realistic portraits of people of all classes, but
I ()\IHS \\l) CEMETERIES
probably resembling the cupboards in the atria

Something of the contest between ancient tradi- of the aristocracy in which portrait masks were
tions and Etruscan and hellenistic influences kept. On the one hand these middle-class tombs
appears also in the Roman cemeteries. The recall Etruscan grave-streets as seen in sixth-

tomb of the Scipiones has ahead] shown us a centurv Orvieto [no|; on the other, thev are the
chamber tomb in Rome of the Etruscan type. It predecessors of the endless tows ot small tomb-
was enlarged in the second century and em- houses outside towns of the Imperial Vge.
bellished b) the great sarcophagus of the consul In one of his Satires (1, N), I lorace describes a

ot 298, L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus. It displays burial place for paupers outside the agger ot the

a mixture of elements of the Doric and Ionic Servian Wall, before Maecenas laid out his gar-

styles which is characteristic of the second cen- dens, 'where of late one sadlj looked out on

tury. Of the same time is the present main ground ghastly with bleaching bones'. This was
facade of the tomb, facing a cross-road between a cemetery for inhumation tombs to which
the Via \ppia and the Via Latina. It consists ol slaves carried their fellows' corpses, cast out

a high podium, crowned by a heavy, moulded from narrow dwellings. The graves between
210 HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

the tomb-houses of the middle class in the walls are table tombs (loculi) in two or three
cemetery of I sola Sacra between Ostia and the storeys, closed by tiles (or in one case tiles and a

Imperial harbours, which are marked only by marble slab) as in the catacombs.
amphorae or concrete covers, show a consider- In the last centuries B.C. cremation became
ableimprovement on the former inhumation the prevailing form of burial. Rectangular en-
graves of the proletariat. Burials of this kind closures were surrounded by 6- or 7-foot-high
probably also took place outside the densely concrete walls. As there are no entrances, they
occupied areas of Imperial Age tomb-houses. must have been entered by ladders. The finds

Perhaps a martyr such as St Peter was buried in prove that funeral pyres for burning corpses
such a place. were lit in these busta, and that the urns con-

Although influences from the East may have taining the ashes could be buried there. Some-
contributed to the establishment of the vast sys- times there is added enclosure for the
also an

tem of Jewish and Christian catacombs in Im- pyre, an ustrinum. Niches in the walls for urns
perial Rome, one should remember that as early were added to the busta later - no doubt the
as Late Republican times chamber tombs could origin of the columbaria of the Augustan Age.
be enlarged to galleries with tiers of coffin-like Enclosures of this kind, from the very end of the
recesses for inhumation. A subterranean rock- Late Republican Age and Early Imperial times,
cut tomb north-west of Antium has three gal- have been excavated in a cemetery outside the
leries connected by a vestibule. Along the side Porta Laurentina of Ostia, among the crowded

183. Rome, tomb of S. Sulpicius Galba,

consul of 108 B.C.
 TOMBS AND CEMETERIES • 211

burial grounds north of St Peter's (below the Two Roman tombs outside Agrigento, dating
present car park), and among the graves round from the beginning of the first centurj , give us a

S. Paolo fuori le Mura.' 1

full- impression of the elegant new style of
Associated with the cremation tombs are the repositories for urns. In these two the struc-
most conspicuous and typical burials of the age: tures above the high podia are preserved and
the monuments in the hellenistic style which prove clearly the dependence of these podium
were aligned along the roads outside the city tombs on the hellenistic architecture of Asia

gates, as can still be seen among the Imperial Minor. In the 'Oratory of Phalaris' a low

tombs of the Via Appia. The surroundings of podium containing the tomb chamber supports
Pompeii display this new and charming feature a small prostyle tetrastyle Ionic temple with a

of the towns. Such monuments were erected b\ Doric entablature, used for the memorial ser-
wealthy and cultivated citizens and became the vices. The 'Tomb of Theron' [ 184] is a quad-
fashion. To this day they bring us personal mes- rangular cella raised above podium with a
a high
sages from the Pompeians and their hellenistic heavy moulded cornice containing the tomb
culture as we approach or leave their towns. A chamber. The Doric entablature rests on Ionic-

tombstone of a Vestal Virgin on one of the green columns at each of the four corners of the small
banks of the Anio at Tibur (Tivoli) and Cyn- building. On all four walls are elegant blind
thia's injunctions, preserved in a delightful doors. Clearly this kind of tomb had no relation

poem by Propertius (I v, 7. 81 f.) composed the to indigenous Italic burial traditions.

night after she had been cremated, prove that

tombstones were also erected where rivers
184. Agrigento, 'Tomb of Theron',
entered towns:
hellenistic

Where fruitful Anio broods among its

branchy fields, . . .

There on a pillar write a phrase worthy of

me.
But short, to catch the Roman traveller's

eye:
Here in the earth of Tiber golden Cynthia
lies,
<IJ
A glory added, Anio, to your banks.
(Gilbert Highet's translation)

Between the Porticus Acmilia on the Tiber

and the horrea of Galba was erected a tomb for

S. Sulpicius Galba, the consul of oS 1 1 1

83 1. It is

a quadrangular monument of Monte Verde tufa

with an inscription tablet of travertine. The

preserved lower part of the monument rests

upon a substructure of two courses of tufa

blocks with a moulded cornice, and was decor-
ated by ten fasces, five on each side of the in-
scription. Nothing remains of the structure
which crowned the tomb. The tomb of the
Sempronii on the Quirinal (see above, p. 20())

should also be mentioned once more in this con-

nexion.
185. Rome, tomb of C. Poplicius Bibulus, c. 60 B.C.

Contemporary with these tombs and closely painted decoration, as in the great basilica of
them is the tomb of C. Poplicius Bibu-
related to Praeneste [161]. Though this monument has
lus which stood outside a gate of the Servian some Roman flavour, the general hellenistic

Wall in front of the northern slope of the Capi- character is obvious.

toline Hill [185]. It was an oblong, rectangular Altogether hellenistic is the charming Tomb
tufa structure with a facing of travertine, of the Garlands (Tomba delle Ghirlande), one
oriented north-westwards. The inscription to- of the monuments outside the Porta Ercolano
wards the street outside the gate testifies that it on the western side of Pompeii. It is all ashlar
was erected by the Senate 'honoris virtutisque work. Upon a low podium the tomb is raised,

causa'. The building above the podium seems rectangular in shape, probably containing a
to have been a small temple in otitis with a nar- cella for the urn. The wall is decorated by ele-
row prodomus resembling the 'Oratorio di gant short flat pilasters with garlands between
Falaride\ In the centre of the south-west side is them. ,3
The hellenistic tombs on the Via Appia
a fairly wide door, where perhaps a statue was also remain.

placed. Right and left of this door and at the Tombs of a different kind adorn the Via
corners of the back wall are Tuscan pilasters. Appia outside the great wall which connects the
Resting on them is the architrave and a frieze town of Terracina with the castrum on the Hill
with garlands hanging from bucrania and of Jupiter Anxur. They are constructed of
decorated also by libation bowls above the gar- coarse concrete covered by opus incertum,
lands. Between the pilasters were tablets with a which, as always, was once stuccoed and
protecting cornice above, probably intended for painted. The tomb chambers have their facades
 TOMBS AND CEMETERIES 213

towards the Via Appia. Above a podium, with It has already been mentioned (p. 97) that
a cornice, stands the monument. It has semi- Etruscan tombs with a central column support-
columns at the corners, of baked brick, like the ing the apex of a vault or rock-cut ceiling in-
strengthening layers which Vitruvius describes. spired Late Republican builders. That seems
The bases of the semi-columns and the quoins clearly to be the case also with regard to Pliny's
of the podium are of stone. These facades were description (XXXVI, 91) of the tomb of King
probably crowned by a tympanum, suggesting Porsenna at Chiusi. A tomb of the Imperial Age
a temple cella with two columns prostyle. " on the Via Appia outside Ariccia displays all the
Occasionally tombs now show romantic
also most characteristic features of the early model.
historical associations, a caprice which, how- Hut, while such fancies remained rare, the old
ever, became more popular only in Imperial Etruscan and Latin mounds had a renaissance
times. Pyramids, for example, as tombs in ceme- of great importance and long duration all over
teries and references in poetry prove, became the Empire. How far they surpassed their
fashionable in Augustan times. A corbelled Etruscan prototypes in monumental height and
tholos tomb outside Cumae, generally dated to grandeur is manifested by the mausolea of
the third century but very likely later, seems to Augustus and Hadrian, or - to adduce an ex-
be an archaistic imitation of Bronze Age Greek ample from the provinces - the 'Tombeau de la
,
beehive tombs. One of these, as we know from Chretienne in Xumidia. This predilection for

Pausanias (11, 16. 6), perhaps the so-called the tombs of the at an reges (to use Horace's
'Treasury of Atreus', remained famous and was phrase from his first ode) had begun already in a
visited in Roman times. The Italian imitation more modest and genuinely Etruscan way in
has a dome with straight walls resting upon a Late Republican times. On the Via \ppia some
41
high dado with moulded cornice.' five miles south of Rome are three mounds

**v

186. Rome, Via Appia, tumuli, from the south. The nearest pair aix the 'Tumuli degti < >ra/i'

in the distance the 'Tumulo dei Curia/i'

214 ' HELLENIZED ROME 'CONSUETUDO ITALICA'

showing the most patent Etruscan ancestry, the the innovators: yet he himself was tireless in
Tumulo dei Curiazi and the two Tumuli degli drawing up rules for achieving a purified style

Orazi [186]. The northernmost of the Orazi in thenew public buildings and for expressing
tumuli is pre-Augustan and stands, as far as our in them the authority sought by Augustus. Like

knowledge goes, at the beginning of the series. Caesar before him, Augustus aimed in this way
Like the smaller Etruscan mounds of the sixth at revealing the greatness of Rome's finally

and fifth centuries, such Roman tumuli often stabilized power by his modernized Rome. Yet
have tomb-chambers in the centre, accessible by the great new programme of the city of Rome
a dromos. The podium is reminiscent of the was mainly a new, more splendid, classicized

Etruscan rock-cut podia [36], but was built up version of the hellenized Late Republican town,
with a facade of tufa ashlars, backed up by in- described by Vitruvius in his fifth book. As
ternal semicircular supporting walls. On top of Pliny points out (xxxm, 151, and passim), the
the podium, round the lowest part of the mound, new luxury was inspired by hellenistic splen-
small upright stone slabs seem to have been dour; but no one can understand the leading
arranged. Strict axiality and the height and architectural devices of Augustan and Early
monumentality of the podia became more and Imperial Rome who does not keep in mind that
more accentuated later on, and constituted a they enshrined the traditions of some six cen-
difference between the colossal Roman tombs turies. These centuries began with the great
and the greatest old Etruscan mounds - espe- Etruscan architecture of the seventh and sixth
cially those with scattered chambers; but the centuries and the early Roman version of it, at

beginnings show the closest affinity with what a time when Rome became a forceful, more
could be seen in so many places between the independent branch of the Etruscan culture of
Tiber and the Arno, and in Latium as well. 96 central Italy. In the course of increasing com-
merce with the Greek towns, both the Etrus-
cans and the Romans created their own archi-
CONCLUSION
tectural dialect and their own patterns for

Rarely does the beginning of a new epoch stand towns, to be remembered beside the great
out as clearly as does the Age of Caesar and Greek solutions: the Homeric and Archaic
Augustus - in contemporary testimonies, in art, towns, which inspired the early Etruscans, and
in the whole political system, and also in archi- the classical and hellenistic towns, which had
tecture, as the nova magnificentia (Livy, 1, 56. 2; such world-wide influence. Cicero once wrote
cf. 55. 9) and a severely classical style broke with to Atticus (xi 1
1, 35) that he thought it scandal-
the freer architectural decoration in the Greek ous that Caesar, wishing to enlarge Rome,
style as it had characterized the last century of should summon a Greek architect, who 'two
the Republic and the time of Caesar. The years before' had never even seen the city: 'O
marble of Luna (Carrara) was discovered, or, in rem indignam.'
any case, first fully exploited; it was easy to ex- Examining Late Republican Rome, one sees

port, since the quarries stood above the harbours everywhere that the starting-points for Imperial

of Luna, and the cargoes could be conveyed to development were principally the hellenized
Rome on the Tiber. Strabo tells us that marble Roman features analysed in this chapter, and
from Luna, monolithic slabsand columns, be- that it was not a question of making direct
came used for superior work of all kinds, both copies of contemporary hellenistic architecture.
in Rome and in other towns. 97
The final victory The monumental axiality which we see at Prae-
of marble in all public buildings, the perfect neste, at Tibur, at Terracina, had acquired its

Augustan reticulate, and many distinctive ex- own characteristics; in its Roman shape it now
ternal features mark thisnew start in Roman became the guide for the builders of the Im-
architecture. Vitruvius comments bitterly upon perial fora, the thermae, and almost all the
 CONCLUSION •
215

monumental architecture of the Empire. No suburb of Nicopolis, outside Alexandria, and

less decisive for the future was the combination its Roman architecture of Caesar's time, which
of Greek, Etruscan, and Italic idioms in the even in a centre such as the capital of the Ptole-
temples and in various types of upper-class mies already surpassed the hellenistic buildings.
houses. Theatres and tenement houses were He mentions especially an amphitheatre and a
left to the Augustan architect to perfect, but the stadium, and here we should again remember
principles were already in existence, as were also the amphitheatrical cistern in the Egyptian
the use of concrete, vaulting, warehouses, paved landscape of the Praeneste mosaic.
streets, high aqueducts on arches, and vaulted Behind all this architectural progress, we
sewers in their improved Roman shape. must recall Yitruvius, brooding over the perfect
The inner propylaea of Eleusis, built by styles of building, and affirming in the introduc-
Appius Claudius Pulcher about 50 B.C., and, tion to his seventh book the great knowledge of
among other Roman architectural achieve- Roman architects of the Eate Republican Age.
ments, the capitolia and the axiality created by This is his comment on an early-first-century
the odeion in the Agora in Athens, prove that the temple in Rome: 'If it had been of marble, so
Roman variety of hellenistic architecture had that besides the refinement of art it possessed
made its way in the Eastern world even before the dignity which comes from magnificence and
Imperial times. '^ It is most illuminating to read great outlay, it would be reckoned among the
the comments of Strabo (xvn, 1. 10) on the first and greatest works of architecture.'
 217

LIST OF PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS

\iiii : Other abbreviated titles are given fully in the general bibliography
or in the relevant chapter bibliography.

icta ith. Suec. Icta Institutt . itheniensis Ream Sueciae

icta Rmn. Suec. icta Institutt Romant Re«m Sueciae (Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institute! 1 Rum)
(cf. Opus. Rmn.)
i.J. I. American Journal oj Archaeoh
\ndrcn, Origine \. \ndren, 'Origine e formazione dell'architettura templare etrusco-italica', Rend.
Runt., \\\ii (1959 60), 21-59
In;. in haeologist her inzeiger (in J.D.A.I.)
trek. CI. ircheologia 1 lassie a

B. l.S.O.R. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

B.C.I I. Bulletin dc correspondence hellenique
B.d.'Arte Bullet turn d'. trie

Blake (1947) Marion Blake, indent Raman Construction in Italy /rum the Prehistoric Period to

Augustus. Washington, 11)47

Boethius Ward-Perkins A. Boethius and J. B. Ward-Perkins, Etruscan and Raman Architecture [Pelican His-
tory oj In). Harmondsworth, 1970
B.P.I. Biillettinii di paletnologia italiana
Bull. Comm. Bul/ettini) delta Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Ruma
C.I.L. (Ji»f>us inscriptionum latinarum
Civilta del Jerro Civilta del Jem/. Studt pubblicati nclla ricorrenza centenaria delta scoperta di I illanova.
Document e studt a cura delta Deputazione di Sturm P atria per le Province di
1

Romagna, \ i960) 1 (

Cosa J. II F. Brown and Emeline H. and L. Richardson, W. /. I.R., xx(i95i), 12 m^xwii

(i960)
Crema L. Crema, V Architettura romana (Enciclopedia classica, [II, vol. xn, Archeologia
(Arte romana)). Turin, [959
Dionysius Dionysius of Halicarnassus
Ducati P. Ducati, Sturia dell' arte etrusca, 2 vols. Florence, 1927
Dura The Excavations at Dura Europos. Preliminary Reports. New Haven, 1921) 52
Encicl. Art. - int. Enciclopedia dell' arte antica classica e orientate. Rome, 1958 73
Funics G. Lugli, ed., Fontes ad topographiam veteris urbis Romae pertinentes
Forma I rbis G. Carettoni, \ M. Colini, 1. Cozza, (i. (Jatti, eds.. La Pianta marmorea di Ruma
antica, Forma Urbis Romae. Rome, 19(10
Giglioli G. Q. Giglioli, V
trte etrusca. Milan, [935

Gjerstad, Early Rome E. Cijerstad, Early Runic. \ U ta Rum. Suec., in 4". \\ 11). 1953-73
1 1 (

G.G. I. Gbttingische gelehrte Anzeigen

I.L.N. Illustrated London Vews
Imuran Itinerart del Muset e Monumenti d' Italia. Rome, Libreria dello Statu
7.1) l I Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts
III S Journal oj Hellenic Studies
J.R.S. Journal »/ Roman Studies
LugU, l\\ nica edilizia (J. Lugli, /.,/ Tecnica edilizia romana con particolare riguardo a Ruma c Lazio. Rome,
|<K7
1/ / l.R. Memoirs oj the imerican icademy m Rome
Mel. Rome. W, :,i>i^cs d'art heologie et d'histoire de VEcole Francaise de Rome
Mem. Lim Memorie dell' tccademia Nazionale dei Lincet
2l8 • LIST OF PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS

Mem. Pont. Atti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia, Memorie

Mon. Ant. Monumenii antichi
Nash E. Nash, Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome. 2 vols. 2nd ed. London, 1968
N.S. Notizie degli scavi di antichita
Opus. Arch. Opuscula archaeologica
Opus. Rom. Opuscula Romana. Studies collected in special volumes of Acta Rom. Suec.
P.A.A.R. American Academy in Rome, Papers and Monographs
P.B.S.R. Papers of the British School at Rome
Platner-Ashby S. B. Platner, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Completed and rev. by
T. Ashby. London, 1929
Polacco L. Polacco, Tuscanicae dispositiones. Padua, 1952
P.P.S. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society
Proc. Brit. Ac. Proceedings of the British Academy
P.W. Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie der classischen Alter tumswissenschaft
Rend. Line. Rendiconti dell' Accademia dei Lincei
Rend. Nap. Renduonti della Accademia di Archeologia, Letter e e Belle Arti di Napoli
Rend. Pont. Atti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia, Rendiconti
Rh.M. Rheinisches Museum fiir Philologie
R.M. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts. Ronusche Abteilung
San Giovenale Etruscan Culture, Land and People. Archaeological Research and Studies Conducted in
San Giovenale and its Environs by Members of the Swedish Institute in Rome. Colum-
bia University Press, New York, 1962
Scavi di Ostia G. Calza, Maria F. Squarciapino, G. Becatti, Raissa Calza, Scavi di Ostia, i-v. Rome,
1953-64
Serv. ad Aen. Servu grammatia qui feruntur in Vergilu commentarit. Recensuerant Thilo et H. G
Hagen. Aenaidos librorum commentari. Recensuit G. Thilo. Leipzig, 1881. (Ser-
vius on the Aeneid)
St. Etr. Studi etruschi
von Gerkan,
Gesammelte Aufsdtze A. von Gerkan, Von antiker Architektur und Topographs. Gesammelte Aufsdtze (ed
E. Bohringer). Stuttgart, 1959
NOTES
Bold numbers indicate page references.

CHAPTER I etrusque (Paris, 1972), 17-40.Bed of pebbles in an

Apennine hut at San Giovenale: San Giovenale
9. 1. Augustine, De Civitate Dei, 1 V, 31 (Yarro); Plut- (Swedish ed., Malmo, i960), 306, figure 265. Manfria
arch, Numa, VIII, 7 8. Tertullian, Apologeticus, XXV, near Gela: A. \V. van Buren, . 1,7 /., i.x\ (1960,387,
12. plate 125; Boethius, 'La tomba del tetto stramineo a
10. 2. Diodorus, v, 39; 1 v, 20. For the latest discussion Cerveteri', Pu/ladio, XV (1965), 3-6. Sant'Omobono:
of Stone and Bronze Age settlements and material, Bull. Cotnm., lxxvii (1959-60), with studies by
see A. M. Radmilli, 'Dal paleolitico all'eta di bronzo', E. Gjerstad, R. Peroni, E. Paribeni, and G. Colonna;
Popoli e civilta dell' Italia antica, 1, 1 (1974), 69 ff. See Gjerstad, Early Rome, III, 387, 400-13, 460, 462 ff.
also T. E. Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy, Apennine huts around Civitavecchia: F. Barbaranelli,
and G. Patroni, Arclutettura preistorua generate ed B.P.I., N.S. IX (1954-5), 381-400; Anz. (1957), 260 f.

italica. Architettura etrusca. Especially important, in Casa Carletti: St. Etr., x (1936), 330, plate 32.2.
addition, are: G. von Kaschnitz-Weinberg, 'Italien Fortifications: Puglisi, op. at., 60, 79, 81, 85. Aeolian
mit Sardinien, Sizilien und Malta', Handbuch der islands : Bernabo Brea and Madeleine Cavalier, Civilta
Archdologie im Rahrnen des Handbuchs der Altertums- preistoriche delle isole eolte e del terntorw di Alilazzo
wissenschaft, VI, 2 (Munich, 1950), 311-402; M. Pal- (Rome, 1956); B.P.I., N.S. x (1956), 7-98; Bernabo
lottino, 'Le origini storiche dei popoli italici", Rela- Brea, Sicily before the Greeks, 103 ff. For Sicily also:
ziom delXCongresso Internazionale Ji Scienze Storiche; E. Sjoqvist, A.J.A., lxii (1958), 157 (Morgantina).
C. F. C. Hawkes, The Prehistoric Foundations of Mycenaean finds: W. Taylour, Mycenaean Pottery in
Europe Mycenaean Age; V. G. Childe, The Damn
to the Italy and Adjacent Areas (Cambridge, 1958); F.
of European Civilization, 6th ed. (London, 1957), and Biancofiore, La civilta micenea nell' Italia meridionale
Prehistoric Migrations in Europe (Oslo, 1950); A. M. (Rome, 1963); Luigia Achillea Stella, La civilta

Radmilli, Ea preistoria a" Italia. For Sicily L. Bernabo : micenea net document i contemporanei (Rome, 1965),
Brea, Sicily before the Greeks. For caves: F. Bianco- 218, note 71; C. E. Ostenberg, Luni, 128-45.
fiore, La civilta dei cavernicoli delle Murge barest 15. 5. 'Anaktoron' of Pantalica: Bernabo Brea, Sicily
(Bologna, 1964). Round villages of Apulia: J. Brad- before the Greeks, 162 ff. Tombs: ibid., plate ^^ ff. For
ford, Ancient Landscapes (London, 1957), 86-103; truddhi, trulli: Patroni, Architettura preistorua, 92,

J. B. Ward-Perkins, 'The Early Development of 125; G. Chierici, 'I trulli in pericolo", Palladia, N.S. 1

Roman Town-Planning', Acta Congressus Madvigiani, (1951), 125-7.

iv (Copenhagen, 1958), 109 ff. 6. The Terramare were first distinguished from the

11. 3. C. E. Ostenberg, Luni; A. Boethius, 'La con- Apennine culture by Rellini (cited Note 4), Patroni,
tinuity dello habitat etrusco nella zona di S. Giovenale Athenaeum, N.S. VIII (1930), 425-51, and E. Ciaceri,
di Bieda', Fondazione per il Museo Claudio Faina, Le origini di Roma (Milan, 1037), 153-6. The compre-
Orvieto, Collana di Quaderni d'archeologia e di stona hensive work is: G. Saflund, Le Terremare delle pro-
(1964), 5 ff- vincie dt \Aodena, Reggio Emilia. Parma. Piacenza
14. 4. For the Apennine culture: A. M. Radmilli, op. ( Lia Rom. Succ, VII, 1939); see Rellini's review in
cit. (Note 2); L. Rellini, 'Le stazioni enee delle B PL. n.s. in (1939), 113-26, with additional
Marche', Mon. Ant., xxxiv (1931), 130-280; 'Sulla remarks loc. at., iv (1940), 169 73, and in // Lazio
enea in Italia', B.P.I., LIU (1933), 65-
civilta dell'eta nella preistoria Ji Roma (Rome, 1941), 29. For the

94; D. Trump, 'The Apennine Culture of Italy', date: J. E. Forssander, 'Europaischc Bronze-ait'.
P.P.S., wt\ (1958), 105 200; R. Peroni, 'Per una Kungl. I etenskapssamfundet 1 Lund. Arsberattelse
definizione dell'aspetto culturale "subappenninico" 1938-1939,111,76 'M.I Matz, Klio, xxxill (1940),
come fase cronologica a se stante". Mem. Line, ser. 8, 143-8; \\\\ (K)42), 303 ff. For the earlier urnfields
ix (i960), 3-253; S. \1 Puglisi, La 1 1: ilia appenninica, of the Iron Vge and their supposed connexion with
especially 43 54, with A. C. Blanc's critique of Pugli- the Terramare see Trump, 190, 194, and Puglisi, 78,
si's excavations, Rivista di antropologia, XLIV 57 ( 1 <
>
) both cited in Note 4.

243-63. For south Italy, see Chapter 2, Note 2. 7. Pertosa Peet, The. Stone and Bro
: I 1 Italy,
Bolsena: R. Bloch, Recherches archeologiques en terri- 405 ff., and Patroni, Ire hitettura preistorua, 76, figure
toire volsinien de la protohistoire a la civilisation 97. Delia Brusadin, 'Figurazioni architettoniche nelle
220 • NOTES TO CHAPTER I

incisioni rupestri di \ alcamonica. Ricostruzione della tribes of Campania and Samnium before the Etrus-
piu anticadimoracamuna', B.P.I.,^.s. xiii (i 960-1), cans and before the Samnites of central Italy and the
33-1 12; E. Anati, Camomca Valley (New York, 1961). eastern coast invaded Campania in the fifth century
18. 8. G. Lilliu, La civilta dei sardi dal neolitico all' eta B.C. The Oscans of the coastal w ere no doubt akin
plain
dei nuraghi; Margaret Guido, Sardinia; G. Lilliu, / to the Samnites of the mountains of central Italy and
nuraghi, torn preistoriche di Sardegna (Verona, 1962). the eastern coast (see E. T. Salmon, Samnium and the
[The date of the earliest nuraghi is still disputed: E. Samnites (Cambridge, 1967), 28 ff.). Primitive Rome:
Contu, 'La Sardegna dell'eta nuragica', Popolie civilta Plutarch, Romulus, ix, xi; Dionysius, I, 88; F. Casta-
dell'Italia antica, in, 2 (1974), 146 ff., 198 f.] For gnoli,Ippodamo, 67-72; 'Roma quadrata', Arch. CI.,
Malta: J. D. Evans, Malta. Relations between Iron xvi (1964), 178-80, with references and bibliography,
Age Etruria and Sardinia: G. Bartoloni and F. Del- to which Y. Hedlund, 'Mundus', Eranos,\\\\ (1933),

pino, St. Etr., xliii (1975), 40 ff. Important is a find 53-70, must be added. For the Terramare and their
of one of the Sardinian figurines in a tomb of the Early supposed regular planning, see Chapter 1, Note 6, and
Iron Age: M. T. Falconi Amorelli, Arch. CI., win Castagnoli, Ippodamo, 9-10.
(1966), 1-15, plate 2. Carthaginians and Phoenicians 4. Rapino: Anz. (1959), 224 f. ; Studi Caldermt-
in Sardinia: G. Pesce, Sardegna punica (Cagliari, Panheni, in (1956), 311 f.
1961); S. Moscati, 'The First Inland Carthaginian 23. 5. Dionysius, 1, 88; Macrobius, V, 19.13; C. O.
City to be found in Sardinia', I.L.N. (3 April 1965), Thulin, Die Ritualhucher . . . Gotehorgs Hcigskolas
19; F. Barreca, La Sardegna fenicia e punica (Sassari, Arsskrift, 1 (Gothenburg, 1909), 3-10. For the rite in
1 974). Famous is the Roman gibe preserved by Festus, the Roman colonies see the well-known relief from
'Sardi venales, alius alio nequior'. Aquileia [9] in addition to coins like those of Beirut:
R. Mouterde and J. Lauffray, 'Beyrouth, ville ro-
maine". Publications de la Direction des Antiquites de
chapter 2 Lihan. Villes libanaises, 1 (Beirut, 1952). Pomerium
and Argeorum Sacraria: Platner-Ashby, s.v. Tacitus,
20. 1. IronAge huts at San Giovenale: San Giovenale, Ann., xn, 24; Livy, 1, 44; Sen. ad Aen., v, 755. See
292 ff. For recent discussions of Early Iron Age alsoMomigliano, J.R.S., xxxin (1943), 121; Agnes
cemeteries in Etruria, see H. Hencken, Tarquima, Kirsopp Michels, 'The Topography and Interpreta-
I illanovans and Early Etruscans; (for Yeii) Close- tion of the Lupercalia', T.A.P.A., lxxxiv (1953),
Brooks, 'Considerazioni sulla cronologia delle facies 35 ff; von Gerkan, Rh. M., xevi (1953), 27 ff., and
arcaiche deU'Etruria", St. Etr., XXXV (1967), 323 ff. Gjerstad, Early Rome, ill, 44. Bologna: N.S. (i960),
I. Age Necropolis ofSorbo at Cerveteri
Pohl, The Iron 291.
(Stockholm, 1972). [For Iron Age Rome and Latium 6. Huts at Rome: Gjerstad, Early Rome, n, 282-6;
the researches of Gjerstad (Early Rome, i-vi) and III, 48-78, reviewed by Romanelli, Gnomon, XXXVI
Gierow The Iron Age Culture of Latium) are funda-
( (1964), 816-23; Romanelli, 'Certezze e ipotesi sulle
mental, but their chronological conclusions have not origini diRoma", Studi Romam, (1965), 165 ff. xm
found general acceptance: see the review by D. Ridg- Palatine cemeteries: G. Carettoni, B.P.I., N.S. ix
\\a\,J.R.S., LViil (1968), 235-40; M. Pallottino, 'Le (1954-5), 261 ff. Leontini, Syracuse, and Lipari:
origini di Roma', in H. Temporini
und (ed.), Aufstieg Bernabo Brea, Sicily before the Greeks, 142 f. and 172 f.
Niedergang der rbnuschen Welt, and New- 1, 1 (Berlin Huts at Luni and San Giovenale: San Giovenale,
York, 1972), 22-47 (with useful bibliography); G. 293 ff, 321 ff. Riemann, 'Die schwedischen For-
;

