Chapter 9

9.1 Introduction

In a typical case, the lateral forces were seen to be carried by the wall framing to the diaphragms at the top
and bottom of the wall sections. A diaphragm acts as a beam in the plane of a roof or floor that spans between
shearwalls.

The basic design considerations for a diaphragm are

1. Sheathing thickness
2. Diaphragm nailing
3. Chord design
4. Collector (strut) design
5. Diaphragm deflection
6. Tie and anchorage requirements

9.2 Basic Diaphragm Action

A diaphragm can be defined as a large, thin structural element that is loaded in its plane. It is an assemblage
of elements which typically includes

1. Roof or floor sheathing

2. Framing members supporting the sheathing 3. Boundary or perimeter members

In wood light- frame buildings, it is common to designate the diaphragm as either flexible or rigid for
purposes of force distribution. This chapter will first introduce flexible diaphragm analysis, which is the
simpler and more common of the two methods.

The diaphragm must be designed for lateral forces in both the transverse and longitudinal directions.

Like all beams, a diaphragm must be designed to resist both shear and bending.

An analogy is often drawn between a diaphragm and a steel wide-flange (W shape) beam. In a steel beam, the
flanges resist most of the moment, and the web essentially carries the shear. In a diaphragm, the sheathing
corresponds to the web, and the chords correspond to the flanges. The chords are designed to carry axial
forces created by the moment.

The collectors (struts) are designed to transmit the diaphragm reactions to the shearwalls. This becomes a
design consideration when the supporting shearwalls are shorter in length than the diaphragm.

The collector is also commonly known as a strut or drag strut. These names come from the concept that the
collector drags or collects the diaphragm shear into the shearwall.

9.3 Shear Resistance

The shear-resisting element in the diaphragm assemblage is the roof or floor sheathing. This can be either
lumber sheathing or wood structural panels. The majority of wood diaphragms use wood structural panel
sheathing because of the economy of installation and the relatively high allowable unit shears it pro- vides.
For wood structural panel diaphragms, the starting point is the determination of the required panel thickness
for sheathing loads, that is, dead, live, and snow loads perpendicular to the plane of the sheathing (Chap. 8).

Unit diaphragm shears are usually limited by the nail capacity in the wood, rather than the strength of the
panel.

Because of the importance of the panel nailing requirements, it is necessary for the designer to clearly
understand the nailing patterns used in diaphragm construction.

The simplest nailing pattern is found in unblocked diaphragms. See Fig. 9.5a. An unblocked diaphragm is one
that has two of the panel edges not supported by lumber framing.

When loaded to failure, there are several possible modes of failure that can occur in a wood structural panel
diaphragm. Perhaps the most common type of failure is by the nail head pulling through the panel.

The 6-in. nail spacing at supported panel edges is used for all unblocked diaphragms. For blocked diaphragms,
however, nail spacing and the resulting tabulated diaphragm shear value can vary. Much higher allowable
unit shears can be obtained by using a decreased nail spacing.

There are several important differences between the IBC table and the SDPWS tables. First, the IBC tabulated
values are ASD allowable shear values intended to be used only with ASD load combinations, while the
SDPWS values are nominal unit shear capacities that must be adjusted for use with either ASD or LRFD load
combinations. Second, the SDPWS separates the tables into Part A, applicable to seismic design and Part B,
applicable to wind design. The values in Part B are 40 percent higher than Part A, based on historic wind
design and a better understanding of wind load demand. The IBC only tabulates one value, applicable to
seismic loads, and per IBC Sec. 2306.3.2, permits the tabulated values to be increased by 40 percent for wind
load design.

A great deal of information is incorporated into the IBC and SDPWS diaphragm tables. Because of the
importance of these tables, the remainder of this section deals with a review of these tables. The tables are
divided into several main parts. The top parts give shear values for diaphragms which have the STRUCTURAL
I designation. The values in the bottom half of the tables apply to all other wood structural panel grades

The IBC and SDPWS tables include blocked and unblocked diaphragm values.

Throughout the diaphragm tables, reference is made to the load cases. Six load cases are defined.

The load case essentially depends on two factors. The direction of the lateral force on the diaphragm is
compared with the direction of the

1. Continuous panel joint

2. Unblocked edge (if blocking is not provided)

No increase in shear is permitted because of the increased nail size. Thus, with- out further justification, the
combination of panel thickness and nail size given in the diaphragm tables is “compatible.”
9.4 Diaphragm Chords

The axial force at any point in the chords can be determined by resolving the moment in the diaphragm at
that point into a couple (equal and opposite forces separated by a lever arm—the lever arm is the distance
between chords):

M/
T=C= b

The tension chord is often the critical member. There are several reasons for this. One is that the adjusted
design value in compression is often larger than the adjusted design value in tension.

Because the magnitude of the chord force is calculated from the diaphragm moment, the magnitude of the
chord force follows the shape of the moment diagram.

It should also be noted that each chord member must be capable of functioning in either tension or
compression. The applied lateral load can change direction and cause tension or compression in either chord.

In order for the top plate members to act as a chord, they must be adequately connected together. If the chord
forces are small, this connection can be made with nails, but if the forces are large, the connection will require
the use of wood screws, bolts, or steel straps.

The double plate in wood walls and the horizontal steel in concrete and masonry walls are probably the two
most common elements used as diaphragm chords.

9.5 Design Problem: Roof Diaphragm

In Example 9.8, a wood structural panel roof diaphragm is designed for a one- story building. The maximum
unit shear in the transverse direction is the basis for determining the blocking and maximum nailing
requirements for the diaphragm. However, the shear in the diaphragm is not constant, and it is possible for
the nail spacing to be increased in areas of reduced shear.

