Chemistry 9 10

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imvqb
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RvZxq wk¶vµg I cvV¨cy¯ZK †evW©, evsjv‡`k

RvZxq wk¶vµg I cvV¨cy¯ZK †evW©
69-70 gwZwSj evwYwR¨K GjvKv, XvKv
KZ©„K cÖKvwkZ
[ cÖKvkK KZ©„K me©¯^Z¡ msiw¶Z ]
cÖ_g cÖKvk : A‡±vei, 2012
cybg©y`ªb : Ryb, 2016
cvV¨cy¯ÍK cÖYq‡b mgš^qK

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cvidg© Kvjvi MÖvwd· (cÖv:) wj:
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Avwidzi ingvb Zcy
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miKvi KZ©„K webvg~‡j¨ weZi‡Yi Rb¨

gy`ª‡Y :
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wk¶v RvZxq Dbœq‡bi c~e©kZ©| Avi `ª“Z cwieZ©bkxj we‡k¦i P¨v‡jÄ †gvKv‡ejv K‡i evsjv‡`k‡K Dbœqb I
mg„w×i w`‡K wb‡q hvIqvi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb mywkw¶Z Rbkw³| fvlv Av‡›`vjb I gyw³hy‡×i †PZbvq †`k Movi
Rb¨ wk¶v_©xi Aš—wb©wnZ †gav I m¤¢vebvi cwic~Y© weKv‡k mvnvh¨ Kiv gva¨wgK wk¶vi Ab¨Zg j¶¨| GQvov
cÖv_wgK ¯—‡i AwR©Z wk¶vi †gŠwjK Ávb I `¶Zv m¤cÖmvwiZ I mymsnZ Kivi gva¨‡g D”PZi wk¶vi †hvM¨
K‡i †ZvjvI G ¯—‡ii wk¶vi D‡Ïk¨| ÁvbvR©‡bi GB cÖwµqvi wfZi w`‡q wk¶v_©x‡K †`‡ki A_©‰bwZK,
mvgvwRK, mvs¯‹…wZK I cwi‡ekMZ cUf~wgi †cÖw¶‡Z `¶ I †hvM¨ bvMwiK K‡i †ZvjvI gva¨wgK wk¶vi Ab¨Zg
we‡eP¨ welq|
RvZxq wk¶vbxwZ-2010 Gi j¶¨ I D‡Ïk¨‡K mvg‡b †i‡L cwigvwR©Z n‡q‡Q gva¨wgK ¯—‡ii wk¶vµg|
cwigvwR©Z GB wk¶vµ‡g RvZxq Av`k©, j¶¨, D‡Ïk¨ I mgKvjxb Pvwn`vi cÖwZdjb NUv‡bv n‡q‡Q, †mB mv‡_
wk¶v_©x‡ì eqm, †gav I MÖnY¶gZv Abyhvqx wkLbdj wba©viY Kiv n‡q‡Q| GQvov wk¶v_©xi ˆbwZK I gvbweK
g~j¨‡eva †_‡K ïi“ K‡i BwZnvm I HwZn¨ †PZbv, gnvb gyw³hy‡×i †PZbv, wkí-mvwnZ¨-ms¯‹…wZ‡eva,
†`k‡cÖg‡eva, cÖK…wZ-†PZbv Ges ag©-eY©-†MvÎ I bvix-cyi“l wbwe©‡k‡l mevi cÖwZ mggh©v`v‡eva RvMÖZ Kivi
†Póv Kiv n‡q‡Q| GKwU weÁvbgb¯‹ RvwZ MV‡bi Rb¨ Rxe‡bi cÖwZwU †¶‡Î weÁv‡bi ¯^Ztù~Z© cÖ‡qvM I
wWwRUvj evsjv‡`‡ki iƒcKí-2021 Gi j¶¨ ev¯—evq‡b wk¶v_©x‡ì m¶g K‡i †Zvjvi †Póv Kiv n‡q‡Q|
bZzb GB wk¶vµ‡gi Av‡jv‡K cÖYxZ n‡q‡Q gva¨wgK ¯—‡ii cÖvq mKj cvV¨cy¯—K| D³ cvV¨cy¯—K cÖYq‡b
wk¶v_©x‡ì mvg_©¨, cÖeYZv I c~e© AwfÁZv ¸i“‡Z¡i m‡½ we‡ePbv Kiv n‡q‡Q| cvV¨cy¯—K¸‡jvi welq wbe©vPb I
Dc¯’vc‡bi †¶‡Î wk¶v_©xi m„Rbkxj cÖwZfvi weKvk mva‡bi w`‡K we‡klfv‡e ¸i“Z¡ †Ìqv n‡q‡Q| cÖwZwU
Aa¨v‡qi ïi“‡Z wkLbdj hy³ K‡i wk¶v_©xi AwR©Ze¨ Áv‡bi Bw½Z cÖ`vb Kiv n‡q‡Q Ges wewPÎ KvR, m„Rbkxj
cÖkœ I Ab¨vb¨ cÖkœ ms‡hvRb K‡i g~j¨vqb‡K m„Rbkxj Kiv n‡q‡Q|
we‡k¦i Pvwn`v, cÖhyw³MZ DbœwZ, cwi‡ek I Kg©ms¯’v‡bi w`‡K j¶ †i‡L imvqb-Gi welqe¯‘ wbe©vPb Kiv
n‡q‡Q| ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b imvq‡bi cÖ‡qvM, nv‡Z-Kj‡g KvR, imvqb cÖwµqv, cwi‡ek `~lY BZ¨vw` welq
we‡ePbvq †i‡L cvV¨cy¯—KwU cÖYqb Kiv n‡q‡Q| evbv‡bi †¶‡Î Abym„Z n‡q‡Q evsjv GKv‡Wwg KZ…©K cÖYxZ
evbvbixwZ|
GKwesk kZ‡Ki A½xKvi I cÖZ¨q‡K mvg‡b †i‡L cwigvwR©Z wk¶vµ‡gi Av‡jv‡K cvV¨cy¯ÍKwU iwPZ n‡q‡Q|
wk¶vµg Dbœqb GKwU avivevwnK cÖwµqv Ges Gi wfwË‡Z cvV¨cy¯ÍK iwPZ nq| m¤úªwZ †hŠw³K g~j¨vqb I UªvB
AvDU Kvh©µ‡gi gva¨‡g ms‡kvab I cwigvR©b K‡i cvV¨cy¯ÍKwU‡K Î“wUgy³ Kiv n‡q‡Q- hvi cÖwZdjb eBwUi
eZ©gvb ms¯‹i‡Y cvIqv hv‡e|
cvV¨cy¯ÍKwU iPbv, m¤cv`bv, m„Rbkxj cÖkœ I Kg©-Abykxjb cÖYqb, cwigvR©b Ges cÖKvkbvi Kv‡R huviv
AvšÍwiKfv‡e †gav I kªg w`‡q‡Qb, Zuv‡ì RvbvB abëv`| cvV¨cy¯ÍKwU wk¶v_©x‡ì Avbw›`Z cvV I cÖZ¨vwkZ
`¶Zv AR©b wbwðZ Ki‡e e‡j Avkv Kwi|
cÖ‡dmi bvivqY P›`ª mvnv