Colonna, 'Preistoria di Roma e del Lazio", Popoli e schungen in Sudetrurien 1956- 1962', Gymnasium,
civilta dell'Italia antica, n, 4 (1974), 275-346.] Vel- LXII (1965), 331-3.
letri tomb: N.S. (1893), 198 ff., figure 1. Tivoli grave 26. 7.The model from Sala Consilina: Mostra della
circles: B.P.I., xv (1964), 187 ff. Yetulonia: Blake preistoria e della protostona nel Salermtano, Catalogo

(1947), 7i- IQ62, 64, 71, no. 168 (Tomb 63), figure 19; Apollo, 11
2. For south Italy : B. d'Agostino, 'La civilta del ferro (1962), 85, figure 11. Cf. lavish acroteria on the roofs
nell' Italia meridionale e nella Sicilia", Popoli e civilta of Etruscan temples, Chapter 3, p. 61. Semi-subter-
dell'Italia antica, II, 1 (1974), 10-91; see also L. Ber- ranean huts Luni and San Giovenale P. Hellstrbm,
at :

nabo Brea and Madeleine Cavalier, Mylai (Novara, Luni sul Mignone, 11, 2 (in Acta Rom. Suec. in 4 ,

1959), and L. Pareti in Greet e Italia in Magna Graecia XXVII n, 2 (1975)); San Giovenale, 298. Flood
:

(Naples, 1962), 155-7, with the review of Emeline danger makes it perhaps less likely that the sunk rooms
Hill Richardson, A J. A., lxviii (1964), 408 f. Sala were themselves habitations rather than basements
Consilina: J. de la Geniere, Recherches sur I'dge dufer below protecting buildings above. For contemporary
en Italie meridionale : Sala Consilina (Naples, 1968). Greek houses cf. H. Drerup, 'Zum geometrischen
21. 3. By 'Oscans' I mean the old, Indo-European Haus', Marhurger Winckelmann-Programm (1962),
 i
9; 'Griechische Vrchitektur zur Zeit des 1 lomers', \ isca', La Parola del Passato, XXVI (1971), 44 67. For |

hi;. (i<)(>4), i.No 219; \. Cambitoglou, Zagora, 1 Ischia: G. Buchner, 'Pithekoussai, oldest (neck
(Sydney, 11)71). ( olonj in the West', Expedition, VI 11, 4 ( 1966), 4 12;
27. 8. J. Sundvall, Die italischen Hiittenurnen (Acta and D. Ridgway, loc. cit., gives a full bibliography.
Academiae iboensis Humaniora, v 5) [925); W. R. 1 :
( Margherita Guarducci's explanation of the inscription
Brvan, 'Italic Hut Urns and Hut I rn Cemeteries', about Nestor's cup. Rend. Line., ser. 8, \\ (1961), 1

P. I.
(1925); Gjerstad, Early Runic, 11;
I R., i\ 3-7, seems to me evident. Suggestions thai Nestor was
Gierow, The Iran Age Culture of Latium; 'A Latial only one of the seamen are far-fetched and contrary
Iron Age Tomb-Group', The Museum oj Mediter- to theHomeric style of the text, which, in any case,
ranean and Wear Eastern Antiquities, Bulletin V<. 2 proves Homeric influence.
(Stockholm, 1962), 32 8; \ndren, 'An Italic Iron Age 12. I have collected material proving that Etruscan
Hut I rn", ibid., Bulletin Wo. 4 (111(14), 3° 7- Mtiller- was the language of the whole population of Etruria
ECarpe, Vom Anfang Rums (with unfounded theories and whollv different from Latin (San Giovenale, 36).
about affinities with Crete and Este), 4s 51. Inter- The names of the Tiber prove the same: Lydia ripa,
pretation of the ridge-logs: Andren, Architectural Statius, Silvae, 1 v , 4. 4 ripa veientana pater nifluminis
; ;

Terracottas, xxv f. Strips of tin: Berta Stjernquist, ripae, Horace (to Maecenas), Odes, I, 20, 5 I.; and
'La decorazione metallica delle ceramiche villanoviane others. Important is Dionysius's statement (1, 30) that
in una nuova illustrazione', Civiltd del ferro, 4.1 1 ff. the Etruscan language was unlike all known languages,
The lid of the stele from Tarquinia | 19] is discussed cf. v, 28; l.ivv, l\, 36; \, 4. Latin occurs only in the
by Andren, Origine, 53 f. latest of the thousands of Etruscan tomb inscriptions,
28. u. Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, I, 21; when the Roman influence graduallv became more
Ovid, Tristia, III, 1, 29-30; Cassius Dio, fragment dominant than before.
6.2; Serv. ad Aen., \ 11, 153. Gjerstad, Early Rome, 31. 13. For the different tales about the Etruscans see
111, 310 20 with references to A. Bartoli's excava- I'M., s.v. Tyrrhcner; and II. Iencken, Tarquinia, 1

tions, Rend. Pont., xxi (1945 6), 5 ff., Mon. ////., \iv I 'illanovans and Early Etruscans, 003 ff. Important is
(1961), ig 68, and others. Regia: Plutarch, Numa, what the Emperor Claudius says about Etruscan his-
XIV, 1. Brown have revealed re-
Excavations by F. E. tory in his decree about Lyon; C.I.L., XIII, 1, 1668.
mains of the Early Iron Age village along the Via Sacra Pallottino is the leading authority among the defenders
below the Regia of - probably - about 500 B.C. F. E. : of the Italic The
origin of the Etruscans: see his
Brown, 'New Soundings in the Regia; the Evidence Etruscans, 2nd
(London, 1975), and 'Le origini
ed.
for the Early Republic', Entretiens stir l' an tt quite storiche dei popoli italici", Relaziom del A Congresso
(Fondation Hardt, 1967), 45-60 (rec-
classique, \iii Internazionale dt Scienze Storiche. See also The Ciba
tangular huts with curved corners); 'La protostoria Foundation Symposium on Medical Bud/ivy and Etrus-
della Regia', Rend. Pont., XLVI1 (1974-5), '5 3°- can Origins (1958); J. B. Ward-Perkins, 'The Problem
Romulus's hut appears still in the Libellus de
10. of Etruscan Origins', Harvard Studies in Classical
regionibus rbis Romae, Regio X in the fourth centurv
< Philology, Lxn (1959), 1 26; H. Hencken, 'A View
a.d.; Romanelli, Studt Romani, (1965), [56 ff. \m of Etruscan Origins', Antiquity, xi (1966), 205 1 1.

For other sources: /'mites, \ in, 1. liber \i\; Regio \ For different opinions: \. I urumark, Del aldsta
(Palatine), 51 ff. There was also a tugurium Faustuli: Italien, 161 ff., discusses the tradition about the
Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, 1, 18. Both Tyrsenians from Lemnos as the most probable an-
were on the south-western slope of the Palatine: Cas- cestors ot the Etruscans in Italy. G. Saflund, Historia,
tagnoli, Arch. (.'/., \\ 1
(1964), 174 f. \ [957), 10 21, identifies the population of the Earl]
1 (

30. 11. A useful analysis of the influence from the Iron Age and their new settlements ('the \ illanovans')
Eastern world: J. Boardman, The Creels Overseas with Etruscan immigrants. Recent excavations at the
(London, 1964). For summaries about the Greeks and Banditaccia cemeter) of Cerveteri reveal Earl) Iron
Italy: E. Wiken, Die Kunde der Hellenen von dem Age tombs among and below the Etruscan tombs.
Lande und den I oil-cm der tpenninenkalbinsel his joo They have been interpreted as remains ofa continuous
1. Chr. (Lund, 1937); T.
J.
Dunbabin, The Western development and intermediate links. To mv mind,
Greeks (Oxford, 1948), and more recent L D. Ridg- here the complex onlv proves that the Etruscans
way, 'The First \\ estem Greeks', in C. and S. Hawkes usurped the Iron Age cemeter) and that their new
(eds. ), Creeks Cells and Rinnans ( 1 .ondon, 1
073) |
New Iv pes ill tomb in smile cases influenced the old, local
light on the transmission of Greek ideas to the Etrus- population. \ civ important in anv c.isu is R. L. Lin-
cans isshed b\ the excavation of a Greek sanctuary of ington's article 'Prospezioni geohsiche a Cerveteri',
Ileraai Graviscae, theancient pod ofTarquinia, which Palatum, \{ [966), 147 57. SceaknP Bosch-Gimpera,
proves the presence ol a Greek community here in (he 'Reflexions sur le probleme des Etrusques', Melanges
sixth centurj : M. Torelli, 'II santuario di 1 lera a Gra- offertsa i. Piganiol (Paris, 1966), 639 53
222 • NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

14. It has to be borne in mind that nothing in our 4. For the flood of 54 B.C. : DioCassius, xxxix, 61. 2.
present material from Lydia reveals an emigration The famous words ascribed to Augustus (Suetonius,
corresponding to Herodotus's tale and the different Augustus, x x v 1 1
1 )
generalize in a misleading way. He
dates suggested by ancient sources, which can be com- adorned the town with marble columns and marble-
bined with what archaeological finds from Italy attest. faced temples, but the domestic architecture of his age
For Lydia: G. A. Wainwright, Anatolian Studies, IX was mostly built of concrete and covered by opus
(1959), 197 ff.; G. M. A. Hanfmann, 'Sardis und reticulatum.
Lydien', Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur 5.Mud-brick: Blake (1947), 277 ff.; Lugli, Tecnica
in Mainz. Abhandlungen. Geistes- und Sozialwissen- edilizia,529 ff. Terracottas: Andren, Architectural
schaftlichen Klasse, igbo, especially 510 f. and 523 f., Terracottas; L. and Emeline Richardson, Cosa, 11;
and the annual reports of the excavations at Sardes in A. Akerstrbm, 'Untersuchungen iiber die figiirlichen
B.A.S.O.R. from 1958 on; also J. G. Pedley, Sardis Terrakottafriese aus Etrurien und Latium', Opus.
in the Age of Croesus (University of Oklahoma Press, Rom., 1 (1954), 191-231; Elisabeth D. van Buren,
1968). Hellenistic Lydian inscription: B.A.S.O.R., Figurative Terracotta Revetments in Etruria and
clxxvii (1965), 10. Latium in the VI and V Centuries B .C. (London, 1921);
Andren, 'Osservazioni sulle terrecotte architettoniche
etrusco-italiche', Opus. Rom., vni (1974), 1-16. The
CHAPTER 3 latter includes discussion of important new Archaic
from Murlo (Poggio Civitate) near Siena
terracottas

34. For the archaeology of the Etruscan cities:

1. and Acquarossa near Viterbo. For the Murlo friezes
G. Dennis, The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria; Luisa see further M. Cool Root, 'An Etruscan Horse Race
Banti, Ilmondo degli Etruschi; F. Coarelli (ed.), Le citta from Poggio Civitate', A.J. A., lxxvii (1973), 121-
etrusche; M. The Etruscans. The period of
Pallottino, 37, with bibliography; and for themonumental acro-
political decline brought about by the struggles with teria (human and animal figures): Poggio Civitate: il

Rome is discussed by H. H. Scullard, The Etruscan santuario arcaico (Florence, 1970), plates 6-20. For
Cities and Rome see also W. V. Harris, Rome in Etruna
; Acquarossa: Notes 38 and 53. The terracottas from
and Umbria (Oxford, 1971). [For further discussion of the two temples at Pyrgi are published in 'Pyrgi', N.S.
what Vitruvius means by tuscanicae dispositiones: F. E. (1970), Supplement II.

Brown, Art Bulletin, liv (1972), 342 f.] 36. 6. Piazza d'Armi, Veii: Stefani, Mon. Ant., xl
2. Wattle-and-daub: Blake (1947), 309. Ashlar (1944), 228 Andren, Architectural Terracottas,
ff. ;

masonry in Etruria: Blake (1947), 71-8. Timber con- 8 ff. idem, Origine, 24, figure 2; Ward-Perkins,
;

struction at Veii: Ward-Perkins, 'Excavations beside P.B.S.R., xvi (1961), 25 ff. Volsinii: R. Bloch, Mel.
the North-West Gate at Veii 1957-1958', P.B.S.R., Rome, lxii (1950), 74ff.; Maetzke, St. Etr., xxiv G
xiv (1959), 58-65. Stone construction at Veii: E. (1955-6), 252; Andren, Origine, 24 ff. The temple,
Stefani, N.S. (1922), 379 ff. Mud-bricks at Vetulonia: however, is hardly earlier than the third century B.C.;
I. Falchi, N.S. (1895), 272 ff. Marzabotto Mansuelli, : cf. G. Colonna, St. Etr., xxxm (1965), 200, note 19.
I.L.N. (13 October 1962), 557; R. A. Staccioli, 'Sulla 7. Satricum: Andren, Architectural Terracottas,
struttura dei muri nelle case della citta etrusca di 453~7- We now can compare also the smaller Temple
Misano a Marzabotto', St. Etr., xxxv (1967), 1 13-26. (B) at Pyrgi [28] (see below, Note 14).
35. 3. [At Rusellae not only a stretch of the town wall 37. 8. Models: R. A. Staccioli, Modelli di edifici
but also some entire buildings were constructed in etrusco-italici, 1 : Modelli votivi; Andren, Architectural
mud-brick: Clelia Laviosa, St. Etr., xxxm (1965), Terracottas, xxiv-XXXIV, and Origine. Discussions
49 ff. ; 'L'urbanistica delle citta arcaiche e le strutture of temple Agnes Rirsopp Lake, 'The
remains:
in mattoni crudi di Roselle', Atti del Convegno sulla Archeological Evidence for the "Tuscan Temple"',
citta etrusca e italica preromana (Bologna, 1970), 209 M.A.A.R., xii (1935), 89 ff.; Luisa Banti, 'II culto
ft.; F. Coarelli (ed.), Le citta etrusche, figure on page del cosiddetto "Tempio del Apollo" a Veii e il prob-
114.] Walls of Arretium published by L. Pernier, N.S. lema delle triadi etrusco-italiche', St. Etr., xvn
(1920), 171-90. Average measurement: 44 by 29 by (1943), 187-224; Polacco, 80 M. Cagiano de
ff.;

14 cm. (17! by 1 ik by 5^ in.), roughly corresponding Azevedo, 'I "Capitolia" dell'Impero Romano', Mem.
to Vitruvius's Lydian bricks (11,3. 3) and bricks from Pont., v (1941), 1-76; Maetzke, 'II nuovo tempio tus-

Vetulonia measuring 45 by 30 by 11 cm. (17^ by nf canico di Fiesole', St. Etr., xxiv (1955-6), 227-53;
by 4^ in.). A brick from Veii 30 by 23 by 15 cm. (1 if Piera Bocci, 'Nuovi scavi del tempio di Fiesole', St.
by 9 by 6 in.): Blake (1947), 276 ff. See further: Etr., xxix (1961), 411-15.
Ducati, 365 ff. R. Naumann, R.M., Erganzungsheft,
; Andren, Architectural Terracottas, XLI-xlvii;
38. 9.
in (1958), 17 f. Mud-brick wall of Gela: Encicl. Art. Maetzke, St. Etr., loc. cit., 247; F. Castagnoli, 'Peri-
Ant., in, 801, figure 994. pteros sine postico', R.M., lxii (1955), 139-43; A.
 223

Boethius, 'Yeteris capitoli humilia tecta', Acta Insti- discussion about the height of the columns, etc., to
tmt Romant Norvegiae, i (1962), 28, note 1. Alae is a observe that Yitruvius discusses temples with three
modern reading for alias of the MS. I am convinced cellas without alae (or temples with one cella and alae),
that the emendation is right and use it, in any case, while the Capitoline Temple had colonnaded wings
like Morgan as a terminus technicus for the open, outside its three cellas.
colonnaded wings outside the cella walls. S. Ferri, cit. (Note 8); Polacco, 94- 00
41. 13. Luisa Banti, loc . 1

Studi classici e orientali, Pisa, VI (1957), 235 ff., U. Bianchi, 'Disegno storico del culto capitolino
defends tiliac. nell'Italia romana e nelle provincie dell'impero', Mem.
10. E. Gjerstad, 'A proposito della ricostruzione del I. inc., ser. 8, 11 (1950), 349. (For recent evidence of a
tempio arcaico di Giove Capitolino in Roma', Acta possible triad at Murlo: T. N. Gantz, St. Etr., xxxix
InstitutiRomant Norvegiae, (1962), 35 ff. 1
(1971), 3-24. For the view that the three-cella plan
39. 11. Archaic evidence for temples with two col- was not adopted in Etruria before the period of
umns: Giglioli, CXLVI 1; Andren, Architectural Terra- Roman influence: Bianchi Bandinelli, 'Etrusca arte',
cottas, xxvi, no. 14; xxx, no. 32; F. Pfister, 'II santu- Encicl. Art. Ant., ill, 497.]
ario della Dea Marica alle foci del Garigliano', Mon. 42. 14. Ara della Regina at Tarquinia: P. Romanelli,
Ant., xxxvii (1938), 696-704. General discussion: N.S. (1948), 238 ff. Acropolis temple of Ardea:
Andren, op.cit.,XL\l I ff. Late specimens: Andren, op. Stefani, N.S. (1944-5), 81 ff.; Andren, Origine, 29 f.
of., XXXI I -XXXIV, G. Becatti, 'Un rilievo
nos. 41,47; Portonaccio Temple of Veii: Stefani, N.S. (1953),
con le oche capitoline', Bull. Comm., lxxi (1943-5), 29-1 12; Andren, op. cit., 26 ff. The smaller temple (B)
31-8; Nash, s.v. Juno Moneta. Largo Argentina: atPyrgi has been dated to the end of the sixth century,
Temple A, first period G. Marchetti-Longhi, 'L' Area
: and the typically Etruscan (Vitruvian) Temple A to c.
sacra del Largo Argentina", Itinerari (i960); Crema, 470-60: Pallottino, N.S. (1970), Supplement II, 741.
42. Teano: W. Johannowsky, 'Modelli di edifici da Pallottino,The Etruscans, 2nd ed., plate 51, shows the
Teano', B. a" Arte, xlvii (1962), 63 f. Alatri: Andren, most up-to-date restored plan of both temples. For the
Architectural Terracottas, 390 f, figure 36. Temples history of the sanctuary: Diodorus, XV, 14. 3; Strabo,
with four or more columns in the pronaus; the fourth- V, 2. 8. For the Yulci temple, see Note 18. Funda-
century temple excavated by M. Torelli between mental for the study of Etruscan and Roman archi-
Pyrgi and Civitavecchia with a cella measuring 26 by tecture is Etruscan and Republican Roman Mouldings
26 ft (8 by 8 m.), no alae, and columns only in the by Lucy T. Shoe. I insist that the Etruscan mouldings
pronaus: I.L.N. (6 May 1967), 24. For Roman speci- have to be understood in connexion with the common
mens: Cosa, II, 45. For the future of the Roman Archaic architecture of the Near East - such as the
temples with a cella, no alae, and four or more columns seventh-century 'Lydian' wall of the central mound at
in the pronaus, cf. the Maison Carree or - among Bin Tepe near Sardes (B.A.S.O.R., clxx vi (1965),
1

others - B. Cunliffe's reconstruction of 'The Temple 32, figure 30, and clxxxii (1966), 27-30) and the
of Sulis Minerva at Bath', Antiquity, XL (1966), 199- gradually refined Greek mouldings. All the same, I
204. admire Miss Shoe's convincing analysis of the 'Etrus-
40. 1 2. Vitru vius, 1 v, 7 (Morgan's translation)
:

' 1 . The can round', as it presents itself in a highly original and

place where the temple is to be built having been dynamic shape about 700 B.C. in the rock-cut founda-
divided on its length into six parts, deduct one and let tions of the tumuli at Caere, and retains a tactile
the rest be given to its width. Then let the length be quality even when Hellenistic taste started its over-
divided into two equal parts, of which the inner be whelming influence both in Etruria and Rome. Miss
reserved as space for the celiac, and the part next to Shoe emphasizes in a brilliant way the difference
the front left for the arrangement of the columns. between the Greek and otherwise individual later
2. Next let the width be divided into ten parts. Of Roman progressive refinement of the mouldings and
these, let three on the right and three on the left be the untrammelled spirit of the Etruscans. The Etrus-
given to the smaller celiac, or to the alae if there are to manner, disregarded accepted
cans, in their typical free
be alae, and the other four devoted to the middle of rules and developed their own shapes, as the im-
the temple. Let the space in front of the celiac, in the pression produced on the spectators by the structures
pronaus, be marked out for columns thus: the corner seemed to require. This creative Etruscan architec-
columns should be placed opposite the antae on the tural decoration belongs to the essential prerequisites
line of the outside walls; the two middle columns, set for its Roman offspring. The powerful Etruscan bold-
out on the line of the walls which are between the ness of conception has to be brought into special
antae and the middle of the temple; and through the prominence even when Etruscan capitals develop
middle, between the antae and the front columns, a Greek prototypes, as for instance in the Tomba delle
second row, arranged on the same lines.' (Cf. the re- Colonne Doriche at Caere (cf. Lucy Shoe, 128,
construction, illustration 22.) It is important for the XXXVII, 2, and Boethius, 'Of Tuscan Columns',
224 ' NOTES TO CHAPTER 3

A.J. A., l.xvi (1962), 251) or in the Etruscan Aeolic '3. The height of their bases should be one half of
capitals. On the other hand, of course, the evident that thickness. The plinth of their bases should be
basic Greek influence must be borne in mind, not- circular, and in height one half of the height of the
withstanding the fact that the Etruscans strongly re- bases, the torus above it and congee being of the same
modelled what they borrowed. For the podia, cf. height as the plinth. The height of the capital is one
especially Lucy Shoe, op. at., 83-94. half the thickness of a column. The abacus has a width
43. 15. Tomba Ildebranda: Bianchi Bandinelli, equivalent to the thickness of the bottom of a column.
Sovana, 76-86; Margarete Demus-Quatember, Etrus- Let the height of the capital be divided into three parts,
Grabarchitektur, 39.
kisclie and give one to the plinth (that is, the abacus), the
44. 16. Fiesole: Maetzke, loc. at. (Note 8); Piera second to the echinus, and the third to the necking
Bocci, loc. at. (Note 8). For another temple with a with its congee.'
single cella and alae: W. von Vacano, 'Zum
O. Commentary: Andren, Architectural Terracottas,
Grundriss des Tempels auf dem Talamonaccio', XL IX ff. For the measurements of Greek temples:
Hommages a Marcel Renard, in (Brussels, 1969), W. B. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece
675-94. Velletri model: Andren, Origine, 31 ff. (London and New York, 1950), 337 ff. Dr P. Astrom
46. 17. Pyrgi: see Note 14. [It is still open to question has checked the height of the columns of the Olvm-
whether the larger temple (A) had three cellas or one pieion. Gjerstad, Acta Instituti Romam Norvegiae, 1

cella and alae: Colonna, N.S. (1970), Supplement 11, (1962), 35-40 points out that Yitruvius's description
46 f.] Marzabotto: Andren, Architectural Terracottas, of the Capitoline Temple as 'low' (humilis) in his para-
313 f. I.L.N. (13 October 1962), 556, figure 1. Con-
; graph about the areostyle buildings (in, 3. 5) as it
trada Celle at Falerii, and Belvedere at Orvieto: stands, if not a misplaced recollection of the old
Andren, op. at., 81-8, 166 f. ; and Origine, 28. Temple temple, refers to the temple of 69 B.C. Further dis-
atBolsena: Bloch, Mel. Rome, i.xn (1950), 76 ff. cussion: Boethius, 'Nota sul Tempio Capitolino e
18. Yulci temple: Bartoccini, 'II tempio grande di Yitruvio in, 3. 5', Arctos, N.S.V. (1967), 45-9. [But
Yulci", Etudes etrusco-italiques (Louvain, 1963), 9-12. Yitruvius's rule concerns three-cella temples without
Capitoline Temple: Dionysius, III, 69 f. ; IV, 59; alae (or single-cella with alae), not, as here, three-cella
Livy, 55, 56. 1; X, 23. 12; XL, 51. 3; Pliny, XXVIII,
1, with alae.]
i4ff.; xxxiii, 57; xxxv, 157; xxxvi, 185. For other 23. Gjerstad, Early Rome, in, 423 f., figure 266.
references Platner-Ashby and Nash.
: 51. 24. Tuscan columns are presented in a masterly
47. 19. For the remains on the Capitoline Hill: way by Lucy Shoe, Etruscan and Republican Roman
Gjerstad, Early Rome, in, 168 ff San Giovenale, .
; Mouldings, 15 ff. Against scholars who have assumed
1

151 ff. I repeat that Yitruvius describes a temple with an internal Italic or Mycenaean prehistory for Tuscan
three cellas and eight columns in the pronaus, while columns (Ducati, 92; Andren, Architectural Terra-
the CapitolineTemple had columns along both sides cottas, liv f, and others), see Boethius, A.J. A., lxvi
(alae)and in front of the pronaus, which thus had (1962), 249-54; Polacco, 55-68. The oldest Tuscan
eighteen columns in front of the temple. For rough columns: Polacco, plate 6; Fiesole: St. Etr., xxix
substructures below podia and city walls: Ward- (1961), 413 f. ; Yignanello: G. Q. Giglioli, N.S. (1916),
Perkins, P.B.S.R., xxix (1961), 34 fl"., and Stefani, 41-4. For Morgantina, see E. Sjoqvist, A.J. A., lxii
N.S. (1944-5), 83, %ure 3. (1958), 160. It is interesting that Inigo Jones also had
48. 20. Gjerstad, Early Rome, in, 168-77. Temple C a special feeling for the Tuscan order as being the most
in Largo Argentina: Marchetti-Longhi, Bull.
the primitive of the five orders and closest to the vernacular
Ciimm., lx (1932), 280 'L'Area sacra del Largo
fl". ; (Sir John Summerson, 'Inigo Jones', Proc. Brit. Ac,
Argentina", loc. at. (Note 11); Crema, 42. L(i9&4), 174-6).
21. The temple of Ardea: Stefani, N.S. (1954), 6 ff. 52. 25. Forum Boarium: Gjerstad, Early Rome, III,
Lucy Shoe, Etruscan and Republican Rinnan Mould- 185 f, 448, figure 281, 1-2. Vulci: Polacco, 64, plate
ings, 20-2, 83-6. Altars: Shoe, op. cit., 94-109; Casta- 6. 16; Ducati, 394, figure 453 f For Aeolic capitals,
gnoli, 'Sulla tipologia degli altari di Lavinio', Bull. see illustration 82; Antonia Ciasca, // capitello del to
Comm., LXXVll (1959-60), 145-72, and my remarks, eolico in Etruna (Florence, 1962); Lucy T. Shoe,
A.J.A., lxvi (1962), 253. A.J.A., lxvi 1 1 (1964), 409 f. Doric capitals: St. Etr.,

49. 22. For the temple of 69 B.C. see below, p. 163 f. 1 (1927), 167, plate 46 b; San Giovenale, 71.
Yitruvius's rule for the columns (iv, 7) is: 53. 26. Norchia: Rosi, J.R.S., XV (1925), 43, figure
'2. Let the thickness of the columns at the bottom 38; Polacco, 64 f. Tomba Ildebranda: see Note 15.
be one seventh of their height, their height one third 'Peopled capitals': E. von Mercklin, Antike Ptgural-
of the width of the temple, and the diminution of a kapitelle (Berlin, 1962).
column at the top, one fourth of its thickness at the 57. 27. Yitruvius's words about a tympanum 'either
bottom. of masonrv or wood' reveal that he could have had a
 22 5

Late Etruscan or Republican stone-built temple in mil Jynd utgivna med anledning av II. W. Konung
mind. Stillicidium: Andren's commentary in Archi- GustafVl Adults sjutti&rsdag (Stockholm, 1952), 125,
tectural Terracottas, i.xn x\ i; idem, Eranos, xliii i note 1 2 ; Opus. Rom., 111 (1961), 50 2, plates 20- 1
(1945), 1 22; idem, Origine, 38 ff. Morgan's trans- 61. 33. Revetment from I ratte (Marcina; Strabo, \,

lation is of course impossible for greater temples, as 4. 13): Anz. (1956), 447 50. (For the splendid ridge-
pointed out by Andren, Gjerstad, Early Rome, III, [85, pole revetment from Pyrgi, see Note 29.) Capitoline
note 4, and others. Other interpretations cited: F. E. Temple: Pliny, xx\in, [6; XXXV, 157; Plutarch,
Brown, Cosa, 1
1, 39; C. Fensterbusch, / itruv (Darm- Publicola, xiii ff.; Livy, x, 23. 12, and Platner-Ashln
stadt, 1964), 107. The model from Nemi: Vndren, Spiral ornaments from Forum Boarium Gjerstad, :

Architectural Terracottas, xxxi, no. 37, and i.win Early Rome, III, 187, 448, figure 280, 1 6. Spirals
f; M. Moretti. Museo dt Villa Giuha (Rome, [962), above the pediment: coin of M. Volteius: II. A.

224. For the stillicidium see also Note 56. Drip-lines: Grueber, Coins of the Roman Republic in the British
temple of the lower town of Ardea, \ .S. 1054). 10 f, (
Museum, (London, 1910), 388, plate 42. I, circa
1

13. Capitolium of Cosa: Cosa, 11, 86 f, 91, figure 65. 78 B.C. It is in all other details different from the
Temple D at ( losa : Cosa, 1 1 , 33 f., 30, figure 24. Gabii Capitoline B.C. It seems to me unlikch
Temple of 509
M. A. Basch, 'Las excavaciones espanolas en Gabii", that all tympana were decorated in this way. Prob-
the
Atti del I'll Congresso Internazionale di Archeologia ably the spiral ornaments adorned only the apex.
Classica, 11 (1961), 243-7. For the naiskoi of Sicily 34. Portonaccio Temple of Yeii: Stefani, N.S. ( 1953),
(Morgantina, Sabucina near Caltanisetta): Sjoqvist, 50, 11 1 ; Pallottino, 'II grande acroterio femminile di

A.J.A., lxyiii (1964), 146 f.; P. Orlandini, Arch. CI., Vein", Arch. CI., 11 (1950), 122-79. [Gf. now the acro-
x\ (1063), 88, plates 2- t. teria from Murlo: Note 5.] Other sculpture on
58. 28. Model from Satricum: Andren, Architectural ridge-poles: sarcophagus from Cerveteri (Procoio di
Terracottas, x x f, figures 7-8. Model from Heraion
1 1 Ceri), Moretti (op. at.. Note 27), 83, figure 58; Yagn
Drerup, Anz. (1904), 194, figure 6. Cosa: Cosa, 11, Poulsen, San Giovenale,387-9; Giglioli, figures

38, 92. ( xxxv, 2, c: 1 \ 111, 4 (examples from Chiusi). For

59. 21). Pyrgi: G. Colonna: 'Pyrgi', N.S. (1070), Sup- Sicily and Magna Graccia: Andren, Architectural

plement 11, 48 82; Irch. CI., xxi 1 1 (1971), plate 85. Terracottas, evil (with references). Elisabeth D. Van
Pediment with warriors: Ny Carlsberg Glyptothek. Buren, Archait Fictile Revetments in Sicily and Manna
Den Etruskiske Samling (Copenhagen, 1966), 29, no. Graccia (London, 1923), figures 71, 73.
168; San Giovenale, 57, figure 58. Talamone: Andren, 62. 35. [Arezzo simas dated to c 4N0 by \laetzke (B. .