9.6 Distribution of Lateral Forces in a Shearwall

In order to design diaphragm collectors, it is necessary to know how lateral forces will distribute within a
wall line that includes window and door openings.

The segmented shearwall approach assumes that lateral forces are carried by the full-story-height sections of
shearwalls (i.e., Segments 1, 2, and 3 in Fig. 9.11), while other areas of the wall do not carry lateral forces.

Several types of load resistance develop in a wall subjected to a lateral force. These include bending
resistance and shear resistance. For wood-frame walls constructed as described above, the shear resistance is
the significant form, and the unit shear in this case approaches a uniform distribution. This is only true,
however, when the height-to-width (aspect) ratios conform to the code limitations and the walls are of
reasonably similar widths.

Concrete and masonry walls may have significant combined bending and shear resistance. The combined
resistance is measured by the relative rigidity of the various piers in the wall.

Thus, in a concrete or masonry wall, the unit shear in a wider pier is greater than the unit shear in a narrower
wall segment. The relative rigidity is a function of the height-to-width ratio h/b of the pier and not just its
width.
9.7 Collector (Strut) Forces

The perimeter members of a diaphragm that are parallel to the applied lateral force are the collectors
(struts). These members are also known as drag struts or ties, and their function is illustrated in Fig. 9.4 (Sec.
9.2). The term collector is generally used in this book because it is the term frequently used in the IBC and
ASCE 7.

The members in a building that serve as the collectors are typically the same members that are used as the
chords for the lateral force in the perpendicular direction.

These members are either tension or compression members, and they may or may not have bending.

The member itself may be sufficiently strong, but little is gained unless the strut is adequately connected to
the supporting shearwall elements.

The force in the collector is maximum at each end of the wall opening. This maximum force is easily
calculated as the unit shear in the diaphragm times one- half the length of the wall opening.

Since the lateral force can come from either direction, the ends may be stressed in either tension or
compression.

9.8 Diaphragm Deflections

The deflection of a diaphragm has been illustrated in a number of sketches in Chap. 9. This topic is the object
of some concern because the walls that are attached to (actually supported by) the diaphragm are forced to
deflect out-of- plane along with the diaphragm.

However, a potential problem exists when the deflection is large or when the walls are constructed so rigidly
that they can tolerate little deflection.

There are two methods to evaluate out-of-plane wall displacement resulting from the in-plane deflection of
the diaphragm. The first method that tradition- ally was the most widely used is basically a rule of thumb, in
that no attempt is made to calculate the magnitude of the actual deflection.

The calculation of a numerical diaphragm deflection can be in accordance with either IBC Sec. 2305.2.2 or
SDPWS Sec. 4.2.2.

9.9 Diaphragms with Interior Shearwalls

The roof or floor assembly is assumed to act as a number of separate diaphragms. See Example 9.15. As a
result they are treated as simply sup- ported beams that span between the respective shearwall supports.
Thus, the shear in the diaphragm can be determined using the methods previously cov- ered for buildings
with exterior shearwalls.

The forces to the shearwalls are calculated as the sum of the reactions from the diaphragms that are
supported by the shearwall. Thus, for an exterior wall the shearwall force is the reaction of one diaphragm.

The chord force for the diaphragms is determined in the same manner as for a building with exterior
shearwalls. The moments in the respective diaphragms are calculated as simple beam moments. Once the
chord forces are determined, the chords are designed in accordance with appropriate procedures for the type
of member and materials used.
9.10 Interior Shearwalls with Collectors

If a diaphragm is supported by an interior shearwall that is not the full width of the building, or if there are
openings in the wall, a collector will be required.

The distribution of the force in the collector throughout its length can be plot- ted from the areas of the net
unit shear diagram. From this plot it can be seen that the critical axial force in the collector is at the point
where it connects to the shearwall.

As discussed previously, the code has established special seismic forces Em and special seismic load
combinations for design of collectors.

The o multiplier adjusts the collector member force to the estimated maxi- mum earthquake force that can
develop. IBC requires use of the special seismic force Em for both allowable stress and strength design
methods:

and

1.2D + f1L + Em (16-22)

And

0.9D + Em (16-23)

ASCE 7 provides complete sets of special seismic load combinations for both ASD and LRFD force levels, and
allows use of an additional allowable capacity increase when using the ASD equations.

Not all interior walls are necessarily shearwalls. For an interior wood-frame wall to function as a shearwall, it
must have sheathing of adequate strength, and it must be nailed to the framing so that the shear resistance is
developed.

In addition to these strength requirements, some consideration should be given to the relative widths and
locations of the various walls. To illustrate this point, consider an interior wall with a width that is very small
in comparison with the adjacent parallel wall.

Because of the large width be of the right exterior wall, it will be a more rigid support for the diaphragm than
the small interior wall. The large rigidity of the exterior wall will “attract” and carry a large portion of the
lateral force tributary to both walls.

9.11 Diaphragm Flexibility

It was noted that diaphragms are designated as flexible, semirigid, or rigid for the purpose of determining
lateral force distribution to shearwalls and for determination of wall to diaphragm anchorage forces.

It was noted that wood diaphragms will often be designated as flexible, and modeled as simple-span beams
spanning between shearwalls. There will be times, however, when it will be necessary to model wood
diaphragms as rigid.

With a rigid diaphragm, there is a torsional moment that must be considered. A torsional moment is
developed if the centroid of the applied lateral force does not coincide with the center of resistance (center of
rigidity) of the supporting shearwalls.
It should be noted that this is not necessarily a desirable design technique. In fact, the code does not allow the
consideration of rotation of a wood diaphragm in a building with concrete or masonry walls.

The question of rotation brings up an important point. The designer, insofar as practical, should strive for
structural symmetry.