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RvZxq wk¶vµg I cvV¨cy¯—K †evW©, evsjv‡`k
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Aa¨vq welqe¯‘ c„ôv
cÖ_g imvq‡bi aviYv 1-13
wØZxq c`v‡_©i Ae¯’v 14-25
Z…Zxq c`v‡_©i MVb 26-40
PZz_© ch©vq mviwY 41-52
cÂg ivmvqwbK eÜb 53-70
lô †gv‡ji aviYv I ivmvqwbK MYbv 71-85
mßg ivmvqwbK wewµqv 86-105
Aóg imvqb I kw³ 106-128
beg GwmW-¶vi mgZv 129-151
`kg LwbR m¤ú`: avZz-AavZz 152-169
GKv`k LwbR m¤ú`-Rxevk¥ 170-188
Øv`k Avgv‡ì Rxe‡b imvqb 189-207

cÖ_g Aa¨vq
imvq‡bi aviYv
weÁv‡bi wewfbœ kvLvi g‡a¨ imvqb Ab¨Zg| imvqb‡K Rxe‡bi Rb¨ weÁvb ejv nq| cÖvPxbKvj †_‡K imvqb
PP©vi gvÎv †e‡oB P‡j‡Q| cÖvPxb Avj‡Kwg‡ì imvqb PP©v eZ©gv‡bi imvqb wkí‡K Rš§ w`‡q‡Q| KviY
imvq‡bi we¯—…wZ e¨vcK| gvbeRvwZ I cwi‡e‡ki Kj¨v‡Y imvqb me©`v wb‡qvwRZ| Zvn‡j Z_¨cªhyw³i GB hy‡M,
imvqb †Kv_vq †Kvb KvRwUi mv‡_ m¤ú„³ Zv mevi Rvbv ìKvi, hv‡Z Avgiv ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b imvq‡bi Ávb
eënvi K‡i DcK…Z n‡Z cvwi| G Aa¨v‡q imvq‡bi cwiwPwZ, wewfbœ †¶‡Î imvq‡bi we¯—…wZ, imvq‡b
AbymÜvb I M‡elYv c×wZi mvaviY aviYv, ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï msi¶Y I eënv‡ii SzuwK BZ¨vwì GKwU mnR
wPÎ Zz‡j aiv n‡q‡Q|
euv w`K †_‡K - cÖvPxbKv‡ji (Avj‡Kwg) imvqbvMvi, AvaywbK imvqbvMvi Ges ivmvqwbK wkí-KviLvbv|
GB Aa¨vq cvV †k‡l AvgivÑ

(1) imvq‡bi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) imvq‡bi †¶Îmg~n wPwýZ Ki‡Z cvie|
(3) imvq‡bi mv‡_ weÁv‡bi Ab¨ kvLv¸‡jvi m¤úK© e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) imvqb cv‡Vi ¸i“Z¡ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(5) imvq‡b AbymÜvb I M‡elYv cÖwµqvi eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(6) wewfbœ ai‡bi AbymÜvbg~jK Kv‡Ri cwiKíbv cÖYqb, AbywgZ wm×všÍ MVb I cix¶v Ki‡Z cvie|
(7) imvq‡b eënvwiK Kv‡Ri mgq cÖ‡qvRbxq mZK©Zv Aej¤^b Ki‡Z cvie|
(8) cÖK…wZ I ev¯—e Rxe‡bi NUbvewj imvq‡bi `„wó‡Z e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z AvMÖn cÖ`k©b Kie|
02 imvqb
1.1 imvqb cwiwPwZ