Architectural Terracottas, 227 ff., plates 82-3; O. W. d'Arte, xxxi\ (1949), 251 ff.).] To be added to
von Vacano, 'Ricerche sul tempio di Talamone', N.S. Andren's commentary on terracotta decoration is the
(1962), 297 300. fine appreciation of the classicistic style by L. Richard-
30. Orvieto (Belvedere): Andren, op. <//., 171 ff., son in Cosa, 11, 281-4.
64 7 and C: 2 3. Orvieto (Yia di S. Leonardo):
plates 63. 36. Plates of bronze: L. Pared, La Tomba Regolini-
Andren, 159 ff., plates 59-61 (dated by Andren to the Galassi del Museo Gregoriano Etrusco (Citta del \ ati-

last quarter of the fifth century, while Luisa Banti (// cano, 1947), 239 44, no. 217; 2S9 f., no. 238; plate
mmi, Id deu.li Etrusi In, 83) regards them as first-century 32; Yagn Poulsen, San Giovenale, figures 342 4,
classicistic art). (Lo Scasato): Civita Castellana 368 f. Aedicula erected by Numa: Serv. ad Aen., 1, 8.

Andren, 125 30, plates 46-8. Civita Alba: Andren, Bronze gates of the Sen uin \\ all : G. Satlund, l.c niura

298-300, plates 98-100. Tarquinia: Romanelli, Y.V. di Roma repubblicana, 199. Porta Raudusculana:
(1948), 254 t. Varro, Lingua Latina, V, 163; Valerius Maximus,
60. 31.For the Greek background of Italic terracotta Memorabilia, The gate of Collatia: Ovid, Fasti,
\ , 6. 3.

decoration, Akerstrom, Die arkitektonischen Terra- II, 785. The aedicula of Concordia in the Forum:

kotten Kleinasiens ( tcta 1th. Sue,., XI, 1966); and, Pliny, xxxi 11, 19. Bronze revetments from Nemi and
in addition, Andren, Architectural Terracottas, for Palestrina: Andren, Architectural Terracottas, XXVI, 1

central Italy: Akerstrom, 'Lntersuchungen iiber die 378 and 383 t. Moretti, Museo dt ilia Giulia {op.
f. : I

figurlichenTerrakottafrieseausFtrurien und Latium", at.. Note 27), 223, figure 164. Oriental, Vrchaic Greek,

Opus. Rum., (1954), 191 ff.; G. Mm Kaschnitz-

1 and Hellenistic background: Palace of Urinous,
Weinberg, Das Schopferische in der romischen Kunst, Odyssey, VII, 86; what Herodotus (I, 170) relates
98 ff. Retardation: Elisabeth Jastrow, 'Abformung about Babylon and Polybius (x, 27. 10 ff.) about
und Typenwandel in der antiken Tonplastik', Opus. Ecbatana, and Livy's description (xi.i, 20. 9) oi the

Arch., 11 (1941 ), 1-28. Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus ol Vntiochus IV in

32. Antefixes and protective decoration in central \ntioch, which had walls wholl) covered by gilded
Italy: Andren, Architectural Terracottas, CXV1 plates.

ccxlii. Yntefixesol \rdea: Arkeologiska forskningar 37. Gjerstad, 'Die I rsprungsgeschichte der romis-
226 NOTES TO CHAPTER 3

chen Kaiserfora', Opus. Arch., 1 1 1

(1944), 40 ff. Quite 289 ff. Cf. Tarquinia: Romanelli, N.S. (1948), 218-
different Archaic Greek planning: Birgitta Bergquist, 2}; and Rusellae: Note 3.
The Archaic Greek Temenos, Acta Ath. Suec, xin 68. 42. Walls: Lugli, Tecnica edilizta, 9-153; Blake
(1967). E. Dyggve, Lindos, in. Fouilles de I'Acropok (1947), 70 ff. Walls of Populonia: De Agostino, St.
igo2-igi4et 1952, 516-18. Von Kaschnitz- Weinberg Etr., xxx (1962), 275-82. Veii: Ward-Perkins,
{op. cit., Note 31), 55 f, 70. Boethius, The Golden P.B.S.R., xxix (1961), 32-9. Luni: San Giovenale,
House of Nero, 40 f. 320-4. (Cf. for Rome: Dionysius, ix, 68. 3; Strabo,
38. Orientation of altars: Vitruvius, iv, 9; Casta- v, 3. Capena: G. D. B. Jones, P.B.S.R., xxx
7.)
gnoli, Bull. Comm., lxxvii (1959-60), 155 f. For the (1962), 138-41. [An Etruscan town wall recently dis-
altar of the Capitolium of Cosa: Cosa, II, figure 71. covered at Ghiaccio Forte, between Lake Bolsena and
Orientation of temples: Vitruvius, IV, 5; Thulin, Die Rusellae, may also have been hastily erected during
xxv (1957), 541-4;
Ritualbucher, 45; Enking, St. Etr., the period of Roman expansion. Here the lower
Weinstock, 'Templum', R.M., xlvii (1932), 95-121 courses consisted of heavy facing stones with rubble
Pallottino, 'Deorum sedes', Studi in onore di A. Cal- rock fill; the upper part may have been of mud-brick.
derini e R. Paribeni, III (1956), 223-34. [Important See M. A. del Chiaro, Etruscan Ghiaccio Forte (Cali-
new evidence for the planning of sanctuaries has
been fornia, 1976); A.J. A., lxxviii (1974), 385 ff.] Rusel-
found Poggio Civitate (Murlo) near Siena. Excava-
at laeNaumann, /?.yW., lxvi (1959), 3
: ff; Hiller, R.M.,
tions have revealed a large square building (c. 61 by lxix (1962), 59 ff. see also Note 3. ;

61 m.) of sixth-century date enclosing an open court- 69. 43. The quotations are from Hyginus Gromaticus,
yard with colonnades on three sides, with a small rec- Constitutto Limitum: Thulin, Die Ritualbucher, 31 f.

tangular templum ( ?) at the west side of the courtyard. For the Roman surveyors' debt to the Etruscans see
The templum and the two entrances to the courtyard are also:O. Dilke, The Roman Land Surveyors (Newton
no emphasis on axial symmetry.
off-centre, so there is Abbot, 971), 32-4.
1

But the complex shows considerable sophistication 44. It now seems evident that about 600 and even
of design, and invites comparison with Republican betore the Greeks adopted regular town planning in
fora. See K. M. Phillips, A.J. A., lxxvi (1972), new towns that had no obstacles to a regular plan:
249 ff., with plan; and R. A. Staccioli, Melanges Smyrna (seventh century; J. M. Cook, The Greeks
offer ts a Jacques Heurgon, 11 (Rome, 1976), 961-72, in Ionia and the East (London, 1962), 70-4), and in
who discusses the possible functions (other than south Italy and Sicily, Selinus, Akragas, Paestum,
religious). Rather similar is a building recently ex- Metapontum; see the summary by A. G. Woodhead,
cavated in 'Zone F' of the acropolis of Acquarossa The Greeks in the West (London, 1962), 121 -3; Casta-
near Viterbo [52]. In its final phase (second half of gnoli, Arch. CI., xv (1963), 180-97.
the sixth century) it consisted of two wings forming For a concise survey of ancient town-planning see
an irregular L-shape (c. 25 x 40 m.), with colon- now J. B. Ward-Perkins, Cities of Ancient Greece and
nades facing on to an open courtyard. According Italy. See also Castagnoli, Ippodamo; Boethius, The
to the excavator it may have served as the religious or Golden House of Nero, 33-54, 187; Ward-Perkins,
administrative centre of the settlement, or perhaps 'The Early Development of Roman Town-Planning',
combined both functions. See E. Wetter, M. Moretti, Acta Congressus Madvigiani, iv (Copenhagen, 1958),
C. E. Ostenberg,Med Kungen pa Acquarossa (Malmo, 109-29; A. von Gerkan, Griechische Stddleanlagen,
1972); Gh Etruschi: nuove ricerche e scoperte, Stock- 42-61. Urartian Zernaki Tepe affords us a grid plan
holm exhibition catalogue (Viterbo, 1972); F. de in the Near East of the eighth century, no doubt a link
Ruyt, 'Une cite etrusque d'epoque archaique a Acqua- between towns, which inspired the Greeks, and the
rossa', L'Antiquite Classique, xlii (1973), 584-6; traditions from the Assyrian and Babylonian cities:
C. E. Ostenberg, Case etrusche di Acquarossa. The Burney and Lawson, Anatolian Studies, x (i960), 185-
complexes at both Murlo and Acquarossa have yielded 8; C. Nylander, 'Remarks on the Urartian Acropolis
great quantities of architectural terracottas (see Note at Zernaki Tepe', Orient alia Suecana, XI v-xv (1965-
5)1 6), I4I-54-
64. 39. Urartu: W. Kleiss, 'Zur Rekonstruktion des 45. Orvieto: M. Bizzarri, 'La necropoli orvietana di
urartaischen Tempels', Istanhuler Mitteilungen, x - Crocefisso del Tufo', St. Etr., xxxiv
1 1 1 (1966), 3 ff.,

XIV (1963-4), 1-14. The reconstruction of Kleiss is with plan. Caere: Mon. Ant., xlii (1955), plates 1 ff.
refuted by Riemann, Gymnasium, Lxxn (1965), 334. Marzabotto : Mansuelli, 'Marzabotto, dix annees de
65. 40.Etruscan rules: Thulin, Die Ritualbucher, fouilles et de recherches', Mel. Rome, Antiquite,
3-10, 30-41. Roma Quadrata: Chapter 2, Note 3. lxxxiv (1972), in ff. ; I.L.N. (13 October 1962),
41. Veii: Ward-Perkins: P.B.S.R., xxix (1961), 25- 556-9. [Evidence from the latest excavations suggests
32; Stefani, N.S. (1922), 379-404. Vetulonia: Falchi, that the street grid was begun in the early fifth century
N.S. (1895), 2 1 2 1- San Giovenale: San Giovenale,
 22~

and was preceded by a pre-urban phase ot the late 81. 53. [To be added to the evidence for domestic
sixth. For strigae and scamna: Castagnoli, Ippodamo,
| architecture are the remains of sixth-century houses
50 and 100. French excavations at Casalecchio north recent!} recovered at Acquarossa near Yiterbo. These
ot Marzabotto reveal another regular town: I'air- have a three-fold importance: (1) The) show a variety

ault, Mel. Rome, Antiquite, lxxxi\ (1072), 145 ft. of types of plan, some of which correspond fairly closely

Spina: N. Alrteri, P. E. Arias, M. Hirmer, Spina to contemporary rock-cut tombs at Cerveteri. (2) None
(Florence, 1958); J. Heurgon, La vie quotidienne chez of those excavated so far resembles the atrium-houses
les etrusques, 170 ft. described by Vitruvius. (3) Many were richly covered
74. 46. Castagnoli, Ippodamo, 44 9; Heurgon, Re- with decorative architectural terracottas which pre-
cherches stir I'histoire, la religion et la civilisation de viously had been associated only with temples and
Capoue preromaine (Paris, 1942); Velleius Faterculus, sanctuaries. Especially remarkable are the painted
1, 7, cites Cato, dating Capua to 471 B.C., probably terracottas with white designs on the red ground [71].
alluding to an expansion of the town for Samnite im- For the latter: C. Wikander, Opus. Rom., xi (1976),
migrants, but see Pallottino, La Panda del Passato, 53-61; for the houses in general: Note 38. For men-
xi (1956), 81-8. The Etruscans in Campania: H. H. tion of remains of Etruscan houses recently excavated
Scullard, The Etruscan Cities and Rome, 171 ft.; at Graviscae, the ancient port of Tarquinia: Torelli,
Boethius in Symbolae philologicae 0. A. Danielsson V.V (1 97 1), 196 For the more ambitious tombs:
ft'. I

die at 04 (1932). Fratte (Marcina) and the Sorrento \largarete Demus-Quatember, Etruskische Grab-
peninsula: Pliny, 111, 70; P. C. Sestieri, N.S. (1952), architektur, 31, }], and figure 5; \kerstrdm, Etrus-
163; B. Neutsch, Anz. (1956), 351 ft". Etruscan graffiti kische Grdher, 30, figure 4. Most important are the

from Pompeii and Fratte: A. Maiuri, Saggi di varia tomb-plans in M. Moretti, Nuovt monument! delta
antichita (Venice, 1954), 245-51. pittura etrusca (Milan, 1966).

47. Plan of Pompeii: Castagnoli, Ippodamo, 26-32; 82. 54. Coffered ceiling of Tomba della Scimmia: R.
von Gerkan, 'Der Stadtplan von Pompeii", Gesam- Bianchi Bandinelli, Clusium: le pitture delle tombe

melte Aufsatze, 144 58. Walls of Pompeii: Maiuri, arcaic/ie (Monument! delta pittura antica scoperti in
Mm. Int., xxxiii (1930), 114 ft.; N.S. (1943), 275 Italia) (Rome, 1939), 6, figures 9 and 10. Tomba del
ff. ; Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, 295-9. Cardinale: Ducati, 378, figure 418. Tomb at Ardea
48. Tomba delle Bighe: Giglioli, CXV, 2. For actors [74] : Boethius, trkeologiska studier tillagnade H.K.H.
and theatres see below, and Sibylle Haynes,p. 198, Kronprins Gustaf Adolf (1932), 262-72. Faded re-
'Ludiones Etruriae', Festschrift fur Harald Keller, mains of paintings at Cerveteri: Moretti, Mon. Int.,
13 21. xl 11 (1955), 1049 ff., plates 2 and 4; and at San Gio-
75. 49. Heurgon, La vie quotidienne chez les etrusques, venale (Porzarago Tomb 9): E. and K. Berggren, San
50 f., no doubt understands Diodorus, \ 40. 4 rightly ,
Giovenale: Result* oj Excavations, 1, 5 (Stockholm,
Diodorus (that is, Poseidonius) speaks about the 1972), 61 ft". Tomb-paintings in general: F. Poulsen,
luxury of the Etruscans and their attending artisan Etruscan Tomb-Paintings (Oxford, 1922); M. Pallot-
slaves (musicians, dancers and so on), their costly tino, Etruscan Painting (Geneva, 11152); Ross Hollo-
attire and 'demeures particulieres de toute sorte: e'est wav, 'Conventions ot Etruscan Painting in the Tomb
d'ailleurs aussi le fait de la plupart des hommes fibres'. of Hunting and Fishing at Tarquinia', A. J. A., lxix
It is self-evident that Diodorus here is not speaking of (1965), 341 7; M. Moretti, op. ill. (Note 53).
atria and domus but of convenient dwellings ol the 85. 55. Ornate facades: G. Rosi, 'Sepulchral Archi-
free lower classes and the especially qualified slaves of tecture as illustrated by the Rock Facades of Central
the aristocratic households. Heurgon, op. cit., 79 94, Italy', J.R.S., xv (1925), 59; wit (1927K 59 '>*'• 1

maintains a different view regarding the free lower Bianchi Bandinelli, Sovana; E. Colonna di Paolo and
classes of Etruscans (with full bibliography). For the G. Colonna, Castel d'Asso (a monumental work with
agricultural centre near San Giovenale (Sambuco): excellent illustrations). Protecting roofs above en-
San Giovenale, 313-20. trance: Rosi, loc. at. (1925), 24; Akcrstrom, Etrus-
76. 50. For Vetulonia see Note 41. Marzabotto: Note kische Grdber, 73 ff.; Margarete Demus-Quatember,
45. San Giovenale: San Giovenale, 299 ft". Etruskische Grabarchitektur, 37 f., figure 2^. Elegant

77. 51. Megaron at Veii: N.S. (1922), 379 ft., figures hillside houses: Rosi, loc. Lit. (1925). 38 42. Doors:
2 and 3. the voussoir arches of the later centuries have to be

79. 52.Sub-Apennine huts with benches of pebbles: distinguished from rock-cut arches and corbel vaults
Chapter t, Note 4. House at Morgantina: Sjbqvist, with a keystone: Blake (1947), [95 7. Chiusi urn:
tj. LX\ 111 (1964), 145. Tomb of the Thatched
I ., Staccioli, Arch. CI., \i\ (1967), 2i>} ff. Tomba Cam-
Roof: Mengarelli, .S7. Etr., 1 (1927), 158 [., plate 23; pana: Luisa Banti, St. Etr., \\\\ 111 (1070), 42 f.,

Ricci, Mon.
xi.n (1955), 343 ft'.; Boethius,
Ant., figure 6.
Palladio,\\ (1965), 3 6;Opus. Rom., vi (1968), 9 19 86. 56. I
Models of houses .it tomb-entrances: a stone
228 • NOTES TO CHAPTER 3

model from Castel d'Asso (sixth-fifth century) is note- Worcester Art Museum Annual, V (1946), 15 ff. City
worthy for its very wide eaves (stillicidium) Colonna : gates (Volterra): Blake (1947), 199; Lugli, Tecnica
di Paolo, op. cit. (Note 55), 68-9, plates 458-60.] edilizia, 338 ff.

Gabled roofs: Boethius, 'The Old Etruscan Towns', 63. Wooden roofs Lehmann, 'The Dome of Heaven',
:

Classical,Mediaeval and Renaissance Studies in Honor Art Bulletin, xxvii (1945), 20. Cf. Vitruvius's de-
of B. Ullman (1964), 9. Gabled tombs at Populonia: scription of vaulted ceilings of framework (v, 10. 3)
Luisa Banti, // mondo degli Etruschi, 96, plate 8 and ; and wooden vaults of baths of the Imperial Age in
at Tarquinia: Giglioli, cxi-cxiii, cxv, ccii. Terracotta Gaul, A. Grenier, Manuel d'archeologie gallo-romaine,
models of gabled temples: Note 8. iv (Paris, i960), 455 f.
57. E. Wistrand, Vitruviusstudier (Gbteborg, 1933), 64. The particularism of the Etruscans is especially
12 ff., and Eranos, xxxvn (1939), 39 f. well brought out by Luisa Banti in // mondo deglt
58. Flat roofs : Boethius, loc. cit. (Note 56), 9 ; Ducati, etruschi.

378, figure 418; San Giovenale: N.S. (i960), 29, 38, 65. Clelia Laviosa, 'Rusellae', St. Etr., xxvm
61;San Giovenale, figures 16, 60, 61 etc.; Margarete (i960), 294 ff., plates 67b, 68. Populonia: A. Minto,
Demus-Quatember, Etruskische Grabarchitektur, N.S. (1924), 21, figure 7; De Agostino, St. Etr.,
plate 13. xxx (1962), 282. Ostia: J.R.S., 11 (1961), 202. Etrus-
89. 59. Houses of Marzabotto Mansuelli, R.M., lxx : can roads in general, in addition to older authors
(1963), 44 Tomba del Tablino at Caere: N.S.
ff. (especially Dennis, Ashby, and Tomassetti): Ward-
(1955), 106- 13. Tomba deiCapitelli:S/. Etr., (1927), 1 Perkins's and M. W. Frederiksen's studies of roads in
plate 45. Tomba dei Vasi Greci: loc. cit., plates 30 f. south Etruria and the Ager Faliscus, P.B.S.R., xxm
A. Boethius, San Giovenale, 64 ft. (for the cava aedium (1955), 44-72, plates 14-21; xxv (1957), 67-208,
tuscanica), and plates 69-71 (for the Tomb of the plates 17-47; J-R-S-, XLVii (1957), 139-43; Ward-
Princess at San Giuliano). Perkins, 'Etruscan Engineering: Road Building,
90. 60. The development of the cava aedium tuscanica : Water-Supply and Drainage', Hommages a Albert
Maiuri, N.S. (1930), 381 ff". (1942), 404 ff. (1944-5), ; ; Grenier, Collection Latomus, LVIII (1962), 1636-43,
130 ft.; Polacco, 117. Origin: Gjerstad, The Swedish and E. Wetter, San Giovenale, 169 ff. Bridges, abut-
Cyprus Expedition, IV, 2 (Stockholm, 1948), 232 ft'.; ments: op. cit., figures 279, 280; Frederiksen, J.R.S.,
[for amore recent discussion: J. W. Graham, 'The lv (1965), 290.
Greek House and the Roman House', The Phoenix, 95. 66. For Asia Minor: Margarete Demus-Quatem-
xx (1966), 6 ff.]. ber, Etruskische Grabarchitektur, 63-76. Most im-
93. 61. Atria displuviata: Tomba della Mercareccia portant for the connexion with the Lydian mounds are
[89]: Ducati, 379, figure 419. Model from Chiusi: the monumental chamber tombs of the Bin Tepe
Ducati, 381; Giglioli, cccxxxvi, 3. Peristyle at cemetery of Sardes. The central of the three great
Ostia: R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia (Oxford, i960), 252. mounds which dominate the skyline of Bin Tepe
Tuscan columns: see Note 24. Columns of other seems undoubtedly to be the tomb of Gyges (seventh-
orders are commonly shown on late ash-urns: Clelia century B.C. king of Lydia), with its group of twelve
Laviosa, Scultura tardo-etrusca di I olterra (Florence, 'Gugu' signs: A.J. A., lxix (1965), 148, plate 38,
1964), nos. 6, 12, 16, 18; Giglioli, cccxcix, 4 ft. figures 10, 11, and the reports: B.A.S.O.R., clxxvii
Tomb of the Volumnii
von Gerkan, 'Das Grab der : (1965), 27-34; CLXXXll (1966), 27-30. Cyrene: A.
Volumnier bei Perugia', Gesammelte Aufsdtze, 338- Rowe, Cyrenaican Expedition of the University of
51. For military decorations see city gates such as the Manchester iq$2 (Manchester, 1956), 4-1 1. Cyprus:
so-called 'Gate of Augustus' at Perugia (Blake (1947), V. Karageorghis, Excavations in the Necropolis of
plate 3, 3), and the Tomba Giglioli at Tarquinia [93]
1 Salamis, 1 (Nicosia, 1967), 25 ff.

M. Moretti, op. cit. (Note 53), 307-16. 96. 67. Akerstrom, Etruskische Graber, 23 ff., 43 ff.,

94. 62. For the barrel-vaulted tombs of the last cen- discusses the earliest chamber tombs. Fundamental
turies B.C. see now Oleson, St. Etr., xliv (1976), for the tombs at Caere (Cerveteri) R. Vighi, G. Ricci, :

69-85. Tomba del Granduca (Paccianese) at Chiusi: M. Moretti, 'Caere', Mon. Ant., xlii (1955); also
Akerstrom, Etruskische Graber, 172; Giglioli, N.S. (1955), 46-1 13. Door slabs at Tarquinia: Luisa
cccxcv, 2; cf. Ducati, 398, figures 458 ff. The so- Banti, // mondo degli Etruschi, 308, plate 40.
called Tomba di Pitagora at Cortona imitates a barrel 68. Regolini-Galassi Tomb: L. Pareti, La Tomba
vault by crescent-shaped gables carrying longitudinal Regolim-Ga/assi, 86 ff., plate 1. La Cocumella di
stone slabs: Akerstrom, op. cit., 175 f. ; Ducati, 73, Caiolo (San Giuliano): San Giovenale, 31 1 f. Orvieto:
figures 68 ff. ; F. Coarelli (ed.), Le cittd etrusche, 53, Bizzarri, loc. cit. (Note 45). Meloni del Sodo; Aker-
upper figure. Velia: Encicl. Art. Ant., vi 1, 1 1 13, figure strom, op. 175-9; Margarete Demus-Quatember,
cit.,

1240. Lindos: E. Dyggve, Lindos, in (i960), 256 f., Etruskische Grabarchitektur, 25, figures 8-9. The
289, 529 f. Etruscan urn in the Worcester Museum chamber tombs with a slit have been called 'Egyptian
 22g

tombs': Akerstrom, op. cit., 44, 54 f., qo f. ; at San chapter 4

Giovcnale: Ostenberg, San Giovenale: Results of Ex-
cavations, I, y (Stockholm, [((72), 4-10 (Types 3b and 104. 1. Fundamental are Platner-Ashby; Nash; Fontes;
4b). F. Castagnoli, Topografia e urbanistica di Roma antica
98. 6g. Tholos tombs in general: Ducati, 63 ff'. ; Mar- (Bologna, 1969). Walls of Rome: Lugli, una
Lei
garete Demus-Quatember, Etruskisi he Grabart hitek- edilizia, 170, 187, 250 f. Remains of earliest walls:G.
tur, 17 20. La Montagnola di Quinto Fiorentino: Saflund, Le mura .// Roma repubblicana; P. Quoniam,
Caputo, B. a" Arte, XL vi (1962), 115-52; F. Coarelli I 'A propos du mur dit de Servius Tullius", Mel. Rome,
(ed.), Le citta etrusche, 35-8. Tomb of Casal Marit- lix (1947), 41-64; E. Gjerstad, Opus. Rum., (1054), 1

timo (reconstructed in Florence Archaeological Mu- 50-65; Early Rome, in, 27-44; °P- <""•> IV\ 349 _ 57-
seum): Minto, St. Etr., IV (1930), 58 ft. Cf. rock-cut Criticism of Gjerstad's views: A. von Gerkan, Rh. I/.,
tholos tomb at Riello near Yiterbo: Ducati, 67, figure c ('957)> 82-97; Civ (1961), 132-48; Romanelli,
55. Cf. also the corbelled architecture in Sardinia and Gnomon, XXX VI (1964), 817 f. The aggeres: Ardea:
Early Iron Age Italy: above, illustrations 5 and 8. Boethius, Opus. Rom., IV (1962), 29 ff. ; Antium:
Roman tumuli: Chapter 6, pp. 213 f. Lugli, op. cit., 270 f. ; Satricum: Castagnoli, L'l m-
99. 70. Fopulonia: Akerstrom, Etruskische Graber, verso, xii 1
1, 3 (1963), 505-18. Walls on the Palatine:
139-59. Tomba della Pietrera, Vetulonia: Pincelli, Blake (1447), 116 f; Romanelli, Mon. Ant., XLVI
St. Etr., xvii (1943), 47 ft., plate 6; F. Coarelli, op. (1963), 214, figures 6-8. Walls of Rusellae and Veii:
cit., 104-5, I0 9- Cisterns at Rome: Gjerstad, Early Chapter 3, Note 42.
Rome, III, 88-110, 124 ff. Tullianum: Platner-Ashby, Date of the foundation of Rome for the works by :

Nash, s.v. Gjerstad and for criticisms of his historical con-

71. Porsenna's tomb: Pliny, XXXVI, gi -3; F. Mes- clusions, see Chapter 2, Note 1. See also A. Momi-
serschmidt, 'Das Grabmal des Porsenna', Das neue gliano, 'An Interim Report on the Origins of Rome',
Bild o'er Antike, 11 (1942), 53 ff. Connection with J.R.S., Li 1 1
(1963), 95 ff; Romanelli, 'Certezze e
Columna Minucia: G. Becatti, La colonna coclide ipotesi sulle origini di Roma', Studi Romani, xm
istonata (Rome, i960), 34-6. Tomb near Ariccia (1065), 156 ff; R. Bloch, Lite-Live et les premiers
(known by various names): Crema, 247, figures 273-4; sieclesde Rome; G. A. Mansuelli, Etruria and Early
Messerschmidt, op. cit., figure 1. For Ross Holloway's Rome; H. H. Scullard, The Etruscan Cities and Rome,
explanation of the Late Republican and Augustan 243 ff. 'Les origines de la republique romaine', En-
;

romantic revival of old types of tombs see below, tretiens sur I'Antiquite Classique, XIII. Fondation
Chapter 6, Note 96. Vulci tomb (Tumulo della Cucu- Hardt (Geneva, 1967).
mella): A. Hus, Vulci etrusque et etrusco-romaine 106. 2. Etruscan influence: Livy, I, 8. 3; Strabo, v,
(Paris, 1971), 73-5; G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries 2. 2; Diodorus, v, 40; Dionysius, III, 61-2. Fasces:
of Etruria, 452 ff. St. Etr., xxvi 1 1 (i()6o), 459-61. Limitatio: C. O.
100. 72. For the valleys lined with ornate tombs: Note Thulin, Die Ritualbucher, 26-30; Festus, Pauli ex-
55 ('ornate facades'); see also Gargana, 'La necropoli cerpta, Lindsay (ed.) 505: 'Termino sacra faciebant,
rupestre di S. Giuliano', Mini. Ant., XXXin (1929), quod in ejus tutela fines agrorum esse putabant.'
297 ff. Tomba Inghirami: Giglioli, cccxcv, 1. Cf. Shoes Serv. ad Aen., V
: 1 1
1, 458. 'Archaic Greek' alpha-
the chambers around the central hall in the tomb of bet, for instance Dionysius, 11, 54. 2; IV, 26. 5. The
the Volumnii family [72]; and the six chambers of the Duenos inscription and Etruscan graffiti: Gjerstad,
Tomb of the Inscriptions at Vulci: Bartoccini, Atti Early Rome, in, 160-5, 21 4- Etruscan seventh-
del VII Congresso Internazumale ,/i Archeologia Clas- century inscription found at the church of S. Omo-
tica, 11 (1961), 278 f. For the Roman equivalent: Mor- bono, Rome: Palatino, VIII (1064), t,z f.

purgo, 'Un sepolcreto precristiano in Anzio', Rend. 3. Earlv houses in Rome (Archaic period and later):

Pont., xxii (1946-7), 153-66. Gjerstad, VI, 112 f, 121, figures 43 4 (tor restored
73. Akerstrom, Etruskische Graber, 73 ff.; Margarete elevation of a house with two storeys); B. Felled Maj,
Demus-Quatember, Etruskische Grabarchitektur, 36- \ ,S. (1952), 284 ff.; Colini, Mem. Pont., IX, 2(1966),
8; see especially E. Colonna di Paolo and G. ( iolonna, 11 13. Via Sacra: recent excavations by Frank Brown
Caste! d'Asso. below the Regia have revealed part of the Early Iron
101. 74. Criticism of the Etruscans also by Athenaeus, \ge village, cult places, and remains of temples (see
xii, 517 ff. Analysis of this criticism: Heurgon, La Chapter 2, Note (») Architectural terracottas in Rome
vie quotidienne 1 hez les etrusques,46 5 Boethius, San 1
; and Latium: Vkerstrom, 'Untersuchungen uber die
Giovenale, 9 ff.; 1 17. Tomba Francois at Vulci, see figiirlichenTerrakottafrieseausEtrurienund Latium",
San Giovenale, 102, note 41 (with bibliography). Opus. Rom., 1 (1954), 191 230; Gjerstad, op. cit., ill,

75. Dionysius, 1, 29. 2; Plutarch, Camillas, xxn, 185, [89, 423, 448 ff ; Andrcn, Architectural Terra-
2 (Heraclides Ponticus). , ottas, 324 477.
230 • NOTES TO CHAPTER 4

108. 4. Etruscan origin of atrium: Varro, Lingua Topographic des Forum Romanian, 130-74; Platner-
Latum, V, 161. Pliny's atrium: Epist., v, 6. 15. Atria at Ashby, s.v.