imvqb cÖvPxb I cÖavb weÁvb¸‡jvi Ab¨Zg| imvq‡b bvbv ai‡bi cwieZ©b †hgbÑ m„wó, aŸsm, e„w×, i~cvš—i,
Drcv`b BZ¨vwì Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq| imvq‡bi PP©v K‡qK mnmªvãx †_‡K n‡q Avm‡Q| fviZe‡l© cÖvq 5000 eQi
c~‡e©B Kvco‡K AvKl©Yxq K‡i Zzj‡Z is‡qi eënvi ïi“ n‡qwQj| gvbyl avZe A¯¿, ¯Í¤¢ I fv¯‹h© ˆZwi
K‡iwQj eûKvj Av‡MB| cyivZb mf¨Zvq imvqb cÖhyw³ eënvi K‡i LwbR †_‡K g~jëvb avZy †hgbÑ ¯^Y©, †iŠc¨,
wmmv cÖf…wZ AvniY Kiv n‡Zv| cÖvPxb Kvj †_‡K gvbyl ¯^Y© AvniY K‡i, hv AwfRvZ I g~jëvb avZz wn‡m‡e
AvRI mgv`„Z| cªvPxb I ga¨hyMxq imvqb PP©v ÔAvj-†KwgÕ (Alchemy) bv‡g cwiwPZ| Avj-†Kwg kãwU Aviwe
ÔAvj-wKwgqvÕ †_‡K D™¢~Z, hv w`‡q wgkixq mf¨Zv‡K eySv‡bv n‡Zv| cÖvPxb wgkixq mf¨Zv imvqb PP©vi gva¨‡g
gvby‡li Pvwn`v eûjvs‡k †gUv‡Z m¶g n‡qwQj| wkí-KviLvbvq †Zj, wPwb, KvMR, Kjg, JlacÎ, Kvco,
k¨v¤úy, mvevb, iW-wm‡g›U †_‡K ïi“ K‡i eënvh© A‡bK mvgMÖx ˆZwi‡Z imvq‡bi Ae`vb i‡q‡Q|
gRvi e¨vcvi n‡jv, eZ©gvb hy‡M imvq‡bi cwiwPwZ ïaygvÎ wkí-KviLvbv, cix¶vMvi ev M‡elYvMv‡ii Kvh©µ‡gB
mxgve× bq| hw` Avgiv Pvicv‡ki N‡U hvIqv NUbvewj j¶ Kwi, Zvn‡j †`L‡Z cve †h, me©‡¶‡ÎB imvq‡bi
Dcw¯’wZ i‡q‡Q| D`vniY wn‡m‡e QK-1.1-G wKQz NUbvi D‡jøL Kiv n‡jv |
QK-1.1 : imvq‡bi Dcw¯’wZ
welq we‡kølY
Avg †c‡K njy` eY© is ivmvqwbK c`v_©| Av‡gi eY© njy‡` i~cvšÍi- Av‡gi g‡a¨ RxeivmvqwbK cÖwµqvi
aviY gva¨‡g njy` eY©avix bZzb †hŠ‡Mi m„wó‡KB eySvq|
†jvnvq gwiPv aiv †jvnv k³, wKšÍy gwiPv fOyi| weï× †jvnv Rjxqev‡®úi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z evqyi
Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ ivmvqwbK wewµqvi gva¨‡g †jvnvi A·vBW bvgK c`v‡_© cwiYZ
nq, hv mvaviYfv‡e gwiPv bv‡g cwiwPZ|
KvV, †K‡ivwmb, D‡jøwLZ e¯‘My‡jv g~jZ Kve©‡bi †hŠM w`‡q MwVZ, †hgbÑ KvV n‡jv cÖavbZ