Ostia: Scavi di Ostia, 1, 107 flf. ; R. Meiggs, Ostia,

252 f. Atrium-house at Saepinum: V. Cianfarani,
Guula delle antichitd di Sepino (Milan, 1958), 45. chapter 5
Regia: Chapter 2, Note 9. Tabernae: oldest remains:
Sandberg, Eranos, xxxiv (1936), 82-103. Further 121. 1. For a general survey of the polygonal walls, see
references to the old forensic tabernae: Dionysius, G. Lugli, Tecmca edilizia, 55 f ., and 'Conclusioni sulla

111. 67. 4; Livy, ix, 40. 16; XXVI, 27. 24. Forum of cronologia deH'opera poligonale in Italia', Studi
Pompeii: Crema, 36; Maiuri, N.S. (1941), 371 ft. minori di topografia antica, 27-32, and Blake (1947),
Tabernae at Ostia: Scavi di Ostia, 1, 98. Fortified 92-104. For discussion of Lugli's date, A. von Gerkan,
refuges: Dionysius, v, 22. 1; VIII, 16. 5. G.G.A., ccxii (1958), 181 f. Samnite walls: G.
no. For early subterranean sewers, see Livy, 1, 38.
5. Colonna, 'Saepinum', Arch. CI., xiv (1962), 80-99.
6, 56. 2; v, 55. 5; Dionysius, ill, 67. 5. For the present Cosa: Cosa, I. Pyrgi and Minturnae [113]: F. Casta-

Cloaca Maxima: Nash, s.v.; and below, Chapter 6, gnoli, Ippodamo, 86-8. Alba Fucens (older and later
Note 88. walls): Atti del III Congresso internazionale di archeo-
6. The author, taking into account Frontinus, main- logia classica, 11 (1961), 287; Rend. Line, ser. 8, XII
tains that the Romans learned to build castra when (1958), 97-8-
they captured Pyrrhus's camp after the battle of Bene- 122. 2. For the use of the tufas see Lugli, Tecmca
ventum. Livy, xxxv, 14. 8, says that Hannibal ad- edilizia; Blake (1947); T. Frank, Roman Buildings of
mired Pyrrhus's camps while Plutarch (Pyrrhus, xvi) the Republic (P.A.A.R., 1 1
1) (Rome, 1924); Gjerstad,
tells us that Pyrrhus admired the Roman camps. The Early Rome, in, 174. The final date of the Servian
oldest Roman castrum known at present is the perma- Wall established already by Frank and corroborated
nent fourth-century castrum fortress of Ostia [123], by G. Saflund, Le mura di Roma repubbltcana; Blake
but what theRomans learnt from Pyrrhus may have (1947), 124; Lugli, op. at., 258 ft'. On the walls see
been temporary camp fashions for ambulatory cam- further von Gerkan, Gesammelte Aufsdtze, 108-38.
paigns. For vivid discussion concerning the question of
in. 7. For the historical and cultural context: H. H. whether the Tiber was left open and the Forum
Scullard, The Etruscan Cities and Rome, 247-66. For Boarium district was defended by walls running down
the plan of the temple and the height and decoration to the river from the Capitoline and Aventine Hills (as

of the building see my discussion of the Etruscan I believe) or if - at least originally - a wall connected
temples (Chapter 3, Note 22). For Vulca: Pliny, the Capitoline, the Palatine, and the Aventine: H.
xxxv, 157. For the calendar connected with the Capi- Lyngby, Beitrage zur Topographic des Forum Boarium
toline Temple of 509: K. Hanell, Das a/tromische Gebietes m Rom (Acta Rom. Suec. in 8 °, VII, .1954),
eponyme Amt, 99 ft. and Gjerstad, 'Notes on the Early with bibliography. Cf. Opus. Rom., vin (1974), 33 ft".

Roman Calendar', Acta Archaeologica, xxxn (1961), For the acropolis wall of Ardea: A. Boethius, Opus.
193-214; [for a different view: Agnes Kirsopp Rom., iv (1962), 29-43.
Michels, The Calendar of the Roman Republic (Prince- 123. 3. Terracottas from Ostia: P. Mingazzini, Rend.
ton, 1967)]. Pont., xxm-xxiv (1947-9), For another 75-83.
112. 8.For public meetings on the Capitol see also dating, A. Andren, Architectural Terracottas, 369;
Livy, xxv, 3, and Velleius Paterculus, 11, 3. 2. For Scavi di Ostia, 1, 75, plate xxn. New discoveries of
statues on the Capitol, for instance: Cicero's third terracottas and pre-castrum pottery: Meiggs, Roman
Catiline oration, 19 20. For the favisae:Varro quoted Ostia, 2nd ed., 379. For the gates Cosa, 1,41ft.; Lugli, :

by Gellius, Nodes alticae, 11, 10.
of the Temple of Castor and Pollux see Tenney Frank,
M.A.A.R., v (1925), 79-90; Blake (1947), 121 Nash,
s.v. Archaic terracottas probably from the temples of
Castor and Pollux and Saturn: Rend. Line, XVI
For the archaic phase Tecmca edilizia, 113 f. For the date and historical cir-
cumstances of Falerii Novi (Santa Maria di Fallen):
; Lugli, op. at., 271; M. W. Frederiksen and J. B.
Ward-Perkins, P.B.S.R., xxv (1957), 155-62; Zon-
aras, vin, 18; Polybius, 1, 65; Livy, Epitome, xx;

(1961), 59, plate in. Valerius Maximus, VI, 5. 1; Eutropius, 11, 28.

113. 9. For the monuments around the Rostra see For arches: Blake (1947),
4. 123, 192 ft".; Crema,
especially Pliny, XVI 1 1, 15; xxxiv, 20 ff. As places 9-12; Lugli, Tecmca edilizia, 36, 661 f., and 'Con-
for them Pliny points out: 'in foro', 20, 24, 30; 'in siderazioni sull'origine dell'arco a conci radiali', Studi
comitio', 2 26 'in rostris', 23, 24 ('oculatissimo loco'),
1 ,
; minori di topografia antica, 97-138. The bridge on the
which also confirms the unity of the Forum and the Via Amerina: Frederiksen and Ward-Perkins, art.

Comitium. Columna Maenia: E. Welin, Studien zur at., 99; P. Gazzola, Ponti romam, 1 1 (Florence, 1963),
 23i

2g. Ponte del Diavolo: A. Rava, •//// del III Convegno I rhis by Gerkan, G.G.A., CC.xi v (1962), 135-8. Von
nazionaledi storia dell' an hitettura roj5( 1040), 263-6. Gerkan denies both the possibility of dating the in-
126. 5. Town planning and castra: generally, Casta- certum of the great hall bv the Tiber as early as 193-
gnoli, Ippodamo. For Norba see G. Schmiedt and 174 and the identification of this hall with the Porticus
Castagnoli, L'antica citta Ji Norba, documentazione Aemilia. The fact that the hall shows no remains of
aerofotometrica (Florence, 1 957)- On the castra and earlier walls is thus irrelevant for him.
their relation to town-planning, Castagnoli, Ippo- 130. 8. The Via Appia: Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, especi-
damo, 85 103; Boethius, The Golden House oj Nero, ally 158 f., plate XVI, 2-}, and for later ashlar con-
49-53; Crema, a
5; Ward-Perkins, Town Planning structions up. cit., plate xt.vu, 3. Paved roads: I. ivy,

Review, xxvi (1955 6), 145 ff., and Acta Congressus x, 47. 4 (part of the \ ia Appia 292 and XLI, 27
B.C.),

Vladvigiani, iv ((Copenhagen, 1958), 1 18-21. Cf. (streets in the town 174 B.C.); Epitome, xx (Via
Cities ofAncient Greece and Italy, 28. For the castrum- Flaminia). Aqua Appia: Esther Van Deman, The
forts, Castagnoli, op. cit., 85 94; Maria Merolla, Building a) the Raman Aqueducts, 23-8; T. Ashby, The
'Allifae', Arch. CI., xvi (1964), 36-48. On Nicaea, Aqueducts oj Ancient Rome, 411 54.

Strabo, xii, 4. 7; V. Tscherikower, Die hellenistischen 133. 9.G. Marchetti-I.onghi, L 'area sacra del Largo
Stadtegrundungen von Alexander dem Grossen his auj Argentina (Itinerari) (1959), 34 41, 49; Crema, 42 f.
die Rbmerzeit (Leipzig, 1(127), '35- A small square F. krauss and R. Herbig, Der korinthisch-dorische
fortress excavated by Danish archaeologists on Failaka Tempel am Forum von Paestum (Berlin, 1939). E. von
in the Emirate of Kuwait may be compared 122]. It 1
Mercklin, intike Figuralkapitelle, 66. Together with
seems was built by Alexander, and - even
clear that it this should be remembered the pre-Roman Temple of

if it mainly served as defence for Greek temples - it Apollo at Pompeii with high podium and a peristyle

belongs to the fortifications bv which Alexander with Ionian columns: Crema, 45; an interesting
strengthened his position, settling in them Greek analysis is given by G
von k.aschnitz-\\ einberg. Die
mercenaries, who were willing to live there (Arrian, Grundlagen der republikanischen Baukunst, 67 t., to-
Anabasis, VII, 21). E. Albrectsen, 'An Outpost of gether with a most suggestive survey of the hellenistic-
Alexander's Empire: the Recently Excavated Fortress Roman temples. Corinthian and Doric style com-
on Failaka', l.L.N. (27 August i960), 351-3. K. Jep- bined: Vitruvius, IV, 1. 2. Ionic and Doric style: Jep-
pesen, 'Et Kongebud til Ikaros', Kuml (i960), with a pesen, Paradeigmata (Jutland Archaeological Society
sketch of the settlement on 54 and English sum- p. 1 Publications, i\) (Aarhus, 1958); review by von
mary on p. 188. [The account of the military camps Gerkan, G.G.A., CCXIV (1960-2), 1-15; Jeppesen,
given in the text in fact combines information from Acta Archaeologica, xxxn (1961), 226 f.
Polybius with that given by writers of the Imperial 10. For a general description, sacred sites, places for
age.] jurisdiction, etc., see E. Welin, Studien zur Topo-
128. 6. Rubble work and barrel vaults of Cosa: Cusa, graphic des Forum Rumanian, Platner-Ashbv , and
1, 59 fif., 88. Pompeii: Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, 379-85, Nash. For the Maeniana: Boethius, Eranos, xliii
and on the Porticus Metelli (built in 147 B.C.), 451, (1945), 94 I01 The Columna Maenia (above, p. 113)
-

plate CVIII, 2. The history of concrete before the was a column near the Rostra erected in honour of
Roman age: Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, 375 ff., and Caius Maenius, consul in 338 B.C. Pliny, VII, 212;
'L'opus caementicium in Yitruvio', Studi minort di xxxiv, 20; Cicero, Div. in Caecil., 16. 50. With this

topografia antica (1965), 33-40; Crema, 12 ff. For reference to the (Columna Maenia Asconius wrongl)
Greek concrete: Corinth, 111, Acrocorinth (1930), 1 connects a later Maenius, who in 184 B.C. sold the
39-42. Cf. Strabo on the jetties of the harbour of domus of the Macnii at the Comitium but reserved a

Puteoli, v, 4. 6. In the second century the Romans stand for spectators of the gladiatorial games above-
began to build the podia of their temples ot concrete- one column in front of the house. In some comedy or
to start with, rather poor and grey: the temples of Con- jest in Rome this column of the late descendant of the

cord (121 B.C.) and (Castor and Pollux (117 B.C.) on the great Maenius, who sold the old house ot the family,
Forum Romanum. On the podium of the Temple of was called (Columna Maenia. We know it this
don't
Magna Mater, Blake (1947), 330 (dates to 10 B.C.). 1 nickname became popular or not Rome. \\ elin, op.
in

129. 7. Crema, 61; Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, ti 35, t ., cit., 130 ff. Forensis dignitas: Varro, De vita pupuli
450 f., et passim, plates t: v 3 CVII I, I. For a date
1 1 , 1 ; romani, 11,quoted by Nonius, 532
about 00 B.C.: Blake (1947),
1 24(1. 251 and with argu- ; 134. 1 1. (Comitium: 1. Sjdqvist, 'Pnyx and the (Com-
-

ments deserving unprejudiced consideration: von itium . Studio Presented to Da: id Vloore Robinson, 1

Gerkan, Scrittt in onore di G. Libertim (1958), 153 I ; (St Louis, 1951). 400 11; L. Richardson, 'Cosa and
G.G.A., ccxii (1958), 189 f.; Gesammelte tufsatze, Rome", Archaeolog y, X (
1957), 4<i 55 (cf. J. \. I lanson,
[2i ; critical remarks on the commentary of Forma Raman Theater-Temples, 37 9). For \grigentum see
232 • NOTES TO CHAPTER 5

A. D. Trendall, Archaeology in South Italy and Sicily CHAPTER 6

(Archaeological Reports for 1963-4 published by the
Council of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic 139. i. For the early use of marble and the aedes of
Studies and the Managing Committee of the British Jupiter Stator built by Metellus: Velleius Paterculus,
School of Archaeology at Athens, 1964), 42, figure 13. I, 11. 5; cf. Note 23 below. Round Temple: D. E.
12. Boethius, The Golden House of Nero, 129-88 Strong and J. B. Ward-Perkins, 'The Round Temple
(with bibliography). Lugli, 'II valore topografico e in theForum Boarium', P.B.S.R., xxvin (i960), 7-
giuridico dell'insula in Roma antica', Studi minori di 32; now F. Rakob and W.-D. Heilmeyer, Der
cf.

topografia antica, 81-96. For another opinion about Rundtempel am Tiber in Rom (Mainz, 1973) (date about
the word 'insula': von Gerkan, Gesammelte Aufsdtze, 100 B.C. and discount evidence of earlier temple). For
301. At Herculaneum a tenement house with upper the marble columns from Athens in the rebuilt

storey around a central court has been excavated, but Capitoline Temple of 69 B.C. see A. Boethius, 'Nota
the type of house such as the Casa a Graticcio seems to sul tempio Capitolino e Vitruvio III, 3. 5', Arctos, N.S.

be developed from the peristyle houses of the Greek v (1967), 45-9. [Challenged by F. E. Brown, who
towns and thus from the
to be basically different points out that the columns were brought, according
Roman insulae, built upon tabernae. For the Casa a to Pliny, 'Capitolinis aedibus', which cannot mean

Graticcio: A. Maiuri, Ercolano, nuovi scan (Rome, 1 'for the Capitoline Temple': Art Bulletin, LIV (1972),

1958), 407 20. There is no reason to assume that the 343-]

tenement houses mentioned by Livy were of this type. 2. For the use of tufa and travertine see Blake (1947),
Though it seems evident to me that insula in towns of 29 G. Lugli, Tecmca edilizia, 302-26. For the use
ft.;

the Imperial Age (like Ostia) means tenement house, of travertine only for capitals, bases, inscriptions, etc.,

it may be added that the word in older towns (like from about 130, see ibid., 327 f., and Blake (1947),
Pompeii) might have been used for quarter. For the 44-8 et passim. For the rubble see Cosa, 11. The late

domus at Cosa, see V. J. Bruno, 'A Town House at terracotta revetments from all Central Italy are de-
Cosa', Archaeology, xxill (1970), 233-41. scribed in A. Andren's Architectural Terracottas and
13. Pomponius Mela, II, 7; Strabo, xvi, 2. 13 and thoroughly restudied in Cosa, 11, 151-300.
23. For Carthage, see Appian, Historia romana, VIII, For the luxuria: Pliny, xxxvi, 3-8; 114; Augus-
3.

128, and G. and Colette Picard, La vie quotidienne a tine, De civitate Dei, in, 21; H. Drerup, Zum Aus-

Carthage (Paris, 1958), 49 f. stattungsluxus in der romischen Architektur (1957).

135. 14. The Circus Flaminius was built along the 140. 4. For quasi-reticulate and reticulate: Lugli, op.

Tiber from the Pons Fabricius towards the Monte dei at., 501-5; Blake (1947), 227-75.
Cenci: G. Gatti, 'Dove erano situati il teatro di Balbo 5. Vitruvius, II, 8. 17. Morgan's translation is un-
e il Circo Flaminio', Capitolium, x x X v, 7 ( 1 960), 3-12; satisfactory. Vitruvius speaks of piers of stone, a struc-

Palattno, v (1961), 17-20. Nash, s.v. For a different ture of burnt brick (protecting the top of the walls),
interpretation, T. P. Wiseman, in P.B.S.R., XL 1 and walls of concrete (parietes caementiciae). What
(1974), 3-26. For constructions of spectators' galleries Vitruvius means by structural testaceae can be seen in
of wood: Pliny, xxxvi, 116-20; Suetonius, Nero, 12; II, 8. 18 and in the turrets of second-century villa
Vitruvius, V, 5. 7. As in the Greek theatres, sloping terraces at Cosa (below, pp. 190-2), which are built of
hillsides could be adapted or earthen embankments coarse rubble with interposed protecting layers of roof
constructed, as around the stadium of Olympia. The tiles with fringes [176]. Another instance can be found
theatre of 155 B.C.: Livy, Epitome, xlviii; Valerius in the Late Republican tombs along the Via Appia
Maximus, 11, 4. 2; Tertullian, Apologeticus, 6; De outside TerracinaForma Italtae, I, 1 1 Lugli, Anxur-
: . .

spectaculis, 10; Appian, Bellum civile, 1, 4. 28. Tarraana (Rome, 1926), Zona VI, no. 8, 12, figures 2,
15. Crema, 126, figure 116; P. Nicorescu, Ephemeris 3,6.
Dacoromana, 1 (1923), 1-56; Nash, 11, 352 ft". The 144. 6. For the tenement house in Terracina, ibid.,

Tomb of the Salvii at Ferento (Ferentium, Ferentis): Zona III, no. 6, figure The Palatine: Boethius,
17.

A. Degrassi, Rend. Pont., xxxiv (1961-2), 59-77. For Opus. Arch., 1 (1935), 176-8. The excavations below

the date of the Barbatus sarcophagus: H. Kahler, the Neronian portico south of the Via Sacra can be
Rom und seme Welt, Erlduterungen (Munich, i960), found in Lugli, Monumenti minori del Foro Romano,
no ff. Cf. T. Dohrn, R.M., lxix (1962), 88. 139-64, 171. For the balcony round the Terme del
Foro see A. Maiuri, Atti del I Congresso nazionale di
studi romani, 1 (1929), 164.
145. 7. Stabian baths: Crema, 17, figure 15. Domical
vaults: Tabularium, Crema, 17, 58. Temple of Her-
cules Victor at Tivoli: Crema, 57 f, figure 55. The
nymphaeum at Formia: Crema, 125, figure 114.
 233

8. See Maiuri, N.S. (1942), 319; N.S. (1941), 371- the columns' instead of architraves of stone, as de-
86. The position of the Temple of Apollo on the wes- scribed by Vitruvius, 111, 3. 5. For Lucus Feroniae

tern side of the forum, and an oblique wall built along see R. Bartoccini, Atti del VII Congresso internazionale
the short north side before the dominating temple di archeologia classica, II (1961), 249-56; G. D. B.

was constructed, show that the place in earlier times Jones, P.B.S.R., xxx (1962), 191 5.

did not have the later rectangular shape and orienta- For the combination basilica-tabernae cf. Opus.
tion. On the history of the Pompeian forum see now Arch., (1935), 189-95; G. Fuchs, R.M., i.xm
1

Eschebach, Die stadtebauliche Entmcklung des antiken (1956), 17f. ;and N. Sandberg, Eranos, XXX iv (1936),

Pompeji, passim. 82 For the basilicas Livy, x L, 5 4 5; XLI V, 16.1.

ff. : 1 .

9. For the hellenistic piazzas: J. B. Ward-Perkins and Gato's statement about the paving of the Forum Pliny, :

M. H. Ballance, 'The Caesareum at Gyrene', P.B.S.R., XIX, 24. Fornices: Crema, 100; Platner-Ashby and
XXVI (1958), 137-94; E. Sjoqvist, 'Kaisareion', Opus. Nash, s.v. Gomitium: Cicero, Laelius, 25, 96; Plut-

Rom., 1 (1954), 86 Boethius, The Gulden House of

ft".; arch, C. Gracchus, 5, 3. Gaesar's Rostra: Dio Gassius,
Vero, 68 f. The origins of the Imperial fora are dis- xliii, 49. 1-2.
cussed by E. Gjerstad, Opus. Arch., 1 1 1 (1944), 40 ff. 13. For discussion and bibliography see Crema, 61-7.
146. 10. E. Dyggve, Lin Jos, 1 1 1 (i960), passim; the im- Cf. now K. Ohr, Die Basilika in Pompeji (dissertation,
portance for Roman architecture especially discussed Karlsruhe, 1973). Vitruvius (v, 1.45) describes a
on pp. 517 ft. Martin, L'urbanistne dans la Grece basilica which is probably similar to the basilicas of

antique (Paris, 1956), has especially well analysed the the Forum Romanum in his day, and in v, 1. 6-10, a
unaxial Greek architecture, showing its striking dif- basilica which he supervised in Colonia Julia Fanestris
ference in comparison with hellenistic axialin. F. (Fano). He further (vi, 3. 9) describes in private
Fasolo and G. Gullini have in a most convincing way houses so-called Egyptian oeci with an arrangement
defined the new character acquired by hellenistic similar to the basilicas, and mentions basilicas in VI,

architecture in Italy in their monumental work // 5. 2.

Santuano della Fortuna Prnnigenia a Palestrina. See 150. 14.For Cato's Basilica Porcia see especially Livy,
also H. Kahler, Das Fortunaheiligtum urn Palestrina XXX IX, and Aurelius Victor, I in illustres, 47, 5.
44, 7,
Praeneste, and 11 esensziige der riimischen Kunst (Saar- The basilica, which Plautus mentions (Curculio, 472),
brucken, 1958), 17 f. may have been the oldest building below the Basilica
148. 11. Cosa: Cosa, 1, 72, figure 66; L. Richardson, Aemilia; see the remains on the plan of G. Carettoni,
'Cosa and Rome', Archaeology, x (1957), 49~55- \ .S. (1948), in. Cf. Fuchs, art. at., 25, note 40; and
Forum of Pompeii: Maiuri, N.S. (1941), 371 ft., G. E. Duckworth, in it pictura poesis: Studia latina
( 942), 319!'. The Temple of Hercules at Alba Fucens
1
Petro fohanni Enk oblata (Leiden, 1955), 58-65.
F. de Yisscher, J. Mertens, J. Gh. Baity, 'Le Sanc- 15. The basilica of Ardea is published in Bollettino

tuaircd'Hercule et ses portiquesa Alba Fucens', Won. dell'Associazione internazionale Ji studt mediterranei,
Ant., xlvi (1963), 334-96. For the temple and the ill, 3 (August September 1932), 3 ft.; V, 1 2 (April

Hercules statue: de Yisscher, Heracles Epitrapezios July 1934), 7-21, plates 11 ill. Boethius, in Apo-
(Paris, 1962). For another interpretation of the com- phoreta Gotoburgensia I ilelmo Lundstrom oblata ( 936), 1

plex see H. Lauter, 'Heiligtum oder Markt?', Anz. 353 f. The old sacrifices: Strabo, V, 3. 5. The basilica

(1971), 55-62. For Brixia: M. Mirabella Roberti, 'II of Ardea measures 150 bj 78 feel (45.80 by 23.80 m.).
Gapitolium repubblicano di Brescia', Am del I 11 For the water cistern it should be remembered that old
Congresso internazionale dt archeologia classica, 11 temples in central Italy usualh had a well, cistern, or

(1961), 347-73. In Flavian times a Gapitolium re- tank close at hand; see Cosa, II, 108, note 77.

placed the four Late Republican temples, Grema, 151. 16. For the public use of the basilicas in Late
figures 316, 1,2}. P. G. Sestieri, Paestum (I liner an) Republican times: E. Welin, Studien zur Topographic

(1953), 19 22. [The account of the Pompeian forum des Forum Romanum [Acta Rum. Sua., in S", Vi)
gi\ en in the text diverges from the excavation findings, (1953), in ff. The basilica of Cosa: Cosa, I, 75 8;
which suggested that the tabernae remained till the F. E. Brown, Roman Architecture, 12 f, plates 27 8.

time of Tiberius: N.S. (1(141 ), 385.] The length of the basilica on the outside is 117 feet

149. 12. For the tabernae see Vitruvius, V, 1.2: 'round (35.52 m). Brown reconstructs the basilicas of Cosa
about in the colonnades put the bankers' offices; and and Ardea with colonnaded fronts (op. at., plates 27
have balconies on the upper floor properly arranged and 29).
so as to be convenient; and to bring in some public 17. To me Fuchs' identification of the column bases

revenue'. In paragraph 3 Vitruvius adds that 'the F 2 on Carrettoni's plan and the Vemilia of 179
1, 3,

columns (it the upper tier should beone-tourth smaller B.C. seems convincing (/<« at.. Note 12). This build-
.

than those of the lower' The wide intercolumniations ing was later repaired in No 78 B.< when, according .,

no doubt required 'series ot wooden beams laid upon to Pliny, xxxv, 13, the consul \1 Vemilius Lepidus
234 ' NOTES TO CHAPTER 6

put up portrait shields on it, and also in 55-54 B.C. D, second phase (100-75 B.C.), Cosa, 1, f. For the 1 1 1 1

(Cicero, Ad Atticum, iv, 17, 7; Plutarch, Caesar, 29). temple on the Via delle Botteghe Oscure in Rome see
Until now no remains have clarified how the northern, Nash, 1, 202 f., and for a possible identification F.
rear side of the Basilica Aemilia was built. The coin of Coarelli, Palatmo, xn (1968), 365-73. For the revival

59 B.C. has been interpreted in two different ways. of the so-called Aeolic capitals, once so popular in
Fuchs contends that it depicts the northern, long side Archaic architecture, see Antonia Ciasca, // capitello

and that the northern aisle of the basilica was open detto eolico in Etruria (Florence, 1962).
towards market-places behind the basilica, like a 162. 23. Temples with two columns prostyle: above
colonnaded portico; in this case, the portrait shields pp. 38-9; W. Johannowsky, 'Modelli di edifici da
would have decorated the facade of this northern side Teano', B. d' Arte, xlvii (1962), 63-9. For Cori:
of the building. I agree with other scholars, who Brandizzi Vittucci, Cora, 77-96. For Ostia: Scan di

assume that the basilica, as in the Imperial Age, had a Ostia, 1, 105 f. Jupiter Stator: Forma Urbis, plate
wall outside the northern aisle, and explain the coin as XXix. For literature on the temples cited see the works
representing one side of the interior of the nave with by Delbriick (cited above, Note 20); A. de Franciscis,
its two-storeyed aisles. They assign the shields to this 'Templum Dianae Tifatinae', Archivto storico di Terra
interior. The wording of Pliny makes it clear that the di Lavoro, 1 (Caserta, 1956), 301-58. M. Almagro
shields belonged to the basilica and not to the portico Basch, 'Las excavaciones espanolas en Gabii', Atti
with the tabernae towards the Forum. del VII Congresso tnternazionale di archeologia classica,
152. 18. Maiuri, Ercolanu, 284-90. For the Egyptian, 11 (1961), 237-48. J. A. Hanson, Roman Theater-
Corinthian, and tetrastyle oeci, which are all related Temples, 29-39. F° r tne date of the temples of Gabii,
to the basilicas, see also Crema, 115 f., figures 106-8. Cagliari,and the other Late Republican temples, see
[It is possible to argue, contrary to the statement in the further Crema, 42, 49. He suggests a date at the end
text, that Vitruvius's basilica at Fanum was lit by of the third century for Gabii and the beginning of the
clerestories above two-storeyed aisles (v. 1. 6-7).] third century for Cagliari. Comparing the temples of
18a. Ohr, op. cit. (see Note 13). Cosa, the mouldings of the podia, etc., I maintain that
155. Tabularium: for bibliography and photo-
19. these dates and others still more ancient which have
graphs see Nash, II, 402-8. been suggested are too early. [For a new theory about
157. 20. See Boethius-Ward-Perkins, 195. The stan- the plan of the temple of Jupiter Stator, P. Gros,
dard works for the Late Republican temples are: R. 'Hermodoros et Vitruve', Mel. Rome, LXXXV (1973),
Delbriick, Hellenistic lie Bauten in Latium, Das Capi- i37-6i-]
tolium von Sigma, and Die drei Tempel am Forum 163. 24. For Temple B on the Largo Argentina: Mar-
Holitorium; and Lucy Shoe, Etruscan and Republican chetti Longhi, L 'area sacra del Largo Argentina
Roman Mouldings (M.A.A.R., xxvm) (1965); see (Itinerari), 55-62; Nash, 1, 136, 142 f. [The temple is

further Lugli, I monumenti antic hi di Roma e suburbio now convincingly recognized as that of Fortuna
with Supplemento and Itmerano di Roma antica. For Huiusce Diei, erected c. 100 B.C. see Coarelli, loc. cit.] :

further references: Crema, 41-9. 25. For the Capitolia see Cosa, 11, 49 ff. Agnes Kir- ;

Temple A on the Largo Argentina: G. Marchetti- sopp Lake, M.A.A.R., xn (1935), 101-13; J. John-
Longhi, V
area sacra del Largo Argentina ( Itinerari), son, Excavations at Mmturnae, (Philadelphia, 1935), I

47-55 Nash, 1, 136 ff. (s.v. Area sacra del Largo

; 18-41. The Roman colony was founded in 296 as a
Argentina). The temples on theForum Holitorium: castrum-fort (above, p. 125) with an aedes Jovis (Livy,
Lugli, / monumenti antic hi di Roma e suburbio, I, 352- xxxvi, 37); the forum with its Capitolium was built
65, and Itmerano di Roma antica, 287-94. west of the castrum-fort in the second century (John-
158. 21. Andren, Architectural Terracottas, passim. son, op. cit., 5). See further especially Luisa Banti, St.