†mjy‡jvR, cÖvK…wZK M¨vm n‡jv cÖavbZ wg‡_b Ges †gvg n‡jv Kve©b I nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi
cÖvK…wZK M¨vm ev †gv‡g
†hŠM| G¸‡jv‡Z Av¸b R¡vjv‡bvi A_© cÖK…Zc‡¶B Kve©b †hŠ‡Mi `nb, hv GK ai‡bi
Av¸b R¡vjv‡bv
ivmvqwbK wewµqv| Gi d‡j Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm, Rjxqev®ú I Zv‡ci Drcv`b
N‡U|
Gevi †Zvgiv wk¶‡Ki mnvqZvq wZbRb K‡i `j MVb Ki| cÖ‡Z¨K `j c„_Kfv‡e K‡qKwU welq wb‡q fv‡ev
†hLv‡b imvqb Dcw¯’Z _vK‡Z cv‡i| Zvici cÖ‡Z¨K `j wbR¯^ fvebv †_‡K †h †Kv‡bv wZbwU wel‡q imvqb
Dcw¯’wZ e¨vL¨vmn QK-1.2-G D‡jøL Ki|
imvqb 03
QK-1.2 : `jMZfv‡e wZbwU NUbvq imvq‡bi Dcw¯’wZ e¨vL¨vmn eY©bv Ki :
welq we‡kølY
Zvn‡j GUv mn‡RB Abygvb Kiv hvq †h, Avgv‡ì cwi‡e‡k N‡U hvIqv wewfbœ cwieZ©‡bi mv‡_ imvqb †Kv‡bv bv
†Kv‡bvfv‡e m¤ú„³| ivbœvi gva¨‡g Lvev‡ii ¯^v‡ì wfbœZv m„wó‡K GK ai‡bi imvqb ejv †h‡Z cv‡i| †gvUK_v,
cªvPxb mf¨Zv †_‡K AvaywbK hy‡M imvq‡bi mywekvj cwiågY, mgv‡Ri Z_v weÁv‡bi cÖvq me©‡¶‡ÎB j¶Yxq|
1.2 imvq‡bi cwiwa
imvq‡bi we¯—…wZ e¨vcK, hv gvby‡li †mevq wb‡qvwRZ| imvq‡bi PP©v mg‡qi mv‡_ µgea©gvb| Pj Gevi
Avgv‡ì Rxe‡b imvq‡bi eënvi we‡ePbv Kwi| Zzwg †Rv‡i GKUv wbtk¦vm wb‡q Nyg †_‡K †R‡M DV‡j Ges ùvZ
eªvk K‡i cvwb w`‡q nvZgyL ay‡q wb‡j| GKUz †ZjRvZxq wRwbm nvZgy‡L †g‡L, wPi“wb w`‡q Pyj AuvPwo‡q †Uwe‡j
co‡Z em‡j| jvj gjv‡Ui eBwU Ly‡j †`L‡j mv`v KvM‡R Kv‡jv Kvwji A¶‡ii †jLvÑ Gi me wKQy‡ZB imvqb
i‡q‡Q| wKQy¶Y covi ci †cwÝj ev Kjg w`‡q LvZvq cª‡kœi DËi wjL‡j| Zvici Lvevi †L‡q †Zvgvi ¯‹z‡ji
BDwbdig †hgb- mv`v-kvU© I bxj-c¨v›U c‡i ¯‹y‡j †M‡j| hvIqvi c‡_ †Pv‡L coj GKRb †jvK evMv‡b ev
†¶‡Z mvi eënvi Ki‡Qb| GKUz c‡i jÿ Ki‡j, †auvqv Dwo‡q GKUv †gvUimvB‡Kj †Zvgvi cvk w`‡q P‡j
†Mj| Gm‡ei g‡aÏ i‡q‡Q imvqb|
Gevi QK-1.3 -G eënvh© wRwbm¸‡jvi g‡a¨ imvq‡bi Dcw¯’wZ we‡ePbv Ki|
04 imvqb
QK 1.3 : imvq‡bi cwiwa we‡ePbvi D`vniY