For stylistic analysis of the revetments see above all Etr., XVII (1943), 187-224; M. Cagiano de Azevedo,
Cosa, 11, 137, 165, 183, 225, and passim. Pedimental Mem. Pont., V (1940), 1-76; U. Bianchi, Mem. Line,
groups: Giglioli, cccxvn, cccxvm, cccxxi, ser. 8, 11 (1950), 349 ff. Polacco, 80 ff. and Crema,
; ;

cccxxx v; Cosa, 312 ff. For late Greek pedimental

1
1, 37-9 (with bibliography).
sculpture: Phyllis Williams Lehmann, The Pedi- 164. 26. The Capitoline Temple: Gjerstad's descrip-
mental Sculptures of the Hieron in Samothrace (New tion, Early Rome, III, 168-90, and the Acta of the
York, 1962); Samothrace, in. The Hieron, 1 (London, Institutum Romanum Norvegiae,
(1962), 35-40, 1

1969), 253-328. with criticism of the interpretation of Vitruvius, III,

159. 22. Cf. Boethius, 'Of Tuscan Columns', A J. A., 3. 5 in my article 'Veteris Capitoli humilia tecta', ibid.,
lxvi (1962), note 22 ) an d above, pp.
249-54 (P- 2 5 2 - 27-33. Cf. above, pp. 37-8, Notes 9-10.
49-52. For Cosa: Cosa, 11,43, 102 f. The tufa columns The text of Vitruvius, in, 3. 5 is / baryce j bary-
of the Capitolium (about 150) are the earliest stone cephalae humiles latae, but as Professor E. Wistrand
columns found at Cosa. The Doric capital of Temple has pointed out, baryce is most likely a dittography.
 235

For Tacitus, Historiae, in, 71, see Wistrand, Eranos, presented strong epigraphic evidence in favour of a
XL (1942), 169, and Boethius, The Golden /louse of second-century date for the upper sanctuary. Cf. S.

Nero, 60-1, notes 57 and 59. The suggestion about Mazzarino, // pensiero storico classico, 11, 2 (Bari,

memorial coins representing a gable ot a temple in '968), 318-20. Generally on the sanctuary and its

conventional form has been made by F. Ciistagnoli, problems, G. Gullini, 'La datazione e l'inquadra-
Arch. CL, V (1953), 104-5. The temple was heightened mento stilistico del Santuario della Fortuna Primi-
after the fire in A.D. 69 (Tacitus, Historiae, i\, 53). genia a Palestrina', in H. Temporini (ed), Aufstieg

I
For vindication of Vitruvius's statement about the uiiil Siedergang der romtselien Welt, I, 4 (Berlin and
temple of 69 B.C., cf. F. E. Brown, Art Bulletin, LIV New \ ork, 1973). 74" 99-1
(1972), 343, and Note 1 above.] 32. This is the reconstruction by Fasolo and Gullini,
27. A. \1. Colini, 'Aedes Veiovis inter Arcem et op. eit., and the conclusion of their painstaking dis-
Capitolium', Bull. Comm., LXX (1942), 1-55. Biblio- cussion (pp. 32 ft".).

graphy, Nash, 11, 490. For Vitruvius's rather mis- I 73- 33- This is G. Becatti's explanation of the term,
leading remarks (iv, and the Imperial Age: 8. 4) Scavt J: Ostia, i\, 254-9. Cf. J.R.S., liii (1963),
Crema, 47. The Pantheon of Agrippa in its original 231 f. Pliny, xxxv 1, 184 9; Varro, De re rust tea, in,
form had the same kind of plan as the Temples of 1. 10: 'villain . . . pavimentis nobilibus lithostrotis
\ eii n is and Concord Kahler, 'Das Pantheon in Rom',
: spectandam'. Other explanations, refuted by Becatti:
in Meilensteine der europdisi hen Kunst (Munich, 1965), Marion Blake \l..l. I.R., \ (1930), 50 ft".; Maiuri, 1 1 1

47 f., 55 f.; cf. K. De Fine Licht, The Rotunda in Rome La Villa clei Mister 209 ft'.; Fasolo and Gullini, op.
1,

(Copenhagen, 1968), 172 ft'. cit., 307 ft. [See now Gullini, art. at., 752 ft., arguing

165. 28. For these temples see J. A. Hanson, Roman convincingly that 'lithostrota' is a general term for

Theater-Temples, 29-39. Crema, 49, suggests that the tessera mosaic floors, especially those with all-over
temple of Diana Tifatina also had some similar representational compositions. The two Palestrina
arrangement in front. For Morgantina see A.J. A., mosaics are almost universally dated to the time of
i.x vi (1962), plate 29. 2. Sulla.]

N.S. (1949), 213 ft.; Studt Sardi,

29. P. Mingazzini, 174. 34. 'locus saeptus religiose', in Cicero's words,
x-xi (1950-1), 161 ft'.; Hanson, op. cit., 32 f. Cf. G. loc. at. The identification with the small enclosed
Pesce, Sardegna punua (Cagliari, 1961), 63-5. shrine on the fourth terrace was first suggested by
169. 30. C. Carducci, Tihur (Istituto di Studi Romani, Mingazzini, Arch. CI., vi (1954), 295-301, and later

1940), 64-75. Fasolo and Gullini, // Santuario della Kahler, op. cit., accepts and develops Mingazzini's
For tuna Primigenia a Palestrina, 353 ft"., 424-33. assumption. [But see Gullini, art. at., 751.]
Hanson, tip. at., 31 f. See now Giuliani, Ttbur, 1, 164- 35. In identifying the round temple with the Temple
201. of Fortuna I follow Kahler, op. at. [But against
170. 31. Strabo, V, 3. 11. Appian, Bel/urn Civile, 1, 94, kahler's restoration of the round building as a peri-

says that Praeneste was very rich and that Sulla gave pteral tholos visible above the semicircular portico see
it over to plunder. In contrast to that he mentions that Gullini, art. at., 748-50. The interpretation of the
'no plunder was gained' from Norba after its destruc- semicircular stairs as a kind of theatre is also contro-

tion shortly afterwards. The only possible conclusion versial.]

seems to me to be that both the lower and the upper 176. 36. Lugli, in forma Italiae, 1, 1. 1, 154 78. Fasolo
sanctuaries were built on the site of older shrines as a and Gullini, 415 21. They date the
op. at., 362 I.,

kind of simultaneous memorial of the victory and great wall to the time of the war against Hannibal (pp.
sacrifice of atonement. Fasolo and Gullini in their 326-8), and suggest that the urgent need of a defence
monumental work, cited in Note 30 above, try in a against Hannibal caused construction in great haste
most interesting way to prove that the upper part of with the new building material, concrete, ot coarsest
the sanctuary was built in the middle of the second quality. Cf. Gullini, art. at., 7N2 4.

century B.C.. (cf. later Areh. CI., \ 1 ( 1954), 133-46). In 37. V. Cianfarani, Santuart tie/ Sannul (Pescara,
my opinion Lugli has entirely disproved this in Rend. [960), 7-16, plates 4 5. For Morgantina see I.J.A.,
Line, ser. 8, ix (1954)- 51 87, Arch. CI., vi (1954), i.x vi (1962), plate 29. 2.

305- 1 1, and Palladia, N.S. 1 v ( 1 054). 1 78. See also his 177. 38. Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, 127 31, 326, plates \ 1,

Tecnua edtlizia. Especially important observations 1; xi.viii, 3. A. Bartoli, B. J' hit. \\\i\ (1949),
are added by Kahler, Das Fortunaheiligtum von Pale- 293-306. Gullini, Arch. CL, vi (1954), 185 216. CC.
Gnomon, \\\ (1958), 366-
Strina Praeneste; see also van Essen, Areh. CL, xm
(1961), 145-51. V. Celani,
83, Helga von Heintze, Gymnasium, LXII1 (1956), Ferentino ( 1965). Gullini argues for a date in the first

526 44, and G. Jacopi, // Santuario della For tuna half of the second centurj : loc. cit., and art. eit. in Note
Primigenia (Itmerari) (1963), bibliography, zt, f. [A. 31 above, 780-2.
Degrassi, Mem. Line, ser. 8, XIV (1969-70), has now 39. For Bavai, Aries, Reims, Narbonnc, and Aosta
236 • NOTES TO CHAPTER 6

see R. A. Staccioli, Rend. Line, ser. 8, ix (1954), 645 52. Saepinum: Anz. (1959), 232. Palm tree: Livy,
ff.; Arch. CI., vi (1954), 284 ff.; Lugli, Atti del X XL 1 1 1, 13. 6. An excellent analysis of the history of an
Congresso di storm dell'archttettura (1959), 189-95. On atrium house is given by L. Richardson, Jr, in 'The
cryptoporticoes in general, Les cryptoportiques dans Casa dei Dioscuri and its Painters', M.A.A.R., xxm
V architecture romaine (Paris, 1973). (1955), 96-110. For the investigations of the German
179. 40. Porta di Casamari (S. Maria) at Ferentinum: Archaeological Institute in the early levels of the Casa
Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, 326, plate lxx, 2. del Fauno at Pompeii, see A. W. Van Buren, 'News
41. G. Saflund, Le mura di Roma repubblicana, 22-6. Letter from Rome', A.J.A., LXVH (1963), 402 f. Cf.
Another arch of the same type on the Quirinal, op. cit., recent American investigations in the Casa del Sal-
89-91. Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, plate lxvi, 1-2. lustio: A.J. A., lxxv (1971), 206 f.

180. 42. For the walls and terrace of Alba Fucens: 53. For atrium-houses at Pompeii the best surveys
Mertens, 'Alba Fucens, urbanisme et centuriation', are still Overbeck and Mau, Pompeji in semen Ge-
Atti del VII Congresso Internazionale di Archeologia bduden, Alterthumern and Kunstwerken, 244-376;
Classica, 11 (1961), 283-93, w tn bibliography, and ' Mau, Pompeji in Leben and Kunst, 2nd ed., 250 ff. For
Rend. Line, ser. 8, XI n (1958), 97-9; de Visscher, Herculaneum, Maiuri, Ercolano. nuovi scavi, 197 ff. 1

'Alba Fucens 1957-1958', Academie Roy ale de Bel- For Ostia see Note 50 above.
gique. Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres, etc., ser. 5, 187. 54. Tetrastyle atria: Casa del Fauno; Casa delle
XLIV (1958), 512 ff., and 'Alba Fucens: a Roman Nozze d'Argento; Casa del Labirinto. Corinthian
Colony', Archaeology, xn (1959), 123-32; Mertens, atria: Casa di Epidio Rufo; Casa dei Dioscuri; the

'Problemes et methodes de la recherche dans une ville Fullonica VI 8, 21.

republicaine: l'exemple d'Alba Fucens', Stttdi Roma- 55. Meiggs,Roman Ostia, 252.
gnoli, xiii (1962), 133-41. 56. The main treatment of this subject remains P.
181. 43. Lugli, Anxur-Tarracina (Forma Italie, 1, 1. 1) Grimal, Lesjardins romains. Cf. Crema, 105. The im-
(Rome, 1926), 67-9, figures 13-14, and Tecnica portance of the new prolonged axiality and views has
edilizia, 147 f. been analysed withfine comprehension by H. Drerup,

44. Fundi: Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, 152-4, plates VI, R.M., lxvi (1959), 147 ff., and in 'Die romische
3; cxxi, 1. Cora: op. at., 134-7, 4 2 5; Brandizzi Vit- Villa', Marburger IVinckelmann-Programm (1959),
tucci, Cora, 37-45. 1-24.
_
45. Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, 295-9, 475 6i figure 99; 188. 57. Boethius, Opus. Arch., 1
(1935), 182-9; The
cf. Mon. Ant., xxxin (1930), 114 ff.; N.S. (1943), Golden House of Nero, 137, figure 78. Forma Urbis,
275 ff. plate L 1 Meiggs, Roman Ostia, 1 23 f.
1 1 .

46. G. Calza and Becatti, Ostia (Itmerari) (1961), 58. Maiuri, Ercolano, 1 nuovi scavi, 284-90. Crema,
7-9. R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia, 34 ff. Lugli, Tecnica 116, figure 106.
edilizia, 419, 477, 494 f., plate CXI 1, 3. Scavi di Ostia, 59. Crema, 116, figure 109. Richardson, op. cit., 63-5,
1, 79-88. note 370, claims that room 48 in the Casa dei Dioscuri
183. 47. For regular Late Republican towns: Casta- is the only Cyzicene oecus so far (1955) discovered in
gnoli, ff., and especially Surrentum
Ippodamo, 81 Pompeii.
(Sorrento), 90 f. Alife, 93. Strigae and scamna are
; 60. Noack and K. Lehmann-Hartleben, Bau-
F.
terms used for camps and land surveying: Hyginus geschichtliche Untersuchungen am Stadtrand von Pom-
Gromaticus, De munitionibus castrorum, I, 6, 7, 14, 15. peji (Berlin, 1936). Crema, 112, figure 101. For the

Atrium test ml nut turn: Crema, 105, 108; above,

48. coastal villas see e.g. V. Spinazzola, Pompei, (Rome, 1 1

p. 86. Casa dello Scheletro: Maiuri, Ercolano, 265 ff., 1953), 859, figure 861.
and Ercolana (Inner an), 7th ed. (1970), }} f. For the 189. 61. Casa dei Grifi: G. E. Rizzo, Le pttture delta

architectural term atrium and its different meanings 'Casa dei Grifi' (Monument: della pittura antica sco-
see Welin, Studien zur Topographie des Forum Ro- perti in Italia, 3, 1) (Rome, 1936). Crema, 21 (figures
maiium, 179 and passim.
ff. 18, 19), 117. For other views on the dating R. J. Ling,
185. 49. Crema, 105 f. Casa del Tramezzo di Legno: P.B.S.R., XL (1972), 25, 28; H. Mielsch, Romische
Maiuri, Ercolano. 1 nuovi scan, 207 ff. Stuckreliefs (R.M. Ergdnzungsheft, xxi) (Heidelberg,
50. Ostia: Scavi di Ostia, 1, 107 ff. ; Meiggs, Roman 1967), 16 f. The houses on the south side of the Pala-
Ostia, 253. tine: Carettoni, 'Una nuova casa repubblicana sul
186. 51. G. Fiorelli first observed that the oldest atria Palatino', Rend. Pont., XXIX (1956-7), 51-62; 'I
at Pompeii did not have impluvia: Gli scavi di Pompei problemi della zona augustea del Palatino', Rend.
dal 1861 al 1872 (Naples, 1873), xn, 78 ff. This has Pont., xxxix (1966-7), 55-75. See now N.S. (1967),
been confirmed by Maiuri's excavation in the Casa del 287 ff. Suetonius, Augustus, 45; Dio, LVII, n.
Chirurgo, N.S. (1930), 391 f. See also Crema, 105, 62. The first of the so-called Pompeian Styles was

108. introduced to Italy from the hellenistic world in the

 237

third century B.C. (or even earlier): cf. V. J. Bruno, Republican villa below Hadrians \illa was discovered
'Antecedents of the Pompeian First Style". I J I . by Lugli, Studi minort 384-403 dt topografia antica,

LXIII (1969), 305 -17. For the history of the First and {Bull. Comm., lv (1927), 139-204).
Second Styles see above all Beyen, Die pompejanische 194. 68. Fundamental is K. M. Swoboda, Romische
M anddekoration, 1 and 1 1, 1. For the great wall paint- und romanische Paldste, 2nd ed. (Vienna, 1924), 29 ft".

ings see also Maiuri, La I ilia da Misteri; Phyllis See further L. d'Orsi, Git scam di Stabia, 2nd ed.
Williams Lehmann, Roman
If all Paintings from (Stabia, 1961), plate XXXI, and Boethius, Tlw Golden
Boscoreale.Odyssey landscapes: P. von Blancken- H House of Nero, 100 f.

hagen, 'The Odyssey Frieze', R. \l.. i.xx 1963), 100 ( 195. 69. Lugli, 'Nymphaea sive musaea', Studi mmori
40; A. Gallina, Le pitture con paesaggi dell'Odissea di topografia antica, 169-81 (Atti del IV Congresso
daW Esquilino (Rome, 1964). For the theory that earl) nazionale di studi romani, 1 (1938), 155-68). For the
Second Style paintings reflected contemporary archi- use of the words 'nymphaeum' and 'musaeum': Min-
tecture, J. Kngemann, Architektwdarstellungen des gazzini. Arch. CI., \ word
11 (1955), 156-62, uses the
friihen zweiten [R.M. Erganzungsheft, xn)
Stils 'musaeum' for natural grottoes with later extensions
(Heidelberg, 1967). For the sectile pa\ements, litho- and 'nymphaeum' only for monumental, public foun-
stroton, and mosaics see above. Note ^^. tains. Cf. Neuerburg, E'arcluteltura delle fontane e dei

190. 63. G. Pesce, // 'Palazzo delle Colonne in Tole- mnfei neW Italia antica, 27-9. Crema, 122-5. The
maidedi Cirenaica [Monografie di archeologia libica, 11, grottoes from Locri are published by P. F. Arias.
Rome, 1950); H. Lauter, 'Ptolemais in Libyen", Palladio, v (1941), 193-206. Bovillae: Neuerburg,
J.D.A.I., LXXXVl (1971), 149 78. For another view 159 f. Doric Nymphaeum: Neuerburg, 157 f. ; cf.

ot the date see Boethius-Ward-Perkins, 462 4. Delos: Journal 0/ the Society 0/ , Irchitei tural Historians, xxil
D. S. Robertson, A Handbook of Greek and Roman 6. Villa di S. Antonio, Tibur:
(1963), 123, figures 5 and
Architecture, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, 1943), 300-2; Ex- Neuerburg, 249 f. cf. Lugli, Tecnica edilizia, plate
;

ploration archeologique de Delos, \ 111 (Paris, 1922-4). cxxii, 1. The nymphaea of the 'Villa di Cicerone',
64. On villas see Crema, 120-2, with bibliography. Neuerburg, 145 7. Subterranean halls ('aestivi reces-
Luxun D. Mustilli, 'La \illa pseudourbana
\illas: sus' or 'specus'): P. Mingazzini, Festschrift Eugen v,

ercolanese'. Rend. Sap., N.S. XXX] (1956), 77-97. Cf. NLercklm (1964), 96 ft", (classifies as 'musaea'). One
Drerup, 'Die romische Villa' (see Note 56). On farms 'recessus' of this kind was perhaps originally the sub-
the main ancient sources are Cato, De agricultura, terranean hall of the lower town of Ardca, though used
\ arro, De re rustica, especially 1, 13, Vitruvius, VI, in early medieval times as a church: A. Ferrua, Rend.
6, Columella, The typical \ illas with courtyards
1, 6. Pont., xxx yi (1964-5), 283-306. [For
1 the S. Antonio
are discussed by M. RostovtzefT, The Social and nymphaeum new reconstruction and
see now, with a
Economic History oj the Roman Empire, 2nd ed. interpretation, Giuliani, Tibur, 1, 300 Formia: C. F. ft".

(Oxford, 1957), 63, 551 3, 564 I'.; Mau, Pompeji in Giuliani and M. Guaitoli, 'II ninfeo minore della villa
Leben nnd Kunst, 2nd ed., 382 8, and others. For the detta di Cicerone a Formia', R.M.., xxix (1972), 1

simple villa see the Villa Sambuco (second century 191-219. On the use of the term 'nymphaeum' see
B.C.) near San Uiovenale, San Giovenale, 313-20.
cf. further S. Settis, 'Esedra e ninfeo nella terminologia
Two rustic \ illas, Posto and San Rocco, have been architettonica del mondo romano', in H. Temporini
excavated bj P. H. von Blanckenhagen in collabora- (ed.), Aufstieg und \iedergang der romischen Welt, 1, 4
tion with Ward-Perkins near Francolise: P.B.S.R.. (Berlin and New York, 1973), 661 745]
XXXII 1 (1965), 55-69. Cf. Boethius-Ward-Perkins, 70. Scan di Ostia, 1, 1
17 f.

figure 124. They date from the last two centuries B.C. 70a. See Boethius Ward-Perkins, 298 f.

and exhibit courtyards (in contrast to the Villa Sam- For the baths and palaestrae: Crema, 6N 75;
197. 71.
buco), wells, an oil-separating cistern, slave quarters, Staccioli, Arch. CI., x (1958), 273 8; XIII (1961), 92
etc., but were rebuilt in the third quarter of the first ff.; Rosanna Maccanico, -irch. CI., x\ (1963), 32 ft".;

century. Compare also F. Berggrcn. ' \ New Approach Delorme, Lespalestres (Exploration archeologique de
|.

to the Closing Centuries of Etruscan History", Arctos, Delos,xx v) (196 1), 145; Gymnasion, etude snr les
\ (1967), 29-43. F° r tne smaller farms: G. D. B. monuments consacres a r education en Grece (Bibho-
Jones, P.B .S.R., XXXI (1963), 147-58. theque des Ecoles Francaises d'Athcnes ct de Rome,
191. 65. Lugli. Tecnica edilizia,452 f., plate xxvi, 1. < ( \< \i) (Paris. [960). For Orata: Pliny , ix, [68 I .

D. Levi, St. Etr., (1927). 479. Crema, 121, figure 10.

1 1 Cicero as quoted b\ Nonius, 1114. Valerius Maximus,
Castagnoli, M.A. I.R., \\i\ (1956), 164. ix, 1. Greek hypocausts: Olympia (about 100 B.C.):
192. 66. Maiuri, Villa dei Misteri, 37 99 ft".
ff., // . Benefit uber die Ausgrabungen inOlympia (Berlin,
67. For the Villa dei Papyri, I am convinced bj 1944), 51-6, -1.) f; Gortys (Arcadia, third century
Mustilli (cited in Note 64 above), but see also Maiuri, b.c): B.C.H., lxxvii ( K153). 2<>-i ff, 1 \xi\ (
1955),
Ercolano (Itinerari), 7th ed. (1970), 77 82. The Late 331 ff R. Ginouves, U etablissemenl thermal de Gortys
238 • NOTES TO CHAPTER 6

d'Arcadie (Etudes peloponnesiennes, 11) (Paris, 1959), 203. 76. Pliny's main description of the theatres of
passim Gela D. Adamesteanu and P. Orlandini, N.S.
; : Scaurus and Curio: xxxvi, 1 14-17. Statues: xxxiv,

(i960), 181-202 (probable hypocaust, early third cen- 36. Marble walls: xxxvi, 50. Glass mosaics: xxxvi,
tury).For thermae and balneolae of Imperial Rome 189. Columns: xxxvi, 5-7, where Pliny also ex-
see summaries of the Curiosum Urbis Romae
the patiates on the distribution of columns, etc., to the
Regwnutn XIIII (Nordh, Libellus de regiombus urbis domus. Six columns of marble from Hymettus trans-
Romae). For the peristyle behind Pompey's theatre, ferred to Crassus's house from the theatre of his aedile-
Hanson, Roman Theater-Temples, 53 ff. [On the de- ship, Pliny, x v 1, 6. The paintings referred to in Pliny,
1

velopment of the Stabian Baths see now the researches xxxv, 127, may have been exhibited in Scaurus's
of H. Eschebach: Die stddtebaultche Entwkklung des theatre. See also Crema, 86, and H. Drerup, Zum
antiken Pompeji, 41-5; R.M., lxxx (1973), 235-42 Ausstattungsluxus in der romischen Archttektur (Miin-

(argues that the frigidarium was originally a laconi- ster, 1957), 16 f. For the crocodiles see Pliny, viii, 96.
cum); B. Andreae and H. Kyrieleis (eds.), Neue For- 204. 77. Crema, 98 f. (with bibliography).
schungen Pompeji (Recklinghausen, 1975), 179-92.]
in 205. 78. For the Late Republican rearrangement of
198. 72. General survey and bibliography: Crema, the theatre of Pompeii, cf. the references in Note 74
99 f. The site of the Circus Flaminius: Chapter 5, above. See also G. Traversari, Gli spettacolt in acqua
Note 14 above. Capua: A. De Franciscis, 'Commento nel teatro tardo-antico (Rome, i960), 68 ff.; Dioniso,
a due nuove "tituli magistrorum Campanorum"', in xv (1952), 3°8 ff.

Studi in onore di A. Calderini e R. Partbent (Milan, 79. For the recent discussion of the small theatre of
1956), in, 353-8. Gioiosa Ionica: S. Ferri, N.S. Pompeii, see Crema, 92 f. On the wooden roofs of
(1926), 332 ff. Rome cf. the Diribitorium, Dio, lv, 8; Pliny, xvi,
73. For the history of the and their Roman theatres 201, and xxxvi, For the theatre of Alba Fucens:
102.
interrelations with hellenisticand South Italian Greek Archaeology, xn f.; Anz. (1959), 210 f.
(1959), 128
theatres: Margarete Bieber, The History of the Greek Other theatres probably having Late Republican first
and Roman Theater, 167 ff.; A. Neppi Modona, Gli periods are Faesulae (Fiesole), Crema, 93 Ferentum,
: ;

romam, 71 ff.; Crema, 75-95. A

edifict teatrali greet e P. Romanelli, Dioniso, 1 (1929), 260 ff. ; Gubbio, P.
recent contribution to our knowledge about the Etrus- Moschella, Dioniso, vn (1939), 3 ff. Add Cales and
can players: see Chapter 3, Note 48. Teano: W. Johannowsky, B. d 'Arte, xlvi (1961),
202. 74. For the history of the theatre of Pompeii: 263; xlviii (1963), 152-9.
Margarete Bieber, op. cit., 170-3; Crema, 89 ff. 80. Forma Urbis, plate XXXI I, pp. 103-6. See Plut-
Maiuri, N.S. (1951), 126 ff. Scaenae frons: the terra- arch, Pompey, 42, 52; Tacitus, Ann., ill, 72 (fire),

cotta relief from the Santangelo Collection in the xiv, 20; Dio, xxxix, 38; lxii, 8; Pliny, vn, 34; Am-
National Museum of Naples, see Crema, 76, 87, figure mianus Marcellinus, xvi, 10. 14. See also Hanson, op.
80, and Margarete Bieber, op. at., 129 ff. where also cit., 43-55; Margarete Bieber, op. cit., 181-2; Neppi

the vase paintings representing Italian popular Modona, op. at., 77-9; Crema, 93-5. Cf. Platner-
comedies are illustrated and analysed. Siparia and Ashby and Nash, s.v.
aulaea: Crema, 81 f., Margarete Bieber, op. cit., 179 206. 8 Plutarch, Caesar, 66. For the discussion about
1 .

f. Aulaea from Pergamon: Donatus, Excerpta de the place where Caesar was murdered (the 'curia
comoedia,8. 8 (p. 30 in the Teubner edition of Aelii Pompei') see Hanson, op. at., 48, note 28, and Mar-
Donati quod fertur Commentum Terenti, 1). Seats: chetti Longhi, Rend. Pont., ser. 3, XI (1936), 267-79. 1

Plautus, Amphitruo, 65-8; Miles gloriosus, 81-3; 82. For the entire discussion about the Temple of
Poenulus, 5, 17-20, 1224; Truculentus, 968. The Venus see Hanson, op. cit., 44 ff. ; cf. Tertullian, De
summary of Livy's book xlviii ('and for some time spectaculis, x, 5 ; Gellius, X, 1 . 6-7. For the other shrines
thereafter the people stood to see the theatrical per- on the top of the theatre: Suetonius, Claudius, 21, 1,
formances') cannot be exact. The same confusion be- and C.I.L., I2, p. 324 (Fasti Amiternini and Allifani,
tween permanent theatres and seats for the spectators under Aug. 12).

by Valerius Maximus, 11, 4. 2. For the reform of 194 83. Cf. pp. 133-4 and Chapter 5, Note 11 above. See

B.C. see Livy, xxxiv, 44. 5; 54. further Kahler, Das Fortunaheiligtum von Praeneste
75. Convincing is Hanson's discussion in Roman (quoted in Note 10), 219-28.
Theater-Temples, 9-26. For the theatre of 154 B.C.: 207. 84. For the early importation of provisions by
Livy, Epitome, xlviii; Valerius Maximus, 11, 4. 2; river boats on the Tiber or by merchantmen from the
Velleius Paterculus, 1, 15. 3; Appian, Bellum civile, 1, Etruscan coast, Sicily, and south Italy, see Livy, iv,
28; Augustine, De avitate Dei, 1
1, 5; Hanson, op. cit., 52. 6 (412 B.C.); v, 13. (399 B.C. - the Tiber became
1

24 f.; Margarete Bieber, op. cit., 168; Crema, 85-6. unnavigable, but the price of corn, owing to the supply
Pietrabbondante: Cianfarani, Santuari nel Sannio which had been brought in before, did not go up). See
(i960), plate 1; Encul. Art. Ant., vi (1965), 161 f. also Dionysius, VI I, 1. 1-3 and 2. 1 (about 490 B.C. -
 239

a great quantity of provisions from Sicily), and XII, I other contributions see especially P. Nicorescu, 'La
many merchantmen laden with corn
(Maelius brought Tomba degli Scipioni', Ephemerts Dacoromana, 1

from Tuscany, Cumae, and other parts of Italy by (1923), 1-56. See also p. 135 above. For the historical
river boat via Ostia). Among other testimonies about painting from the tomb on the Esquiline see also Bull.
river boats on the Tiber is Dionysius, x, 14. 1-2. For Comm. (1889), 340 ff., and F. Coarelli, 'Frammento di
the Horrea Galbae see Platner-Ashby and Nash, s.v. affresco dall'Esquilino con scena storica', in Affreschi
The granaries of Syracuse are mentioned in Livy, romani dalle raccolte deli Antiquarium Comunale
'

xxiv, 21. 1 1- 12. For hellenistic markets, cf. Per- (Rome, 1976), 13-21 (with bibliography).
gamon, Magnesia, and, especially, Dura Europos, 211. 91. Calza, La necropoli del porto di Roma nelT
Dura, ix; cf. Ward-Perkins, 'The Roman West and Isola Sacra (Rome, 1940), 44, figures 9, 10. Early tomb
the Parthian East', Proc. Brit. Ac, 11 (1965), 186, apartments resembling the catacombs: Lucia Mor-
plates LI-LI I. For the caravanserais, cf. that of Kas- purgo, 'Un sepolcreto precristiano di Anzio', Rend.
sope in Epirus, see J.H.S., Lxxm (1953), 120 f. See xxn (1946-7), 155-66. Maria Floriani
Pont., ser. 3,
now, on the origins of the horrea type, Rickman, Squarciapino, Scavi dt Ostia, in, 1, 63-113. Lugli,
Roman Granaries and Store Buildings, 148-55. 'Scavo di un sepolcreto romano presso la basilica di S.
85. For the Magazzini Repubblicani see Scavt di Paolo', N.S. (1919), 285-354, passim. F. Magi, 'Ritro-
Ostia, I, 112, 190 f. and figure 41; Meiggs, Roman vamenti archeologici nell'area dell'autoparco vati-
Ostia, 130. Horrea on the Via del Sabazeo: Meiggs, cano', Tripltce omaggto a Sua Santita Pio XII, II

op. ctt., 124. On transport to Rome: J. Le Gall, Le (Citta del Vaticano, 1958), 92. For bustum and ustrt-
Tibre, fleuve de Rome dans I'antiquite (Paris, 1953), num: Festus, s.v. Bustum.
passim; L. Casson, 'Harbour and River Boats of 92. Together with these monuments, which show
Ancient Rome', J.R. S., lv (1965), 31-9. [For the area that the riversides could be used in the same way as
east of the castrum and north of the decumanus at the surroundings of the roads, is to be remembered
Ostia see now Meiggs, Roman Ostia, 2nd ed. (1973), that in Imperial times common burials were aligned

579 f-] along the Tiber. They have been found south and
208. 86. See Boethius and N. Carlgren, Acta Archaeo- north of the districts around the Forum Boarium and
logica, in (1932), 181 ff. ; Gullini, Arch. CI., vi (1954), the branches of the city walls which very likely already
202 ff. (on Ferentinum); and Carducci, Tibur (Istituto in the fourth century were built from the Capitoline
di Studi Romani, 1940), 60 For Caesarea Maritima
f. Hill and the Aventine to the Tiber to protect the
see I.L.N. (2 November 1963), 728-31. For Tivoli see settlement on the Forum Boarium, which already be-
now Giuliani, Tibur, 1, 218-22. longed to Early Rome. Le Gall, Le Tibre, fleuve de
87. Arches also appear above colonnades in the late Rome dans I'antiquite, 188 f.

Republic, for instance in buildings and paintings at 212. 93. For the tombs of Bibulus and Servius Sul-
Pompeii: Engemann, op. cit. (see Note 62), 58 ff., picius Galba see Crema, 129 f., Nash, II, 319 f., 370,
plates 18-20, 22. For the bridges see Crema, 12; with bibliography. For tombs of Pompeii and Sicily:
Platner-Ashby and Nash, ss.vv. Ponte di Nona: Blake Crema, 128 ff. A. de Franciscis-R. Pane, Mausolei
;

(1947), 211 f.; cf. L. Quilici, Collatia (Forma Italiae, romani in Campania (Naples, 1957), figure 22, and P.
1, x) (Rome, 1974), 373-81, especially 375 and figure Marconi, Agrigento (Florence, 1929), 123-7. ^ or
809. For the construction of the bridges: T. Frank, sepulchral monuments in Asia Minor: W. B. Dins-
Roman Buildings, 139. moor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece (London and
88. On the Cloaca Maxima see Prank, op. at., 74, New York, 1950), 255-61, 328-30.
142; Blake (1947), 38, 159-61, 198; Lugli, Tecnica 213. 94. For the sepulchral monuments of Terracina
ediltzta, 257, 308, 357; Nash, s.v.; Crema, 12. see Lugli, Anxur Tarraana (Forma Italiae, 1, 1. 1),

209. 8g. The Roman economy in the use of more valu- 184, 186, nos. 8 and 12, figures 2, 3, (>.

able material is when travertine was

especially clear 95. Tholos tomb at Cumae: Crema, 17, 125, figure
used. Reticulate was sometimes strengthened by 14-
alternating layers of travertine blocks, evidentlymak- 214. 96. See Crema, 130 f., 243, figures 18, 260, and 1

ing the network facade more sturdy. Burnt brick was B. Gbtze, Ein riitmsches Rundgrab in Falerit (Stuttgart,
also used in the same way in walls both of concrete and 1939) (denies derivation of Roman round tombs from
of sun-dried bricks. See pp. 190-1 and 212 13. Aqua Etruscan tumuli). Ross lolloway's idea (I.J.A., XX
I I.

Mareia: T. Ashby, The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome, (1966), 171 -3) that the tombs of the princes of Troy
88-158; Esther Van Deman, The Building of the should have been the model for Roman round tombs
Roman Aqueducts, 67-146; Lugli, Tecnica ediltzta, of the Augustan Age seems narrow-viewed, even if we
passim; Frank, op. at., 137-9. take into consideration the romantic revival of other
90. For the tombs of the Scipiones and the Sem- famous, foreign types of tombs, such as the Pyramid
pronii see Nash, 11, 352 ff., and Crema, 126; among of Cestius (cf. Horace, Odes, in, 30) and the tholos
240 •
NOTES TO CHAPTER 6

tomb at Cumae (see above, p. 213) in Late Republican toBelgium. This does not, of course, prevent people
and Augustan times. Ross Holloway has obviously from speculating widely and connecting the tomb of
forgotten that Etruscan ancestry was a la mode in Augustus with the tombs of the 'epic past', that is, of
Augustan Rome (Horace, Odes, 1 1 1, 29. 1 ; cf. I, 1. 1). his Trojan forefathers and their greatest enemy,
He further overlooks the obvious imitations of Etrus- Achilles. It seems less far-fetched, however, to bring

can tumuli on the Via Appia, cited in the text. Diony- to mind Aeneas' or Anchises' small mound near Lavin-
sius(i, 64. i)and Vergil (Aen., XI, 849 f.) further attest ium, 'round which have been set out in regular rows
that there were old mounds in Latium, which appealed trees that are well worth seeing', to quote Dionysius
to the Romans. There was, of course, no unbroken (loc. cit.). [The Tumulo dei Curiazi seems, at least in
tradition whatever between the archaic Etruscan and its original form, to go back to the fourth century or
Latin tumuli and their sophisticated return to vogue, earlier, since the Via Appia apparently swerves to
but it seems self-evident to me that it was the ancient avoid it.]

Etruscan and Latin monuments which inspired the 97. See Strabo, V, 2. 5, and Pliny, xxxvi, 14. Blake
late Romans and became the models for such archaistic (1947), 53; Lugli, Tecmca edtlizia, 327-9.
tombs as the mounds of the Via Appia, as well as for 215. 98. For the inner propylaea of Eleusis: Dins-
the distinguished tumuli, which were provided with moor, op. cit. (Note 93), 286-7; G. E. Mylonas, Eleusis
high sculptured substructures in hellenistic style, like and the Eleusinian Mysteries (Princeton, 1961), 156-
the tombs of Augustus, of Caecilia Metella on the Via 60, et passim. See Cagiano de Azevedo, 'I "Capitolia"
Appia, of Munatius Plancus at Gaeta, or the Torrione dell'impero romano', Mem. Pont., ser. 3, v, (1940), 1

di Micara at Tusculum (with its burnt brick on the 1-76, especially 43 ff., 67. The odeion in the Athenian
inside; Vitruvius, 11, 8. 4). These round Roman Agora: H. A. Thompson and R. E. Wycherley, The
tombs no doubt created a fashion in and around the Agora of Athens {The Athenian Agora, xiv) (Prince-
Empire, a trend which we can follow from the mound ton, 1972), 1 1 1 - 4, and Boethius- Ward-Perkins,
1

called the 'Tombeau de la Chretienne' in Mauretania 379-8 1.

SELECT GLOSSARY

In the glossary which follows Greek terms are given Archaic. Term in conventional use to denote art and
in their Latin form, where such is attested, or else in architecture from the seventh century B.C. to the
the English form in common use. The extent of angli- Classical period.
cization, especially as regards plurals, is a matter of architrave. The horizontal element, of stone or timber,
taste. The classical plurals are here added in brackets spanning the interval between two columns or piers.
to those words that are most likely to be met in this With columns widely spaced, as regularly in
areostyle.
form. Etruscan temples. As distinct from eustyle (me-
Fuller glossaries will be found in W. B. Dinsmoor, diumly spaced) and pyenostyle (closely spaced).
The of Ancient Greece (London and New
Irchitecture arx. Citadel (Greek, acropolis). In Rome the name of
York, 1950), and in D. S. Robertson, A Handbook of the northern part of the Capitoline Hill.
Creek and Roman Architecture, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, ashlar. Regular masonry of squared stones laid in

1943). For the names of the various types of building horizontal courses with vertical joints.
construction used in Rome and Central Italy, see asser (-es). Common rafter. See illustration 43.
further G. Lugli, La Tecmca edilizia romana con atrium. See illustrations 85, 91. The central hall of a
parttcolare riguardo a Roma e Lazio, 2 vols (Rome, Roman house of Etruscan type. In the later cen-
1957), 48-50. turies B.C. the central part of the roof sloped inwards
to a central opening (compluvium) to channel rain-
water into the basin beneath (impluvium). See also
abacus. The upper member of a capital. cavum aedium.
acropolis. Citadel (Latin, arx). Ittn base. Type of bell-shaped column-base often
acroterium (-a). Ornamental finial(s) at the apex or used in the Ionic order.
outer angles of a pediment. aulaeum. The curtain of a theatre, raised from a slot
aedicula (-ue). Diminutive of aedes, a temple; whence in front of the stage. See p. 200.
a small columnar or pilastered tabernacle used orna-
mentally. balneum, balineum. balneolum (-ae). Bath-building,
Aeolic capital. Palmiform capital evolved bv the public or private, of ordinary size, as distinct from
Greeks of north-western Asia Minor. the great public baths (thermae).
agger.Rampart. basilica. In strict architectural usage an elongated rec-
agora. The Greek equivalent of the Roman forum. tangular building with an internal ambulatory en-
ala (-ae). Outer passage(s) flanking the side walls of closing a taller central area, or else with a central nave
the cella (or cellas) of an Etruscan temple ( Yitruvius, and lateral aisles, in either case lit by a clerestory;
IV. 7. 2, aliae in vis). Wings extending to right and often provided with one or more apses or tribunes.
left at the far end of an atrium. See illustration 85. Originally a roofed extension of the forum for the
amphitheatre. Oval building with seating facing in- use of the public, from the Late Republic on-
wards on to a central arena for gladiatorial or similar wards was used for a variety of official purposes,
it

spectacles. notably judicial. During the Empire the term came

anta(-ae). Pilasters forming the ends of the lateral walls to be used of any hall that was basilican in plan,
of a temple cella. When the facade consists of columns irrespective of its purpose; and also of any large
set between two antae the columns are :;aid to be in covered hall, irrespective of its plan.
antis. basis villae. The platform of a Roman villa.

antefix. Decorative termination of the row of covering bucchero. Shiny black pottery used by the Etruscans.
tiles (imbrices) laid over the joints between two rows bucramum (-a). Decorative motif in the form of an ox-
of flat tiks (tegulae) of a roof. skull, shown frontally.

Apentune Culture. The principal Bronze Age culture bustum (-a). Enclosure for the performance of crema-

of peninsular Italy (from about 1500 B.C.). tion and the conservation of ash-urns.
apodyterium (-a). The changing room of a bath-
building. caldartum (-a). The hot room of a Roman bath.
242 • SELECT GLOSSARY

cantherws. Spar under roof, rafter (see illustration 43). conclave (-ia). Room, chamber.
capital.The upper member of a classical column or consuetudo Italica. Vitruvius's term for Late Republi-
pilaster. can Roman usage.
capitolium (-a). Temple of the Capitoline triad (Jupi- corbel. Stone bracket supporting a projecting feature.
ter, Juno, and Minerva). Also corbelled, describing a system of vaulting by
cappellaccio. The local tufa stone of the hills of Rome; means of overlapping courses of stone. See illustra-
used monumentally in the sixth century B.C., later tion 95.
only for constructions of secondary importance. Corinthian order.A sub-form of the Ionic order, whose
car ceres. The starting gate of a hippodrome or circus. most distinctive feature is a bell-shaped capital with
car do. Part of the terminology of the Roman surveyors carved leaf-decoration. See illustrations 132 and 154.
(agrimensores). The planning of the countryside and, cornice. Projecting element, designed to throw rain
wherever possible, of the associated towns was based water from the face of a building. The upper member
ideally on the intersection at right angles of two of a classical entablature, subdivided into bed-
main streets, the cardo (north-south) and the decu- moulding, corona, and sima.
manus (east-west). Hence, by extension, in modern crypta. Subterranean gallery.
usage, the two main streets of a town, whether they cryptoportico. Underground vaulted corridor, usually
comply with the rules of surveying or not. with oblique lighting through the vault.
castrum. Military camp, theoretically rectangular cubiculum. Bed chamber.
though in practice commonly square or trapezoidal cuneus (-;). Wedge-shaped block of seating, between
in plan. The layouts normally conform to one of radiating passages, in a theatre or amphitheatre.
two main types, one with two main streets (via quin- curia. The meeting-place of the Roman Senate.
tana and via principalis) running parallel to the long Whence, the assembly place of any municipal
sides, the other (characteristic of permanent for- council.
tresses) with two main streets (usually known as cyclopean masonry. Masonry of massive blocks. Orig-
cardo and decumanus) intersecting at right angles. inally that of Mycenaean Greece, but often used also
cavea. The auditorium of a theatre or amphitheatre. of the polygonal limestone walls of Central Italy,
cavum (-a) aedium (cavaedium). The Vitruvian term for from about 400 B.C.
the hall in Late Republican and Early Imperial houses

represented at Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Ostia. dado. The lower part of a wall when treated decora-
See also atrium. Vitruvius (vi. 3) distinguishes five tively as a continuous plinth or wainscot.
main types: tuscamcum, which Varro ascribed to the decumanus. See cardo.
Etruscans; tetrastyle, with columns at each angle of dentillated. With dentils, i.e. decorative rectangular
the compluvium; Corinthian, with intermediate blocks in the bed-mould of an Ionic cornice; derived
columns also; displuviatum, with roof sloping down- from the ends of the joists carrying a flat roof.
wards and outwards on all four sides; and testudina- displuviate. See cavum aedium.
tum, without a compluvium. do Hum (-a). Large earthenware jar.
cella. The central chamber or sanctuary of a temple. domical. Dome-shaped, or (of rectangular vaults)
cenaculum. Dining-room; later an upper storey. with four surfaces converging upwards and inwards
centuriatio. See limit atio. as in adome.
chalcidicum. Monumental porch constituting the domus House, the well-to-do residence of a single
(-us).

facade of a building. family as distinct both from the huts or tenements of

cippus. Small stone tomb-marker. the poor and, under the Empire, from the apartment
circus (Greek, hippodromos). Long narrow arena, houses (insulae) of middle-class usage.
curved at one end (exceptionally at both ends), for Doric order. The order evolved in the Doric and west-
chariot racing. ern region of Greece, characterized by columns
Classical. Term in conventional use to denote the art without bases and with simple cushion-capitals, and
and architecture of the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. by the triglyph frieze. See illustration 152.
clerestory. Upper row of windows lighting the nave of dromos. Horizontal or sloping passage forming the
a basilica, above the inner colonnades. entrance to a subterranean chamber-tomb.
cloaca. Drain, sewer.
comitium. Enclosed place of political assembly, notably echinus. The convex moulding which supports the
that at the north-western corner of the Forum abacus of a Doric capital. The moulding, carved with
Romanum. egg-and-dart, placed under the cushion of an Ionic
compluvium. The open portion of the roof of a Roman capital.
atrium, above the impluvium. engaged. Of columns projecting from, but forming an
 243

integral part of, the wall against which they stand. characterized by columns with bases and volute
'Semi-engaged' when only the entablature is engaged capitals and by richly carved mouldings. See illus-
and the columns are free-standing. tration 151.
entablature. The horizontal superstructure carried by
a colonnade, or the equivalent superstructure over a laconicum (-a). The hot dry room of a Roman bath.
wall. limitatto. The laying-out of field-boundaries (limites).
exedra (-ae). Open bay or recess, often set behind the loculus (-/). Niche in a tomb.
peristyle in a house.
maemanum. Balcony.
fasttgium. Gable, pediment. megalography. Form of painting with life-size or near-
fauces. The entrance passage of a house, leading from life-size figures.

the street to the atrium. megaron. The principal hall of a Mycenaean palace
fibula.Ancient type of safety pin, often ornamental. and, later, of a Greek house. More generally, a large

fornix (-ces). Term used for the earliest triumphal rectangular chamber entered through a porch.
arches. me ta (-ae). Turning-point for the chariots in a Roman
forum (-a). An open square or piazza for public affairs. circus.
Market-place. metope. The panel, plain or sculptured, between the

fossa. Ditch or trench, especially that outside a city triglyphs of a Doric entablature.
wall. modillton. Horizontal corbel supporting the upper
fossa grave. Trenched inhumation burial. part of a Corinthian cornice.
frieze. The middle member of an entablature, often musaeum. A grotto like a nymphaeum, but originally
enriched with relief sculpture. Any horizontal band sacred to the Muses.
so carved. mutule. A projecting slab on the soffit of a Doric cor-
frigtdarium. The cold room of a Roman bath. nice. Also one of the horizontal beams projecting
below the pediment of an Etruscan temple. See illus-

gutta (-ae). Small, peglike motif beneath the triglyphs tration 43.

and mutules of a Doric entablature.

gymnasium. Greek sports and cultural centre incor- naiskos. Diminutive of naos. A small shrine.
porating such features as a palaestra, running-track, necropolis. Cemetery.
bathrooms, changing-rooms, lecture-halls, and lib- nuraghe (-1). Sardinian tower-like fortress (see illus-

raries. tration 5), used from the fifteenth century B.C. until

Roman times.

Hellenistic. Belonging to the Greek culture of the nymphaeum (-a). Originally a cave with running water,
period between Alexander the Great (d. 323 B.C.) dedicated to the Nymphs. Whence, any artificial

and the first century B.C. fountain grotto (musaeum, specus aestivus) or, by
hexastyle. Consisting of six columns. extension, any public fountain.
hippodrome. See circus.
horreum (-a). Building for storage. Granary. odeum (Greek, odeion). Small roofed theatre, for con-
(tortus (-/). Garden. Park. certs and lectures.
oecus (Greek, otkos). The main room of a Greek house,
taniia. The outer door of a house. successor of the Mycenaean megaron. In Roman
imbrex. Roof-tile, semicircular or triangular in section, houses a banqueting room, of which Vitruvius (vi. 3.
covering the joint between the flanges of two rows of 8-10) distinguishes four kinds: Tetrastyle, Corin-
flat roof-tiles (tegulae). thian, Egyptian, and Cyzicene.
impasto. A type of pottery common in the early Iron opus caementit nun (structura caementicia). Roman con-
\gc in Etruria. crete masonry of undressed stones (caementa) laid
trnpluvium. Shallow pool in the atrium of a Roman in a mortar of lime, sand, and, in Rome and Cam-
house, to catch the rain falling through the complu- pania, pozzolana (q.v.).
vium. opus incertum. The facing of irregularly shaped small
impost. Upper course of wall from which arch or vault blocks used with opus caementicium from the second
springs. century B.C. (cf. illustration 1 24) and developed from
insula. Tenement or apartment house, as distinct from the irregular rubble facing of the previous century,
a private house (domus). Also, in conventional mod- as at Cosa.
ern usage, a city block. opus reticulatum. The successor to opus incertum
Imiic order. The order evolved in Ionian (niece. (earliest known example the Theatre of Pompey,
244 SELECT GLOSSARY

55 B.C.), with a facing consisting of a network of quadriportico. Enclosed courtyard with porticoes on
small squared blocks laid in neat diagonal lines. all four sides.
From the Latin reticulum, a fine net. quasi-reticulate (work). Type of wall-facing inter-
opus sett tie. Paving or wall decoration made of shaped mediate between opus incertum and opus reticu-
tiles of coloured marble. latum.
opus signinum. Floor of concrete varied by irregular
splinters of terracotta, stone, and marble. Used con- reticulate (work). See opus reticulatum.
ventionally also of any Roman waterproof concrete revetment. Superficial facing (e.g. of terracotta or
made with crushed brick. marble) applied to a beam or to a wall built of some
orchestra. Originally the circular 'dancing floor' of a other material. See illustration 43.
Greek theatre; whence the corresponding semi- Beam along the ridge of a roof.
ridge pole.
7
circular space in front of the stage (prose aenium) of a The speakers tribune of the comitium
rostra. of the
Roman theatre. Forum Romanum, so called because it was orna-
ostium. Front door. mented with the prows (rostra) of the ships captured
1
at Antium in 338 B.C. By extension, any speakers

palaestra. Exercise ground in the thermae or in a gym- platform.

nasium.
parodos. Lateral entrance to the orchestra of a theatre. sacrarium. Chapel.
pediment. The triangular gabled end of a ridged roof. sarcophagus. Stone or terracotta coffin.
pendent ive. Concave triangle of spherical section, con- scaena (Greek, skene). Stage-building of a Roman
stituting the transition from a square or polygonal theatre. The facade of it (scaenae frons) formed the
building to a dome of circular plan. backdrop of the stage.
peperino. Volcanic tufa stone from the Alban Hills, scamnum (-a). Rectangular house- or barrack-block,
south-east of Rome. laid outwith its short side facing the main street of a
peripteral. Having a continuous outer ring of columns. town or camp. The opposite of striga.
peristyle. The inner, colonnaded garden court of a scandula (-ae). Wooden roof-shingle.
Pompeian (or hellenistic) house. Also used to de- semi-column. Half-column, of an engaged order or
scribe the external colonnade of a peripteral building. composite pier.
pise. Stiff clay used as a building material, laid within siiim. Crowning moulding (originally the gutter) of a
a shuttering of boards and regularly faced with cornice. See illustration 43.
stucco. siparium. Minor curtain in a theatre. See p. 200.
podium (-a). Platform, used most commonly of temples specus. Cave. The channel of an aqueduct.
or columnar facades normally with mouldings at top
; spina. The long, narrow dividing wall down the centre
and bottom. of a circus.
pozzo. Cremation tomb with a vertical circular shaft. springer. Part of arch or vault where curve begins.
pozzolaua (Latin, pulvis puteolanus). The volcanic ash stadium. A running track, six hundred Greek feet long.
of Central Italy, so named from Puteoli (Pozzuoli), stillicidutm. The lowest part of the eaves of a building,
where its properties were first recognized the mater- ; from which the rainwater drips.
ial which gave Roman concrete its strength and stoa. Name given to a Greek type of building which
hydraulic properties. consists basically of a colonnade, closed at the back,
praecinctw. Horizontal passageway between the suc- often with shops or offices in the back half, and some-
cessive tiers of seats of a theatre or amphitheatre. times two-storeyed.
prodomus. See pronaus. Generally any sort of porch. striga (-ae). As scamnum, but with its long side parallel
pronaus (Greek, pronaos). Porch in front of the cella of to the main street.
a temple.
propylaeum (-a). Entrance building(s) to the enclosure taherna (-ae). Rectangular chamber opening directly
of a temple or other monumental building. Also off the street and used as shop, workshop, or habita-
propylon, strictly a simpler version of the same. tion for the lower classes.
proscaenium. The stage of a theatre, in front of the tablinum. The central room at the far end of an atrium,
stage-building (scaena). See p. 200. originally the main bedroom; record room.
prostyle. Having a projecting columnar facade. tahu/arium. Archive building.
pseudoperipteral. As peripteral, but with some of the tegula (-ae). Roofing tile.

columns engaged instead of free-standing. temenos. Sacred enclosure or precinct.

pulpit urn. The stage of a Roman theatre. templum (-a). Originally the place marked out by an
puteal. Stone well-head. augur for the purpose of taking auspices. Whence
 245

any consecrated place or sanctuary. \ko a purlin in volcanic dust. The many qualities include cappel-
a wooden roof. See illustration 43. and the stones of Monte Verde,
laccio, peperino,

tepidarium (-a). The warm room of a Roman bath. Grotta Rossa, Grotta Oscura, and Gabii.
Terramare. Conventional term for the culture of the Tuscan order. The plain shafts with bases and capitals
Bronze Age villages of the second half of the second (see pp. 49-50) which are occasionally found in early
millennium B.C. in the south-central Po valley. Etruscan contexts (e.g. tombs of the sixth century
testudinate. Having a ridge roof, i.e. (with reference to B.C.) are evidently those included by Yitruvius in his
the atrium) without a compluvium. description (iv. 7. 2 f.) of the Tuscan style; but the
tetrastyle.With four columns, e.g. of a facade, of an Etruscans seem in fact to have preferred the Aeolic
aedicula, or of an atrium with columns at the four and other Greek capitals. The Tuscan order as gen-
corners of the impluvium. erally understood was probably created by the
thermae. Large public baths, as distinct from balnea. Etruscans in Italy. We can follow it from the sixth
tholos (-111). Vaulted circular tomb. Any circular build- century B.C. to Republican and Imperial architecture.
ing. Tuscanicae dispositiones. Vitruvius's term for the
tignum. Wooden beam or joist. Etruscan style of temple architecture. See pp. 33-4.
torus. Rounded convex moulding; as (twice) in the tympanum. The vertical wall-face of a pediment.
typical Attic column base.
iraveri me. Silvery-grey calcareous building stone ustritium. Place for burning corpses.
quarried near Tivoli and extensively used in Late
Republican and Early Imperial Rome. velum (-a). The awning stretched above a forum, a
tribunal. Raised platform (or box in the theatre) for theatre, or an amphitheatre to protect the public
magistrates. from the sun.
triclinium (-a). Originally a dining-room, so-called vestibulum. Vestibule; especially of the entrance from
from the conventional arrangement of three banquet- the street to the fauces of a house.
ing couches (klinai) around three sides of a square. I illanovan culture. The principal Iron Age culture of
triglypk. Projecting member separating the metopes central Italy.
of a Doric frieze and divided into three strips by two Dilute. The spiral scroll of an Ionic capital.
vertical grooves. vomitorium (-a). Entrance on to the cavea of a theatre

tufa (more correctly 'tuff). The principal local build- or amphitheatre.

ing stone of Latium and Campania, a concreted voussoir. Wedge-shaped stone forming one of the units
of an arch.
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Rom. Suec,
cation {Acta in 8°, 1 (1939), 114-43). 1908.
brandizzi VITTUCCI, p. Cora {Forma Italiae, OHR, k. Die Basil ika in Pompeji. Dissertation, Karls-
1, v). Rome, 1968. ruhe, 1973.
delbruck, r. Das Capitolium von Sigma. Rome, OVERBECK, j., and mau, A. Pompeji in seine
1903- Gebduden, Alterthiimern und Kunstwerkeu. 4th ed.
delbruck, R. Die drei Tcmpel am Forum Holitorium. Leipzig, 1884.
Rome, 1903. Scavi di Ostia. 1. G. Calza and G. Becatti, Topografia
delbruck, r. Hellemstische Bauten in Latium, 1-11. generate. Rome, 1953. III. 1. Maria Floriani Squar-
Strassburg, 1907-12. ciapino and others, Le Necropoli. Rome, 1958.
ESCHEBACH, h. Die stddtebauliche Entmcklung des IV. G. Becatti, Mosaici e pavnncnti marmorei. Rome,
antiken Pompeji {R.M. Ergdnzungsheft, X v 1 1). Heidel- 1 961.

berg, 1970. TAMM, b. Auditorium and Palatium. Stockholm,

fasolo, and gullini, g. // Santuario
f., delta 1963.
Fortuna Primigema a Palestrina. Rome, 1953.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S

Where not otherwise indicated, copyright in photo- 20. \ olsinii (Bolsena), Poggio Casetta, temple, early
graphs belongs to the museum in which objects are sixth century B.( Plan
located, by whose courtesy they are reproduced. 21. Hut urn from the cemetery >>t Mimic Abatone at

Caere, seventh centurj B.C. Rome, Museo di Villa

i. Tavoliere, near Foggia, settlement, Neolithic. Plan Giulia (Soprentendenza Roma 11)

2. Luni, Apennine hut, Bronze Age. Reconstruction 22. Reconstruction of an Etruscan temple as described
by Jerker Asplund and C. E. Ostenberg by Vitruvius (i\, 7). Rome University, Istituto di

3. Luni, Apennine huts. Bronze Age. Plan Etruscologia e di Antichita Italiche

4. Pantalica, near Syracuse, 'Anaktoron', Bronze Age. 23. Model from Satricum of a temple with two
Plan columns prostyle. Rome, Vluseo d\ Villa Giulia
5. Palmavera, Sardinia, nuraghe. Bronze Age. Sec- 24. Cippus from Clusium (Chiusi) showing a temple

tion and plan with two columns in the pronaus and animals above
6. Su Nuraxi di Barumini, Sardinia, nuraghe, dating the pediment, c. 500 B.C. Berhu. tiles Museum
from c. 1500 B.C. and onwards (Fotocielo, Rome) 25. Model of a temple from Teano, Late Republican
7. Pozzo tomb from the Via Sacra, Rome, Early Iron (Soprintendenza alle Antichita, Naples)
Age. Rome, Antiquarium Forense 26. Tarquinia, 'Ara della Regina' Temple. Plan
8. Velletri, Vigna d'Andrea, corbel-vaulted tomb, 27. Veii, Portonaccio Temple. Plan
Early Iron Age. Section 28. Pyrgi (Santa Severa), temples. Plan

9. Relief from Aquileia showing the foundation of a 29. Sovana, Tomba Ildebranda, second century B.C.
colonia. Imperial Age. Aquileia, Museo Archeologico Elevation and plan
10. Reconstruction by A. Davico of part of the Earl} 30. Faesulae (Fiesole), temple, Etruscan, rebuilt in the
Iron Age village on the Palatine, Rome (Courtesj A. first century B.C. Axonometric plan
Davico) 31.Model of a temple from Velletri, sixth century B.C.
1 1. Rome, foundations of a hut in the Early Iron Age Rome, Museo di Villa Giulia
village on the south-west side of the Palatine (United 32. Falerii (Civita Castellana), Contrada Celle, temple,
Press, Albert Blasetti 1054) fourth-third century B.C. Plan reconstructed by
12. San Giovenale, huts. Early Iron Age (San Gio- A. Andren
venale, figure 265) 23- Orvieto, Belvedere Temple, fifth century B.C. Plan
13. San Giovenale, huts. Early Iron Age. Plan 34. Rome, Capitoline Temple, dedicated 509 B.C. Plan
14. Implements from tomb no. 63 at S. Antonio, Sala by E. Gjerstad and B. Blomc
Consilina, w ith ash urn and model of a house, Early 35. Rome, Temple C on the Largo Argentina, late
Iron Age (Oenotrio-Ausonian). Salerno, Museo Pro- fourth century B.C., podium (Fototeca Unione,
vinciate Rome)
15. Hut urn from Castel Gandolfo, Early Iron Age. 36. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, podium
Rome, Museo della Preistoria e Protostoria del Lazw of a tumulus, seventh century B.C. (Fototeca Lnione,
(P. G. Gierow, The Iron .lite Culture nj I. ahum, Rome)
figure 204, 1) 37. Vignanello, tomb with a Tuscan column, c. 500
16. Square hut urn from Tarquinia, Early Iron Age. B.C. Section and plan
Florence, Vluseo ire heologico (Soprintendenza Anti- 38. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery. Late
chita) Etruscan tomb with 'Tuscan pillar (J. Felber-
17 Hut urn from Campofattore, near Marino, Earl) meyer)
Iron Age. Rome. Vluseo della Preistoria e Protostoria 59, ( apit.il ol .1 temple on the Forum Boarium, Rome,
del Lazio sixth-fifth centuries B.C. Rome, Palazzo dei Con-
18. Faliscan ash urn, seventh centurj B.< Rome, servatort (Filippo Reale)
Vluseo di I ilia Giulia 40. Caere (Cer\ eteri ). Banditaccia cemetery. Tomb of
19. Lid of a stele from Tarquinia, Earl) Iron Vge the Doric Columns, sixth centurj B.C. (Josephine
Florence, Vluseo Xrcheoh Powell)
252 •
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

41. San Giuliano, Tomb of Princess Margrethe of 66. San Giovenale, houses off. 600 B.C.

Denmark, Doric capitals, sixth century B.C. 67. Veii, house. Elevation

42. Norchia, tombs with temple facades, fourth cen- 68. San Giovenale, House K in the western quarter,
tury B.C. or later (Josephine Powell) bedroom, c. 600 B.C. (J. Felbermeyer)
43. Cosa, Capitolium. Reconstruction 69. Caere (Cerveteri), Tomb of the Thatched Roof,

44. Cosa, strigillated sima and cresting early seventh century B.C. (Alterocca, Terni)

45. Terracotta model of a temple roof from Nemi. 70. San Giovenale, Porzarago cemetery, chamber-
Rome, Museo di Villa Gut/ui tomb, c. 600 B.C. Section and plan by B. Blome
46. Gabii, temple, late third century B.C., podium with 71. Painted roof tile from a house at Acquarossa of the
benches for statues along the sides and back (J. sixth century B.C. {Opus. Rom., VIII (1974), plate 30)

Felbermeyer) 72. Perugia (near), Tomb of the Volumnii. Section

47. Roof of temple model with rectangular pantiles and plan

and semicylindrical cover tiles with antefixes. Rome, 73. Tarquinia, Tomba del Cardinale. Interior

Museo di Villa Gutlia 74. Ardea, tomb, c. 300 B.C. Interior

48. Model of a temple from Satricum. Rome, Aluseo di 75. Luni, Tomb of the Caryatids, Late Etruscan (C.
Villa Giulia E. Ostenberg)

49. Antefix from Ardea, c. 500 B.C. Rome, Museo di 76. Norchia, tomb with porch. Elevations
Villa Giulia (Courtesy Professor Arvid Andreri) 77. Model of Late Etruscan tombs built into the hill-

50. Ridge-pole revetment from a temple at Fratte, side atSan Giuliano (Courtesy the municipality of
fourth century B.C. Salerno, Museo Provinciale Barbarano)
51. Veii, Portonaccio Temple. Reconstruction. Eleva- 78. Cinerary urn reproducing the facade of a common
tion type of house. Florence, Museo Archeologico
52. Acquarossa, part of the monumental building in 79. The entrance to the underworld on a Late Etrus-
Zone F, with courtyard on the right, second half of can ash urn. Florence, Museo Archeologico (Soprin-
the sixth century B.C. (Courtesy Professor C. E. tendenza Antichita)
Ostenberg) 80. Sovana, gabled tomb with prodomus. Elevation
53. Assyrian relief showing the sack of Musasir, and section
Urartu, eighth century B.C. 81. Ash urn with arched door from Chiusi, Late Etrus-
54. Veii, street. Plan can. Florence, Museo Archeologico (Soprintendenza
55. Vetulonia, street. Plan Antichita)
56. Veii, terraced city wall and substructures, before 82. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, Tomba
396 B.C. Section and elevation dei Capitelli, sixth century B.C.

57. San Giovenale, Etruscan wall of the early fourth 83. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, Tomba
century B.C. below the thirteenth-century castle della Cornice, fifth century B.C. (Alterocca, Terni)

(Fototeca Unione, Rome) 84. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, Tomba

58. Luni, walls, early fourth century B.C. (C. E. Osten- dell'Alcova, third century B.C. (Alterocca, Terni)
berg) 85. Pompeii, Casa del Chirurgo, fourth-third century
59. Luni, acropolis, mound with a tower at the eastern B.C. Plan
end, early fourth century B.C. Reconstruction 86. Caere (Cerveteri), Tomba del Tablino, fifth cen-

60. Orvieto, street in the Necropoli di Crocefisso del tury B.C. Interior
Tufo, begun sixth century B.C. (Professor M. 87. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, Tomba
Bizzarri) dei Vasi Greci. Plan
61. Caere (Cerveteri), Banditaccia cemetery, air view, 88. Model of an atrium displuviatum from Clusium
showing tombs of Early to Late Etruscan date (c. (Chiusi), fourth or third century B.C. Berlin, Altes
650-100 B.C.) (Fotocielo, Rome) Museum
62. Marzabotto. Plan (Mansuelli, Melanges de I'ecole 89. Tarquinia, Tomba di Mercareccia, Late Etruscan
francaise de Rome. Antiquite, LXXXIV. 1 (1972), 115) atrium displuviatum (J. Byres, Hypogaei or Sepul-

63. Marzabotto, founded c. 500 B.C., the acropolis hill chral Caverns)
and part of the town, showing a street with a drain in 90. Ostia, peristyle, Late Republican (Fototeca
front of typical quarters (Soprintendenza, Bologna) Unione, Rome)
64. Pompeii in a.d. 79. North and east quarters laid 9 1 Pompeii, Casa del Fauno in its last period. Original
out between 520 and 450 B.C. Plan building, second century B.C. Plan

65. Relief from Clusium (Chiusi) showing wooden 92. Tomb of the Volumnii near Perugia, second cen-
scaffolding for spectators and umpires of games, fifth tury B.C. (Alinari)
centurv B.C. Palermo, Museo Nazionale 93. Tarquinia, Tomba Giglioli, second century B.C.
 *53

(Fondazione Lerici, courtesj M. Moretti, Soprin- 117. Signia (Segni), temple, terrace, probably fifth

tendenza allc Antichita dell'Etruria Meridionale) century B.C. (Josephine Powell)

94. Caere (Cerveteri), Regolini Galassi tomb, c. 650 [ 18. Ardea, acropolis, terrace wall, c. 300 B.C.(?).

B.( .
( Minari) Elevation and plan

95. Tholos tomb from Casal Marittimo, c. 600 B.C., 1 19. S. Maria di Fallen, gate, 241 200 B.C. (Josephine
reconstructed. Florence, Museo Archeologico (Alinari) Powell)
96. Quinto Fiorentino, Montagnola tholos tomb, c. 120. Man/.iana, Ponte del Diavolo, c. 100 B.C. Eleva-
600 B.C. Section and plans and plan
tion
07. Model of a Late Etruscan tomb with a round [21. Via Amerina, bridge, c. 240 B.C. Elevation

facade in the valley at San Giuliano (Courtesy the 122. Failaka (Ikaros), temple and fortification built by

municipality of Barbarano) Alexander the Great on his march to the East. Plan,
98. The Columna Minucia as reproduced on a coin of somewhat simplified
the late second century B.C. 123. Ostia, from the third century to the end of the
99. San Giuliano, tomb facades, after 400 B.C. (Cour- Republic, plan by I. Gismondi
tesy the municipality of Barbarano) 124. Opus incertum
100. San Giuliano, 'Tomba della Regina', Late Etrus- 125. Rome, Porticus Aemilial ?), ni.i B.( ., restored in
can (Courtesy Professor A. Akerstrom) 174 B.C. Axonometric plan
101. Luni, Tomb of the Caryatids, false door and 126. Rome, Largo Argentina, temples. Temples A and
entrance below the door. Late Etruscan (C E. C 1 . 300 B.C. Plan
Ostenberg) 127. Cosa, Capitolium. c. 150 B.C.; Signia (Segni),
102. Ardea, air view (Aerofototeca, Ministero della Capitolium. Elevations and plans
Pubblica Istruzione, Rome) 128. (a) Cosa, Temple B; (b) Cosa, Temple D; (c)

103. Ardea, agger, sixth-fifth centuries B.C. (J. Felber- Cosa, Port Temple; (d) Norba, temple. Last cen-
meyer) turies B.C. Elevations and plans
104. Ardea, remains of the bridge leading over the 129. Paestum, Tempio della Pace. First period c. 270,
fossa and of the gate (destroyed c. 1930), with the second period c. 100 B.c.(?). Plan
agger west of the fossa, sixth-fifth centuries B.C. 130. Sarcophagus from the Via Cristoforo Colombo,
Elevation third ccnturv B.C. Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatori

105. Rome, map of the Republican remains 131. Pompeii, a typical Late Republican atrium
106. Fragment of the Forma Urbis Romae, A.D. 203- (Josephine Powell)
11, showing three atrium and peristyle houses and 132. Rome, 'Temple of Vesta' on the Tiber, first cen-
the usual rows of shops (tabernae) turj B.C. (first half)(r) (Fototeca Unione, Rome)
107. Pompeii, Strada dei Teatri, row of tabernae 133. Terracina, Via dei Sanniti, tabernae ot an insula,
(Josephine Powell) early first century B.C. Elevation
108. Rome, old Via Sacra and Clivus Palatinus, after 134. Rome, building on the south side of the Palatine,

386 B.C., in front of the Arch of Titus (Josephine the left-hand arch. Late Republican (Josephine
Powell) Powell)
1 09. Terracotta revetment from the Forum Romanum, 135. Pompeii, Forum Baths, staircase and corridor to
sixth century B.C. Rome, Soprintendenza I oro Romano the baths, c. 80 B.C. (Josephine Powell)
c Palatini) 136. Pompeii, Via dell'Abbondan/.a, houses with
1 10. Signia (Segni), gate in the wall, fourth centurj porticoes on the second and rebuilt
floor, built

B.C.( ?) (Josephine Powell) during the last centuries of Pompeii (Fototeca

in. Norba (Norma), walls and gate, fourth century I nione, Rome)
B.C. (second hall) (Josephine Powell) 137. Rome, Porticus Aemilia, begun 193 and restored
112. Cosa, city gate, with door chamber inside the 174 B.c.( ?), before the modern buildings on the site
Unione, Rome)
wall, 273 B.C. (Fototeca (fototeca Unione, Rome)
113. (a) Minturnae (Minturno), castrum (296 B.C.?) 138. Cosa, forum and comitium. Plan and recon-
and Late Republican town; (b) Pyrgi (Santa Severa), structed section
castrum, third century B.C. Plan 139. Alba Fucens, forum, basilica, and Temple of
1 14. Pyrgi. Plan Hercules, early first century B.C. Plan

1 15. Alatrium (Alatri), terrace wall, third century B.C. 140. \rdea, basilica, c. 100 B.C. Plan

(Josephine Powell) 141. Coin of 59 B.(. showing the Basilica Aemilia as

116. Arpinum, corbelled gate, 305 B.C. (Fototeca it was after a restoration in 78 B.C.
Unione, Rome) 142. Pompeii, basilica, c. 120 B.C.(?) (Josephine
Powell)
254 ' LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

143. Rome, Tabularium, 78 B.C. (Fototeca Unione, 167. Ferentinum (Ferentino), Porta Sanguinaria,
Rome) second century B.C. (Alterocca, Terni)
144. Tibur (Tivoli), Temple of Hercules Victor, Late 1 68. Ferentinum (Ferentino), acropolis, bastion added
Republican, western facade of terrace (Fototeca in the second century B.C. (second half) (Fototeca
Unione, Rome) Unione, Rome)
145. Rome, Forum Holitorium, Late Republican 169. Ferentinum (Ferentino), Porta Maggiore or 'di

Rome)
portico on the eastern side (Fototeca Unione, Casamari', c. 80-70 B.C. (J. Felbermeyer)
1 46. Roman temples : ( 1 ) Largo Argentina ; (2) Jupiter 170. Rome, 'Servian Wall' at the Aventine, begun
Stator, 146 B.C.; (3) Forum Holitorium. Plans 378 B.C., rebuilt with an arch for catapults in 87 B.C.

147. Rome, Forum Holitorium, temples. Plan (Wahlgren)

148. Late Republican capitals, (a) Morgan's interpre- 171. Ostia, Late Republican temple on the lower level

tation of Vitruvius; (b) Tibur (Tivoli), Temple of (next to the Temple of Hercules), with stuccoed tufa
Vesta; (c) Cora (Cori), Temple of Castor and Pollux columns and opus incertum
149. Relief of the Imperial Age, probably representing 172. Alba Fucens, founded c. 300 B.C., the walls and
the Temple of Juno Moneta on the Arx in Rome, the final, regular town-plan early first century. Plan
dedicated 374 B.C. Ostia, Museum (Fototeca Unione, 173. Pompeii, Casa del Chirurgo, fourth or third cen-
Rome) tury B.C. (Fototeca Unione, Rome)
150. Tibur (Tivoli), tetrastyle temple, second century 174. Pompeii, one of the houses on the south-western
b.c (second half) ( ?) (Fototeca Unione, Rome) slope ('the House of General Championnet'), a

151. Rome, 'Temple of Fortuna Virilis' on the Tiber, second-century atrium-house with additionaUtoreys
second century B.C. (second half) (?) (Fototeca built against the hillside in the first century B.C.

Unione, Rome) Section

152. Cori, Temple of Hercules, late second century 175. Pompeii, Villa dei Misteri, c. 200 B.C., basis villae

B.C. (Fototeca Unione, Rome) (podium) (Fototeca Unione, Rome)

153. Rome, Temples A and B on the Largo Argentina, 1 76. Cosa, villa, second century B.C. (Fototeca Unione,

c. 100B.C. (Fototeca Unione, Rome) Rome)

154. Tibur (Tivoli), 'Temple of Vesta', early first 177. Early Imperial Age paintings from Pompeii
century B.C. (Fototeca Unione, Rome) showing terraced villas by the sea (German Archae-
155. Gabii, theatre-temple, second century B.C.(?) ological Institute, Rome)
(J. Felbermeyer) 178. Pompeii, Forum Baths, c. 80 B.C. Plan
156. Gabii, theatre-temple, second century B.C.(?). 179. Pompeii, Large Theatre, second century B.C.

Plan Plan of final state (E. La Rocca and M. and A. de Vos,

157. Tibur (Tivoli), Temple of Hercules Victor, c. Guida Archeologica di Pompei)

50 B.C. Reconstruction 180. Terracotta model of a stage building, c. 300 B.C.
158. Praeneste (Palestrina), Temple of Fortuna Primi- Naples, Museo Nazwnale (Soprintendenza, Naples)
genia, c. 80 B.C. Axonometric plan 181. Pompeii, amphitheatre, after 80 B.C. (Fototeca

159. Praeneste (Palestrina), general view (Soprin- Unione, Rome)

tendenza, Rome) 182. Ferentinum (Ferentino), Via Latina, market hall,

160. Praeneste (Palestrina), Corinthian above Doric c. 100 B.C. (Alterocca, Terni)
portico in front of the basilica behind the temple, 183. Rome, tomb of S. Sulpicius Galba, consul of
c. 80 B.C. (J. Felbermeyer) 108 B.C. (Fototeca Unione, Rome)
161. Praeneste (Palestrina), basilica, c. 80 B.C., north 184. Agrigento, 'Tomb of Theron', hellenistic (H.M.
wall (Fototeca Unione, Rome) the King of Sweden)
162. Praeneste (Palestrina), forum and Temple of 185. Rome, tomb of C. Poplicius Bibulus, c. 60 B.C.

Fortuna Primigenia, c. 80 B.C. Section (Fototeca Unione, Rome)

163. Praeneste (Palestrina), curia, with aerarium on 186. Rome, Via Appia, the 'Tumuli degli Orazi' and
the left, c. 80 B.C. (Fototeca Unione, Rome) 'dei Curiazi', from the south (Fototeca Unione,
164. Terracina, Temple of Jupiter Anxur, c. 80 B.C. Rome)
Reconstruction. Excavations Museum (Soprinten-
denza, Rome)
165. Terracina, Temple of Jupiter Anxur, c. 80 B.C.,

terrace (x\lterocca, Terni) The line drawings in the text were executed by Sheila
166. Ferentinum (Ferentino), bastion, second century Gibson and the map was drawn by Donald Bell-

B.C. (second half)- Elevation Scott.

 255

INDEX
References to the notes are given to the page on which when they contain information other than biblio-

the note occurs, followed by the number of the chapter graphical, to which there no obvious reference from
is

and the number of the note; thus, 240(6)'"' indicates the text. Classical authors are indexed only if they are

page 240, chapter 6, note 96. Notes are indexed only referred to in the text.

Acquarossa, 63 (ill. 52), 79 (ill. 71), 222(3)

5
, 226(3) ,
Architects, classical: see Cossutius, Hippodamus of
227(3)" Miletus, Valerius of Ostia
Acrocorinth, Upper Peirene Well, 128 Ardea, 19, 67, 103 (ill. 102); basilica, 149, 150 (ill.

'Aeneas, Tomb of, 98-9, 108, 24o(6) 96 140), 151, 152; fortifications, 104 (ills. 103, 104);
)<)

Aeolian islands, 11, 13, 14 hall, subterranean, 237(6)' ; temple on the acro-
Agrigento (Agrigentum, Akragas), 226(3)
44
comi- ;
polis, 41, 44, 47, 60 (ill. 49); temple in the lower
tium, 133; Olympieion, 48; tombs, 211 (ill. 184) town, 48, 55-7; terracotta revetments from, 1 1 1

Agrippa, 194 tombs, 82 (ill. 74), 227(3)"; walls I0 4 ( ills I0 3. > -

Akragas, see Agrigento 104), 122 (ill. 118)

Alatri (Alatrium), temple, 50, 158, 223(3)"; walls, Arelate, see Aries
1 18-19 (ill. 115), 121 Arezzo (Arretium), Etruscan town, 32, 35; city wall,
Alba Fucens, 140, 156; basilica, 146-8 (ill. 139), 149, 34; revetments from, 62
150, 151, 152, 183; forum, 146-8 (ill. 139), 183; Argos, 113; Temple of Hera, 36; temple model from,
plan, 182 (ill. 172), 183; Portico of Hercules, 146- 57
8, 154-5, 183, 205; Temple of Hercules, 50, 146 tomb on the Via Appia, 213
Ariccia,

8 (ill. 139), 158, 183, 205; theatre, 206, 238(6)"; Ariminum, see Rimini
walls, 179-80, 182 (ill. 172) Aristotle, 69, 133

Alba Longa, see Castel Gandolfo Aries (Arelate), 'cryptoportico', 235(6)

Alberobello, beehive houses, 15 Arpino (Arpinum), Cicero's grandfather's house, 108,
Alexander the Great, 136; fortresses of, 125, 126 (ill. 190; walls, 118, 120 (ill. 116), 121

122), 231(5)5 Arqua Petrarca, lake dwellings, 1

Alexandria (Egypt), Kaisareion, 145 Arretium, see Arezzo

Allifae, castrum, 125, 236(6)^ Ashmunein, see Hermopolis Magna
Amerina, Via, bridge, 123, 124 (ill. 121), 208 Athens, 65, 113; Acropolis, 146, (hut on), 28; Geo-
Ammianus Marcellinus, 206 metric vases from, 29; Odeion of Agrippa, 215;
Ancus Marcius, King, 113 Olympieion, 47, 49. 136, 139, 164, 224(3)"
Anicius, Lucius, 202 \t\s. King of Lydia, 31

Antigonus Monophthalmus, 125 Augst (Basel; Augusta Raurica), forum, 146

Antinoopolis, 126 Augusta Praetoria, see Aosta
Vntioch (on-the-Orontes), Capitolium, 225(3)" "• kai- Augusta Raurica, see Angst
sareion, 145 Vugusta Taurinorum. see Turin
Antiochus IV, King, 136, 225(3)
'

Augustus, Emperor, 35, 114, 157, 140, 14N, 140, 156,

Antium, see \n/.ic> 189, 214
Antium, Battle of, 133 Ausonian culture, n, 13 14
Vnzio (Antium), 183; \ olscian town, '17, 1 14, (agger), Authors, classical and Early Christian: see Ammianus
104; tombs, 210, 229(3)' Marcellinus, Vppian, Aristotle, Cassius Dio,

Aosta (Augusta Praetoria), 125, 177 Cato, Cicero, Cornelius Nepos, Diodorus, Dio-
Vpennine culture, 11 ff., 15 17, [9,20,21,23 nvsius of Halicarnassus, Ennius, Ephorus, Fron-
\ppia, Via, 130, 174; aedicula aenea, <>2 3; substruc- tinus, Gellius, Herodotus, Hesiod, Homer, Hor-
tures, [21 ; tombs, i)<».
[35; see also Rome: Ceme- acejuvenal, Livius \ndronicus, Livy, Lucretius,
teries Martial, Naevius, Ovid, Pausanias, Plautus,

Appian, Pliny, Plutarch, Polybius, Posidonius, 1'roper-

1
15
Vquae Sulis, see Hath tius, Seneca, Seneca Rhetor, Siaiius, Strabo,
Vquileia, relief from, 21 (ill. i|), 220(2) Suetonius, Tacitus, Terence, TcrUillian. Varro,

Vrados, houses, 134 Velleius Paterculus, Vergil, Vitruvius

256

Babylon, 69, 225(3) J6 Casa Carletti (Belverde), 13, 2i9(i)

4

Bagacum, see Bavai Casal Marittimo, tholos tomb from, 96 (ill. 95), 98,
Baiae, 'Temple of Mercury', 195 229(3)""
45
Bari, rock-cut tombs, 13 Casalecchio, 227(3)
Barumini, nuraghe, 17 (ill. 6) Casinum, Varro's villa, 194-5
Bath (Aquae Sulis), Temple of Sulis Minerva, 223(3)' Cassibile, rock-cut tombs, 14
Bavai (Bagacum), vaulted substructures beneath Cassius Dio, 28, 140, 206
forum, 235(6)^- Cassius, Lucius, 202
Beirut (Berytus), 126; coins from, 22o(2) 5
Castel Gandolfo (Alba Longa), Doric Nymphaeum,
Belverde, see Casa Carletti 194; hut urn from, 25 (ill. 15)
Berenice, 145 Castelluccio, tombs, 14
Berytus, see Beirut Castione, gabbioni, 15
Bibulus, C. Poplicius, tomb of, 212 (ill. 185) Cato, 69, 128, 136, 149, 190
Bieda (Blera), tombs, 82, 85, 99
1,2; Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, 47, 139, 155, 156
Bin Tepe, 223(3)", 228(3)^ Cerveteri, see Caere
Blera, see Bieda Chiusi (Clusium)
Bologna (Felsina), Villanovan village, 21, 23; Etrus- Bronze Age finds from, 13
can town, 32 Etruscan town, 32, 35; ash urns from, 84, 86 (ill.
Bolsena (Volsinii), }z, 2i9(i) 4 ;
temples, 32, 35, 36 81), 94; cippus from, 38, 39 (ill. 24); model of
(ill. 20), 37, 38, 46, 63, 222(3)* atrium displuviatum from, 90-1 (ill. 88); relief
Boscoreale, villa, 189 from, 74 (ill. 65); tombs, 81, (Porsenna's), 99,
Bovillae, grotto, 1 94 213, (della Paccianese or del Granduca), 93,
Brescia (Brixia), forum, 148; temples, 164, 165 (della Scimmia), 81, 227(3) 54
Brindisi (Brundisium), 130 Cicero, 21, }7„ 49, 108, 114, 129, 135, 136, 163, 169-
Brixia, see Brescia 70, 176, 187, 190, 194, 197, 198, 202, 214
Brundisium, see Brindisi Circeii, walls, 118
Citta Danzica, Early Iron Age village, 21

Caere (Cerveteri), 30, 32, 114, 198, 225(3)^ Civita Alba, Etruscan pediment sculpture from, 59
Early Iron Age village, 19 Civita Castellana (Falerii), 30, 32, 158; Bronze Age
Etruscan tombs (Banditaccia cemetery), 34, 49 (ill. finds, 13; Contrada Celle, 44 (ill. 32), 63; gates,
36), 51 (ill. 38), 69, 71 (ill. 61), 75, 82, 86, 94, 123; house model from, 26 (ill. 18), 36, 85; Lo
95-6, 99, 108, 135, 22i(2)
u 223(3)"; (delfAlco- , Scasato, 59; Temple of Juno, 36
va), 87 (ill. 84), 92, 99; (dei Capitelli), 86 (ill. 82), Civitavecchia, Apennine pottery from, 13; Apennine
89, 184; (delle Colonne Doriche), 52 (ill. 40), huts, 2i9(i) 4
223(3)"; (della Cornice), 86-7 (ill. 83); (Rego- Claudius, Appius, Censor, 130; see also Pulcher
lini Galassi), 79-80, 85, 95 (ill. 94), 96; (dei Claudius, Emperor, 22i(2) 13
Rilievi), 86, 92, 93, 99; (degli Scudi e Sedie), 89, Clusium, see Chiusi
184; (del Tablino), 88 (ill. 86), 89, 184; (con Cnossos, 14
Tetto Stramineo-Thatched Roof), 77~8o (ill. Cocumella di Caiolo, 96
69), 81, 84, 85, 219O)
4
; (dei Vasi Greci), 89 (ill. Como, lake dwellings, 15
87), 184; see also Monte Abatone Conca (Satricum), agger, 104; Temple of Mater Ma-
Caesar, Julius, 112, 115, 148, 149,206,215 tuta, 36; temple models from, 39 (ill. 23), 57, 58
Caesarea Maritima, 208 (ill. 48)
Cagliari, theatre-temple, 39, 165, 234(6)^ Coppa Nevigata, 10, 13
Camarina, ridge-tile from, 61 Cori (Cora), Temple of Castor and Pollux, 158 (ill.
Camonica, Val, carvings, 15 148); Temple of Hercules, 58, 158, 161 (ill. 152);
Campofattore, hut urn from, 25 (ill. 17) walls, 118, 181
Cannatello, Stone Age village, 10 Cornelius Nepos, 57
Capena, 30; Etruscan fortifications, 68 Corsica, 13
Capriola, Bronze Age huts, 13, 27, Cortona, 35; tombs, 96, 228(3)"
Capua, 32, 33, 69-74, 74i !I 4i houses, 187; theatre, Cos, Temple of Asklepios, 146
198 Cosa, 126-8, 139, 158; basilica, 145 (ill. 138), 146, 149,
Carneades (philosopher), 169 151, 152, i54;Capitolium, 54(ill. 43), 57, 58, 63,
Carrara (Luna), marble from, 137-8, 214 131 (ill. 127), i56;comitia, 133, 145 (ill. 138), 146,
Carthage, 18, 32; tenement houses, 134 165; fornix, 195; forum, 145 (ill. 138), 146;
 *57

Cosa continued Fiesole (Faesulae), }i, 224(3) '; temple, 43 (ill. 30),
house, 134; plan of town, 124 5, 1 S3 ; temples, 44, 162, 222(\)~; theatre, 238(6)

50, 54 (ill. 44), 55, 131, 146, 1. s . 1 59, (Port), 39, Flaminius Xepos, C, 134
132 (ill. 128), (B), 39, 132 (ill. 128), (C), 146, (D), Fondi (Fundi), castrum and walls, 1 18, 125, 181

30, 57, 132 (ill. 128), 158; villas, 190-1, 192 (ill. Formia, nymphaeum, 232(f))'; Villa di Cicerone, 194
176), 232(6)
5
; walls, 1 16 (ill. 112), 121, 122, 123, Francolise, S. Rocco Villa, 237(6)"
179 Fratte, see Marcina
Cossutius, Decimus, 136 Frontinus, 110, 125, 129,209
Crassus, 140 Fundi, see Fondi
Crete, 34
Cumae, 206; acropolis, 29; tholos tomb, 213, Gabii, 122, 155; theatre-temple, 56 (ill. 46), 57, 61,

239(6) 161, 165-6 (ills. 15^5, 156), 174, 202, 206

Cumae, Battle of, 33, 74
Curio, C. Scribonius, 203
Curius, house of,
Cydias (painter), 144
Cyprus, 14, 95
Cyrene, Kaisareion, 145; tombs, 95
Delos, 31, 134, 187, 190
'Dercennus, Tomb of, 99
Didyma, see Miletus
Dio Cassius, see Cassius Dio
Gaeta, tomb of Munatius IMancus, 240(6)''"
Galba, Servius Sulpicius, 206; tomb, 2 10 (ill. 183), 21
108 Gargano, megalithic tombs, 13
Gela, Greek city wall, 35
Gellius, 47
Ghiaccio Forte, wall, 226(3)'
Gioiosa Ionica, theatre, 198
Gracchus, Tiberius, 75
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, 14.S
Graviscae, Etruscan houses, 227(3)''; sanctuary of
Hera, 221(2)"
Gubbio (Iguvium), theatre,
'

Diocletian, Emperor, 12 1 238(6)

Diodorus, 10, }}, 75, 92, 100, 187 'Gyges, tomb of, 228(3)
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 11, 28, 30, 31, 36, 46, 47,

49, 75, 98, 100, 102, 104, 10S, 1 10, 112, 1

13, 130, Hannibal, 33, 113, 114, 1 15, 122, 136, 174,230(4)'

134, 159, 198 Herculaneum, decoration at, 90; houses, 88, 92, 106,
Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, 44 143, 152, 183 ft'., 192, 232(5)
u
Dodona, 99 Hermopolis Magna (Ashmunein), Temple ofPtolemj
Duenos inscription, 105 in, .45
Dura-Europos, bazaar quarter, 239(6) Herodotus, 1 1, 29, 69, 198
Hesiod, 29
Ecbatana, 225(3)'' Hippodamus of Miletus, 69
Eleusis, Inner Propylaea, 215 Homer, 10, 14, 28, 29
Ennius, 176, 197 Horace, 176, 186, 190, 194, 209, 213
Ephcsus, Temple of Artemis, 47 Hortensius (orator), villa of, 194
Ephorus, 29 Hymettus, Mount, marble from, 187, 202

Este, hut urns from, 27

Etruscans, origin of, 30-1 Iguvium, see Gubbio
Evander, 28 Imbros, 31
Indo-Europeans, 21, 30
Fabricius, L., 208 Ischia, 10, 14, 29; Geometric vases from, 29, 30;
Faesulae, see Fiesole tumuli, 95
Failaka, temple and fortification, 126 (ill. 122), 231(5)' Iseo, lake dwellings, 15

Falerii, sec Civita Castellana Isola Sacra, cemetery, 209-10

Ealerii Novi, see Santa Maria di Fallen Izmir, see Smyrna
Fano (Fanum), basilica, 146, 150 1, 151, 152, 154, Iznik, see Nicaea

233(6)"; forum, 146

Felsina, see Bologna Jones, Inigo, 224(3)
Ferentino (Ferentinum), bastion, 170 7 (ill. 166), 178 Juvenal, 75, 194
(ill. 168); gates, 177 (ill. 167), 179 (ill. 169); mar-
ket, 207 (ill. 182), 208; walls, m.s. 177 8 (ill. 168) Karphi, 34
Ferento (Fercntium), theatre, 238(6)"; Tomb of the k.issope, caravanserai, 239(6)'

Salvii, 135 Kavousi, 34

258

Laurentum, 9, 183 Mummius, Lucius, 202

Lavinium (Pratica di Mare), Early Iron Age village, Murlo, see Poggio Civitate
21
19; Latin town, 65, 67, altars, 224(3) ; 'tomb of Musasir, relief of temple at, 64 (ill. 53)
Aeneas or Anchises', 24o(6) 96 Mycenae, 14
Lecce, megalithic tombs, 13
Lemnos, 31 Naevius, 176
Leontini, primitive huts, 23 Naples, 69, 114, 125, 205
Lepidus, M. Aemilius, 148, 233(6)'' Narbonne (Narbo), vaulted substructure beneath
Lesbos, 31 market(?), 235(6)^
Lindos, 93, 146, 176 Nasica, see Scipio
Lipari, 14, 29; acropolis, 14; huts, 23 Nemi, model of Etruscan temple roof from, 55 (ill.

Liternum, Scipio Africanus's villa, 195 45), 59;revetments from, 63, 225(3)^
Livius Andronicus, 198 Nero, Emperor, 205-6
Livy, 28, 32, 33, 60, 69, 74, 75, 94, 100, 103, 106, 1 08, Nicaea (Iznik), 125
no, in, 112, 113, 114, 115, 128, 129, 133, 134, Nicopolis (suburb of Alexandria), 215
135, 136, 148, 149, 185, 186, 187, 197, 198,202,214 Norba, 115, 124, 235(6) 31 ; acropolis temple, 39, 132

Locri, grottoes, 194, 237(6) 69 ; ridge-tile from, 61 (ill. 128), 139; walls, 116 (ill. in), 118, 121, 124
Lucretius, 100- Norchia, Etruscan tombs, 53 (ill. 42), 58, 59, 82, 83
Lucullus, 194 (ill. 76), 99, 100

Lucus Feroniae, amphitheatre, 203 forum, ; 1 48 plan,

;
Numa Pompilius, 63, no
183, 2 3 3(6)
12
Nuraghi, 11, 14, 16 (ill. 5), 17-18 (ill. 6)

Luna (Luni), see Carrara

Luni (Monte Fortino), Apennine village, 11, 12 (ills. Olympia, 146, 198, 232(5)", 237(6)^
2, 3), 13, chamber tomb, 13; Iron Age village, 19, Olynthus, 69, 125, 187
23, 23-6; Etruscan town, 30, 32, 34, 35, 67, Orata, G. Sergius, 196
tombs, 81, 83 (ill. 75), 101 (ill. 101), walls, 67, 68 Orvieto, 32; Crocefisso cemetery, 69, 70 (ill. 60), 81,
(ills. 58, 59) 82, 96, 98, 108, 209; temples, 59, 60, 158, (Bel-
Lysimachus, 125 vedere), 37, 44-6 (ill. 33), 59, 63
Ostia, 69, 140, 141, 195, 206, 207, 228(3)"
Maenius, C, 133, 231(5)'° Baths of Neptune, 197
Maggiore, Lago, lake dwellings, 15 Castrum, 108, 122, 125, 127 (ill. 123), 179, 181,
Magnesia (on-the-Maeander), market, 239(6) 84 2 3°U) 6
Malta, 11, 17, 34 Cemetery, 210
Manfria, Bronze Age village, 13, 2 19(1 ) 4 Granaries, Warehouses
see

Manziana, Ponte del Diavolo, 123, 124 (ill. 120) Horrea, see Warehouses
Marcina (Fratte), 32, 61 (ill. 50), 74, 225(3)", 22 7(3) 46 Houses, 88, 91 (ill. 90), 106, 128, 134, 137, 183, 185,
Marius, 170, 181 186, 187, 188, 189
12
Martial, 185, 190, 195 Insulae, 140, 143, 144, 186-7, 2 3 2 (5)
Marzabotto, 32, 33, 34, 44, 69, 72 (ills. 62, 63), 75, 76, Plan, 127 (ill. 123), 181-3

77, 85, 88, 94, 108, 208 Streets, 94; (Via della Fortuna Annonaria), 91
Meloni del Sodo tombs, 96 Tabernae, 108, 134, 207
Metapontum, 226(3)44 Temples, 127 (ill. 123), 161, 181 (ill. 171); (Capi-
Metellus, Q. Caecilius, 139 tolium), 156-7; (Tetrastilo), 161
Miletus, gymnasium, 187 Theatre, 197, 200
Minturno (Minturnae), castrum, 117 (ill. 113), 118, Walls, 118, 181, 183
125, 126 Warehouses and granaries, 207, 208

Minucius, Lucius, 207 Ovid, 27, in, 164, 176

Mitylene, theatre, 198, 206
Molfetta, Stone Age village, 10 Padula, pottery from, 20
Mons Albanus, 50 Paestum, 69, 125, 132, 226(3) 44 comitium, 133, 165; ;

Montalto di Castro, 1 forum, 148; 'Tempio della Pace', 132-3 (ill. 129),
Monte Abatone, Etruscan house model from, 35-6 148, 159, 161
(ill. 21), 80, 85 Palestrina(Praeneste), basilica, 170, 172 (ill. 161), 174,

Monte Fortino, see Luni 212; curia, 170-2, 173 (ill. 163), 174, 178; fibula
Morgantina, 11, 14, 146, 176, 224(3)^; houses, 51, 79, from, 105; forum, 170 ff. (ills. 160, 162); plan,
36 temple (old).
190,227(3)" 170; revetments from, 63, 225(3) ;
 259

Palestrina (Praeneste) continued Pompeii continued

174; Temple of Fortuna Primigenia, 120, 146, Streets, 94

148, 156, 168 (ill. 158), 169-70 (ill. 159), 172 ff. Tabernae, 107 (ill. 107), 108, 134, 143-4, I 44> '45
9
(ill. tombs, 96; treasury, 170, 173
162), 202, 206; Temples: of Apollo, 145, 146, 157, 23i(s) , 233(6)";
(ill. 163), 174; walls, 118, 120 Oscan, 36
Palmavera, nuraghe, 16 (ill. 5) Theatres: Large, 73 (ill. 64), 198-200 (ill. 179),
Pantalica, 'Anaktoron', 14 (ill. 4); rock-cut tombs, 14 200-1, 202, 205 Roofed (Odeion), 73 (ill. 64), 205
;

Pantelleria, Neolithic huts, 10 Tombs, 211, 212

Parabos, houses, 134 Villas, see Houses (individual)
Passo di Corvo, 1 Walls, 74, 128, 181
Pausanias, 213 Pompey, 197, 205, 206
Pergamon, 200-1, 238(6) 74 market, 239(6)"; Temple ; Populonia, 15-17, 32; cemetery, 85, 98, 99; walls, 67
of Dionysus, 176 Porsenna's tomb, 99, 213
Pertosa, Grotta di, 15 Posidonius, 75
Perugia (Perusia), 35; city gates, 94, 228(3)
61
; Tomb Pozzuoli (Puteoli), harbour, 23i(s) 6
of the Volumnii, 80 (ill. 72), 85, 88, 92-3 (ill. 92), Praeneste, see Palestrina
100, 135, 229(6)" Praenestina, Via, Ponte di Nona, 208
Peter, St, tomb, 210 Pratica di Mare, see Lavinium
Philip of Macedon, 135 Propertius, 9, 28, 211
Phoenicians, 18, 29 Ptolemais (Cyrenaica), Palazzo delle Colonne, 190
Pietrabbondante, theatre-temple, 202, 203, 206 Ptolemy III, 145

Piraeus, 69 Pulcher, Appius Claudius, 215

Pithekoussai, 22i(2) n Pulcher, C. Claudius, 202, 203
Plancus, L. Munatius, tomb, 240(6)^ Puteoli, see Pozzuoli
Plautus, 108, 109, 133, 150, 198, 200 Pylos, 14
Pliny (the Elder), 9, 10, 35, 59, 60, 1 12, 1 13, 136, 137, Pyrgi (Santa Severa), 32; castrum and walls, 117 (ill.

139, 164, 172, 185, 186, 187, 194, 202, 206, 213, 113), 118 (ill. 114), 122, 125, 126; inscriptions

214; (the Younger), 106, 188 from, 32; temples, 36, 41 (ill. 28), 44, 59, 222(3)',
17
Plutarch, 21, 149, 206 223(3)'*, 224(3) , 225(3)"
38
Poggio Civitate (Murlo), sanctuary, 222(3) 5 226(3) ,
Pyrrhus, 114, 174, 230(4)"
Polybius, 125, 126, 133, 202
Polyclitus, 197 Quinto Fiorentino, La Montagnola, 32, 49, 97-8 (ill.

Pompeii, 32, a, 73 (ill. 64), 74, 161, 195, 231(5)0 96); La Mula, 97
Amphitheatre, 73 (ill. 64), 93, 176, 203-4 ('!'• l $ l )
Basilica, 73 (ill. 64), 149, 150, 152-4 (ill. 142) Ravenna, 15, 69
Baths: Central, 197; Forum, 73 (ill. 64), 141 -3 (ill. Rex, Quintus Marcius, 209
135), 144, 195, 196 (ill. 178), 197; Stabian, 73 Rhodes, 14, 206
(ill. 64), 195, 196-7, 232(6)' Riello, tholos tomb, 229(3)'''

Capitolium, 146, 178 Rimini (Ariminum), 115

Forum, 73 (ill. 64), 108, 145, 146, 148, 149 Rome, 9, 20-1, 23, ^, 65, 103 ff. (ill. 105), 114 ff.,

Houses, 69, 82, 88, 183 ff. (ill. 177), 232(5)^; (types) 136 ff
atrium, 88-9, 90, 92, 106, 134, 137 (ill. 131), 143, Aqueducts
185 ff. ; multi-storeyed, 143 (ill. 136); peristyle, Anio Vetus, 208
91-2, 143 Appia, 130, 208
Houses (individual): del Chirurgo, 82-4, 88 (ill. Marcia, 208-9
M di Diomede, 73 Arches
85), 184 (ill. 173), 185, 236(6) ;

(ill. 64), 192; dei Dioscuri, 236(6)

M5 '; del Fauno, Circus Maximus, 141)
54
91 (ill. 91), 236(6)
5-
; of General Championnet, Clivus Capitolinus, 149
188 (ill. 174); di Giulia Felice, 188; del I.abirinto, Fabianus, 14c)
54 Stertinius, 197-8
188, 236(6) ; dei Misteri (of the Mysteries), 73
(ill. 64), 92, 176, 187, 189, 190, 191 (ill. 175), 192; Argeorum Sacraria, no
delle Nozze d'Argento, 186, 188; di Sallustio, \\cntine, 60, III, 134, 179,202

[85, 187, 192, 236(6)" Basilicas

Odeion, see Theatres Aemilia, 148, 151 (ill. 141), '52, 1
54; tabernae,
Plan, 73 (ill. 64), 108, 1 14, 125 108, 148
26o • INDEX

Rome, Basilicas continued Rome continued

early, 149-50 Houses and Villas, 106, 107 (ill. 106), 229(4)',
Julia, 148, 151 236(6)"'
14
Porcia, 233(6) Augustus, 189
Sempronia, 148, 151 Clodius (Palatine), 187
Bridges Crassus, 238(6)'"
Aemilius, 208 Evander (Palatine), 9
Fabricius, 208 Grifi (Palatine), 188-9
Mulvius, 208 Lepidus, 189
Sublicius, 1
13 Livia, cistern, 98
Tiber (179 and 142 B.C.), 94 Maenii, 231(5)'°
Caelian, 19, 194 Romulus's huts, 28, 136
Capitoline, 28, 104, 105, 106, 112, 148, 155-6; see Scipio, 134, 148, 185
also Temples: Capitoline Insulae, 35, 134, 140, 144
Career Mamertinus, 98 Mausolea, see Tombs
Cemeteries Palaces, Imperial
Aurelian Wall, sarcophagus from, 135 (ill. 130) Domus Flavia (Palatium), 188
Esquiline, 209 Nero's Golden House (Domus Aurea), 194, 195,
S. Paolo fuori le Mura, 21 203
Servian Wall, 209, 212 Palatine, 9, 19, 22 (ills. 10, 11), 23, 28, 67, 98, 106,
Vatican, 211 128, 141 (ill. 134), 156, 187, 188, 189, 202
Via Appia/Via Latina, 209, 21 1, 212-13 (•"• ! 86), Pantheon (Agrippa's), see Temples
96
213-14, 2 4 0(6) Porticus
Via Sacra, 19 (ill. 7), 23 Aemilia, 128-9 (ill. I2 5), !
44 (>'! 137), 206
Via di S. Croce in Gerusalemme, 209 Metelli, 23i(s) 6
Circuses Quirinal, 19, 47, 67, 110, 209, 236(6) 41
Flaminius, 134-5, 198 Regia: of Romulus, 28; in Forum Romanum, 106-
Maximus, 74-5, 113, 134, 149, 197-8, 202 7, 112, 229(4)'
Cloaca Maxima, 109-10, 133, 208 Rostra, 113, 149
Colosseum, 51, 156, 197 Sewers, 108-10, 129, 208; Cloaca Maxima, 109-10,
Columns 133, 208
Maenia, 113, 133 Streets, 108, 129
Minucia, 99 (ill. 98), 206-7 Clivus Palatinus, 108, 109 (ill. 108)
Comitium, 112, 113, 133-4, I 4^, 1
65 Via Sacra, 109 (ill. 108)
Curia, 112, 113, 136 Tabernae, 107 (ill. 106), 108, 148
Curia Hostilia, 112, 136, 178 Tabularium,93, 144-5, 148, 151, 153 (ill. '43), '55"
Esquiline, 19, 67, 104, 106, 189, 209 6, 164, 169
Fora Temples
Boarium: 239(6)"-; Bronze Age remains, 13; for- Apollo Sosianus (in Circo), 1 56, 202
nix, 1 49 ; fortification, 23o( 5) J
, 239(6)" 2
; houses, Arx, 57, no, 159
1 34 temples,
; 5 1 , 52 (ill. 39), 60- 1 , 1 1 1 ; see also Botteghe Oscure, Via delle, 158
Temples Capitoline, 40, 42, 43, 46-8 (ill. 34), 48, 48-9, 60,
Holitorium, 155 (ill. 145), 156; see also Temples 104, 106, no, 111-12, 113, 114, 131, 136, 139,
Imperial, 148; see also Nerva's; Trajan's 156, 159, 161, 163-4
Nerva's, 162 Capitolium Vetus (Quirinal), 47
Romanum, 19, 27, 63, 93, 98, no, 1 12-13, I2 3> Castor and Pollux (Forum Romanum), 112, 149,
133, 134, 145, H8-9, 151, 155-6, 164, 185, 23'(5)"
2 3 I (5) 6 ^ finds from, 105, 106, 110-11 (ill. 109); Ceres, Libera, and Liber (Aventine), 60, 112, 113
see also Regia Concord (Forum Romanum), 164, 231(5)"
Trajan's, 208 Cybele, see Magna Mater
Forma Urbis Romae, 106, 107 (ill. 106), 128, 134, Diana (Cornificia, on Aventine), 1 1
161, 188, 197, 205, 206 Flora (Aventine), 202
Fortifications (see also Walls): agger and fossa, 103- Fortuna (Forum Boarium), 51
5, 122 'Fortuna Virilis', see Temples: Forum Boarium
Horrea Galbae, 128, 206-7 Forum Boarium: circular temple ('of Vesta'), 138
 26

Rome, Temples, Forum Boarium continued Rome, Walls continued

(ill. 132), i39;'FortunaVirilis',s8, 159, 160 (ill. Via Sacra, 141
151); see also Fora; Temples: Mater Matuta Romulus, 21-2, t,}, 65, 1 10
Forum Holitorium, 155 (ill- 145), 156 (''I- '4°)< Rusellae, 32; defensive works, 21, 34, 68, 104, 222(3) 3 ;

157 (ill. 147), 158, 162, 165, 234(6)^ houses, ^2- streets, 94
Hercules, 164
Julius, Divus, 156, 162 Saar, tomb, 33
Juno Moneta (Arx), 39, 159 (ill. 149) Saepinum, atrium-house, 106, 186; walls, 115,
Jupiter Feretrius, 1 10 230(5)'
Jupiter Optimus Maximus, see Capitoline Sala Consilina, tombs, 20, 23, 25 (ill. 14), 36, 85
Jupiter Stator, 139, 156 (ill. 146), 161 Samos, Heraion, 47, 146
Largo Argentina, 165; Temple A, 130 (ill. 126), Samothrace, Hieron, 158
157, 159, 162 (ill. 153), 223(3)", 234(6)- "; San Giovenale
Temple B, 130 (ill. 126), 162-3 (>"• l $2>)\ Bronze Age village, 13

Temple C, 38, 40, 48 (ill. 35), 130 1 (ill. 126), Early Iron Age village, 13, 19, 23, 24 (ills. 12, 13),

156 (ill. 146), 159, 161; Temple D, 130 (ill. 2I9(l) 34

26, 75,
126), 159 Etruscan town, 30, 32, 3^ 34, 35, 65, 75-6 (ill. 66),

Magna Mater (Palatine), 128, 156 77 (ill. 68), 79; bridge, 94; tombs, 34, 78 (ill. 70),
Mater Matuta (Forum Boarium), 51, 52 (ill. 39), 82, 85, 94; Villa Sambuco, 237(6)''; walls, 47,
1 1 67-8 (ill. 57)
Mercury (Aventine), 112 San Giuliano, 32, 35; tombs, 52 (ill. 41), 82, 84 (ill. 77),
Minerva (Forum Transitorium), 162 86, 89, 96, 98 (ill. 97), 99, 100 (ill. 99), 101 (ill.

Pantheon (Agrippa's), 235(6)-^ 100), 184

Saturn (Forum Romanum), 1 12 Santa Maria Capua Vetere, see Capua
Veiovis, 164 Santa Maria di Fallen (Falerii Novi), walls, 122-3
Venus Victrix, 133 (ill. .19)
Vesta, 27, no, 112, 162 Santa Severa, see Pyrgi
1
'Vesta , see Temples: Forum Boarium Sardes (Sardis), 31, 222(2)", 223(3)", 228(3)""; terra-
Theatres cotta revetments, 59
Balbus, 200 Sardinia, 11, 13, 14, 18, 114
Cassius, L., 202 Satricum, see Conca
Curio, 203 Scaurus, M. Aemilius, 203
Marcellus, 51, 156, 202 Scipio Africanus, 149, 195, 197, 202
\lummius, 202 Scipio Barbatus, L. Cornelius, 135, 209
Pompey, 133, 140, 197, 198, 200, 203, 204, 205, Scipio Nasica, P., 202
206 Scipiones, 135, 209
Pulcher, Claudius, 202, 203 Segesta, temple, 36
Scaurus, 203 Segni (Signia), 115; Capitolium, 121 (ill. 117), 131
Scribonius Libo, 202 (ill. 127), 139, 158; citj gates, N4, 120 1 ; temple,
Tombs and Mausolea {see also Cemeteries) 50; walls, 1
15 (ill. 110), 118, 120 1

Augustus, 240(6)'"' Sele valley, pottery from, 20

Bibulus, 212 (ill. 185) Selinunte (Selinus), 125, 226(3)"; Temple GT, 48
Caecilia Metella, 240(6)" Seneca, 190, 195
Cestius,Pyramid of, 239(6)'"' Seneca Rhetor, 140
213-14 (ill. 186)
'Curiazi', Servius Tullius, King, 104, 1 1

Galba, 210 (ill. 183), 21 Sicily, 10, n, 13, 14, 15, ni, 20, 23, 2(). 48 (), 57, 59,
'Orazi', 213 i4(ili. 186) 61, 69, 79, 1 14, 189, 206
'Romulus', 112 13 Signia, see Segni
Scipiones, 135, 209 Smyrna (Izmir), 30, 22<>( 0" . walls, 68
Sempronii (Quirinal), 209, 21 1 Sorrento, 236(6) 47
Tullianum, 98 Sovana, tombs, 82, 85-6 (ill. 80), 99, 100, (Tomba
Villas, see Houses Ildebranda,) 42 (ill. 29), 43, 53, 92
\ iminal, 104 Sperlonga, cave, 1114; pavilion, 176
Walls (see also Fortifications), 128, 230(5)% 239(6)'^ Spina, 15, 32,69, 227(3)
Palatine, 106 Stabiae, 'Villa di Vrianna', i<»4

Servian, 63, 104, 1 1 2, 1 21 2. 12;,, 1 711, 180 (ill. 170)

262 • INDEX

Statius, 205 Tivoli (Tibur) continued

Stertinius, L., 149, 197 174, 207-8; 'Temple of Vesta', 158 (ill. 148), 159,
Stonehenge, 10 163 (ill. 154); Tetrastyle Temple, 159, 160 (ill.
Strabo, 15, 17, 29, 49, 69, 74, 81, 114, 129-30, 136, 150); tombs, 211; Villa di S. Antonio, 194,
137, 140, 190, 206, 207, 208, 214, 215 • 2 37(6r
Suetonius, 114, 183, 189, 203 Tullus Hostilius, 1 12
Sulla, Faustus Cornelius, 178 Turin (Augusta Taurinorom), 125
Sulla, L. Cornelius, 32, 112, 136, 139, 164, 170, 178, Tusci, villa, 186
181 Tusculum, 108; Torrione di Micara, 24o(6) Qb ; villas,

Sulmona, 'Villa d'Ovidio', 140, 148, 176, 180 of Hortensius, 194, of Lucullus, 194-5
Syracuse, 136; Athenaeum, 23; granaries, 207 Tyrrhenus, 31

Tacitus, 30-1, 47, 114, 164, 183, 195, 201, 202, 203, Valerius of Ostia (architect), 202, 205
205 Varese, lake dwellings, 15
Tages (Etruscan lawgiver), 64 Varro, 21, 30, 47, 49, 63, 68, 69, 79, 99, 104, 105, 106,
Talamone (Telamon), 32; Etruscan pediments from, 108, 109, no, 112, 113, 133, 143, 172, 184, 185,

59, 158; temple, 224(3)'" 187, 194

Taranto (Tarentum), 130, 198 Veii, 46, 68, 121

Tarquinia Bronze Age finds, 13

Early Iron Age village, 19 Early Iron Age village, 19, 23

Etruscan town, 30, 32, }}, 67, 226(3) 41 'Ara della ; Etruscan town, 32, 33, 34, 65 (ill. 54), 67, 76-7 (ill.

3
Regina' Temple, 40 (ill. 26), 41, 44, 59, 158 67), 80, 85, 103, 104, 222(3) ; fortifications, 47,

tombs, 81-2, 85, 86, 90, 96, (delle Bighe), 74-5 66 (ill. 56), 67, 68; Ponte Sodo, 94; temples, 35,
8
(Portonaccio), 40 (ill. 27), 41, 44, 61, 62
(del Cardinale), 81 (ill. 73), (Giglioli), 93 (ill. 93) 222(3) ,

100, 228(3)
61
,
(of Hunting and Fishing), 227(3) 54 (ill. 51); tombs, 32, 81, (delle Anatre), 30, (Cam-
61
(di Mercareccia), 90 (ill. 89), 183-4, 22 8(3) pana), 84-5
walls, 67 Velia, arched gateway, 93
finds from: hut urn, 23, 25 (ill. 16), 26; Iron Age Velitrae, see Velletri
stele, 27 (ill. 19) Velleius Paterculus, 202
Tarquinius Priscus, 75, 11 1, 111-12 Velletri (Velitrae), Early Iron Age tombs, 20 (ill. 8);

Tarquinius Superbus, 1 1 1, 112 Volscian town, temple model from, 43-4 (ill. 31)
Tavoliere, Neolithic settlement, n (ill. 1) Venice, 69
Teano, temple models from, 39 (ill. 25), 234(6)" Venusia, 130
Telamon, see Talamone Vergil, 9, 28, 30, 99, 106, 108, 176
Teos, Temple of Dionysus, 158 Vetulonia, Iron Age grave circles, 20; Etruscan town,
Terence, 198 27, 32, 34, 65 (ill. 55), 76, 77, 1 10, (tombs), 98, 105
Terracina, insula with tabernae, 140-1 (ill. 133), 144, Vignanello, tomb with a Tuscan column, 50 (ill. 37),

232(6)"; Temple of Jupiter Anxur, 159-60, 174- 224(3)^

6 (ill. 164), (terrace), 93, 174-6 (ill. 165); tombs, Villanovan culture, 19, 21
5
212-13, 2 3 2 ( ) ' walls, 118, 180-1 Vitruvius, 9, 15, 28, 33, 33 ff. passim, 106, 126, 128,
Terramare villages, 11,15 130, 131, 134, 136 ff. passim
Tertullian, 136 Vix, bowl from, 33
Thamugadi, see Timgad Volsinii, see Bolsena
Thapsus, rock-cut tombs, 14 Volterra (Volaterrae), 32, 35; city gate, 94; Tomba
Tiberius, Emperor, 189 Inghirami, 99
Tibur, see Tivoli Vrokastro, 34
Timgad (Thamugadi), 126 Vulca (sculptor from Veii), 46, 59, 1 1

Timon, lake dwellings, 15 Vulci

Tivoli (Tibur), 29; travertine from, 139; Iron Age Early Iron Age village, 19
village, 1 9, cemetery, 20 Hadrian's Villa (Repub-
; Etruscan town, 30, 32; column from, 51-2; temple,
lican predecessor), 192; market, 207-8; Temple 41, 46; tombs, 99, (Francois), 81, 100, (of the
7J
of Hercules Victor, 146, 166-9 (ill. 1 5l\ 202 200 > '
Inscriptions), 229(3)

232(6)', (terrace), 93-4, 145, 154 (ill. 144), 156,

Zernaki Tepe, 226(3) 44
 THE PELICAN HISTORY OF ART
COMPLETE LIST OF TITLES

PREHISTORIC ART IN EUROPE N. K. Satldiirs, I St SCULPTURE IN BRITAIN: THE MIDDLE AGES Law-
ed., 1968 rence Stone, 2nd ed., 1972
THE ARTS IN PREHISTORIC GREECE j Sinclair Hood, PAINTING IN BRITAIN: THE MIDDLE AGES Mar-
1st ed., 1978 garet Rickert, 2nd
1963ed.,

SCULPTURE AND PAINTING IN GREECE C. I IOO- ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY: 1250-14OO
100 B.C.:): John Barron John White, 1st ed., 1966
GREEK architecture A. W. Lawrence, 3rd ed., ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY: 14OO-160O Ludwig H.
'973 Heydenretch and Wolfgang Lotz, 1st ed., 1974
ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Axel sculpture IN italy: 1400-1500 Charles Sey-
Boethius and J. B. Ward-Perkins, 1st ed., 1970 mour Jr, 1st ed., 1966
I I KIM \N \ND EARLY ROMAN AR CH ITECTUREf PAINTING IN ITALY: 14.00-1500$ John Shearman
Axel Boethius. 1st ed., 1978 SCULPTURE IN Italy: 5001600$ Howard Hib-
i

ROMAN IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE^ J. B. Ward- bard and Katharine Posner

Perkins painting in italy: 1500- 1600* S.J. Freedberg,
ETRUSCAN ARTf Otto J. Brendel, 1st ed., 1978 2nd ed., 1973
ROMAN ART Donald Strong, 1st ed., 1976 ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY: 160O-175O*
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITEC- Rudolf Wittkower, 3rd ed., 1973, reprinted 1978
TURE* Richard Krautheimer, 2nd ed., 197s SCULPTURE IN THE NETHERLANDS, GERMANY,
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ART John France, and SPAIN: 1400-1500 Theodor
Beckwith, 1st ed., 1970 Muller, 1st ed., 1966
THE DARK AGES^ Daild WiUon PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS, GERMANY,
CAROLINGIAN AND ROMANESQUE ARCHITEC- FRANCE, AND SPAIN: 1400- 500J Charles Ster- i

TURE: 800-1200* Kenneth J. Conant, 4th ed., ling and J. Amaud de Lasarte

1978 BAROQUE ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL

sculpture in Europe: 800-1200:): George Zar- Europe Eherhard Hempel, 1st ed., 1963
necki PAINTING AND SCULPTURE IN GERMANY AND
PAINTING in Europe: 800 1200 C. R. Dodwell, the Netherlands: 1500 1600 Gert von der
1st ed., 1971 Osten and Horst Vey, ist ed., 1969
ars SACRA: 800-1200 Peter Lasko, 1st ed., 1973 ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN BELGIUM: 1600-
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE Paul I'rankl. st 1 ed., 1962 1800 H. Gerson and E. H. ter Kuile, 1st ed., i960
PAINTING AND SCULPTURE IN EUROPE: 1200- DUTCH ART AND ARCHITECTURE: 160O-180O*
13 00 X Willibald Sauer lander and Reiner Haussherr Jakob Rosenberg, Seymour Slue, and E. H. ter Kuile,

PAINTING AND SCULPTURE IN EUROPE: I3OO- 3rd ed., 1977

1400^ Gerhard Schmidt ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE: 15OO-
ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN: THE MIDDLE AGES 1700* Anthony Blunt, 2nd ed., 1973, reprinted 1977
Geoffrey Webh, 2nd ed., 1963 ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY IN France Wend Graf Kalnem and
Michael Levey, ist ed., 1973
Also published in an integrated edition. ART \N1) IIITECTURE IN SPAIN AND PORTU-
\R<

f Published only in an integrated edition. GAL AND THEIR nil R li IN DOMINIONS: 1500-
J Not yet published. 1800 George Rubier and Martin Soria, ist ed., 1939
264

ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN: 1530-1830* John THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT

Summerson, 6th ed., 1977 AMERICA George Kubler, 2nd ed., 1975
sculpture in BRITAIN: 1530-1830 Margaret THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF RUSSIA George
Whinney, ist ed., 1964 Heard Hamilton, 2nd ed., 1975
painting in Britain: 1530-1790* Ellis Water- THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT EGYPT
house, 4th ed., 1978 W. Stevenson Smith, 2nd ed., 1965
PAINTING IN Britain: 1770-1890$ Michael Kit- THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA: HINDU,
son and R. Ormottd buddhist, jain* Benjamin Rowland, 4th ed.,
architecture: nineteenth and twentieth '977
centuries* Henry-Russell Hitchcock, 4th ed., THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF ISLAM^ Richard
'977 Ettinghausen and Oleg Grahar
PAINTING AND SCULPTURE IN EUROPE: 1780- THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE ANCIENT
1880* Fritz Novotny, 3rd ed., 1978 orient* Henri Frankfort, 4th ed., 1970, reprinted
PAINTING AND SCULPTURE IN EUROPE: 1880- '977
1940* George Heard Hamilton, 2nd ed., 1972, re- THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF JAPAN* Robert
printed 1978 Treat Paine and Alexander Soper, 2nd ed., 1975
AMERICAN art John Wilmerding, ist ed., 1976 THEARTAND ARCHITECTURE OF CHINA* Laurence
Sickman and Alexander Soper, 3rd ed., 1971
* Also published in an integrated edition. tribal artJ Roy Sieber, Jean Guiart, Frederick

J Not yet published. Dockstader, and Solange Thierry

 M
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.
tpublican KomaMrcKifecture is, asViWWusernplWsizes, largely bisect E£nusca*#; *t

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^'^"^henrsrsechon of Etruscan and Roman Architerturemthis series), has been revised, and the*'
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