e¯‘ Dcv`vb Drm
cÖk¦v‡m M„nxZ evqy cÖavbZ Aw·‡Rb cÖK…wZ, evqy
eªvk, wPi“wb, K„wÎg is, wewfbœ ivmvqwbK †hŠ‡Mi mgš^‡q ZNÇ.YL/YEYT ZHZIEx FCYgBL LYPYTZE.
KvMR, LvZv, Kvwj, MwVZ FZLH=gELJYDgJh=ZL.LYQT_
†cwÝj, Kjg
Lvev‡ii cvwb weï× cvwb nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I Aw·‡Rb cvwb cÖK…wZ‡Z _v‡K, †hgbÑ b`x, bvjv, Lvj,
cigvYy Øviv MwVZ| Lvev‡ii wej, mvMi, e„wó, Sibv BZ¨vw`|
cvwb‡Z Ab¨vb¨ LwbR jeYI _v‡K
Lvevi fN=PYL $YZJO 3ZH PH% h5H Dw™¢` I cÖvYx wewfbœ cÖwµqvi gva¨‡g Lv`¨
fKj0*HVZHZIEx/ZE5FCYB Drcv`b I mÂq K‡i| Lvevi †L‡j Avgv‡ì
kix‡i wecvK cÖwµqv N‡U| G‡Z †`‡ni e„w×
N‡U Ges Avgiv kw³ cvB|
NY8,FYw8 h5H fKj0 , =vm*L PJvAgT imvqwbK wewµqvi gva¨‡g wewfbœ †hŠM †_‡K
MwVZ h=ZL .eZ¨J =vm HY F°Y.eZ=. =vm*L PYgB
iÄ‡Ki mgš^‡q †U·UvBj-†dweªKm wk‡í
fFYNY.h=ZL.LYQT_
mvi $Zg5E EY%g8 Y g5E .YH E wkí-KviLvbvq ivmvqwbK wewµqvi gva¨‡g

dmdivm BZ¨vw` Ges wewfbœ h=ZL.LYQT_LYPYTZE.PYLJYZ8g='Zu|gCL
LYPYTZE.fKjg0LPJvAgTh=ZL cywó cÖ`vb K‡i|
†gvUimvB‡Kj I Gi wewfbœ avZy, cøvw÷K BZ¨vw` w`‡q ivmvqwbK c×wZ eënvi K‡i AvKwiK †_‡K
Pjvi kw³ h=ZLEYEYKvYVgNLPJvAgTZEZJ= DY=H FCYB $YQZL= QT_ F ø v w÷K,
†c‡Uª v wjqvg (R¡ v jvwb) `n‡bi ZNÇ.YL/YEYTLPYTZE.ZHZTYLJYDgJh=ZL
gva¨‡g †gvUimvB‡Kj Pjvi kw³ Kiv nq| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi `nb n‡jvÑ ivmvqwbK
$5E.gL_ wewµqv|
wPÎ-1.1 : cÖ`Ë Qwe¸‡jv †`L Ges NUbv¸‡jv fv‡jvfv‡e †Lqvj Ki| Dcw¯’Z welq¸‡jv †_‡K eëüZ wewfbœ
HmLPYgBLPYTgELPVZNÒÍ=YL$YgMYg.ZEg3L4.4.FaL<.L*HVLPYTgELFZLZDZEgT$P~Ôa<
HY.Z8Fa<.L_
wPÎ-1.1. av‡bi Rwg‡Z †mP †Ìqv n‡”Q, e‡b Av¸b R¡j‡Q I †evb fvB‡K Jla LvIqv‡”Q|
imvqb 05
QK-1.4 : †Zvgiv wb‡Riv c~iY Ki :
e¯‘ Dcv`vb Drm
imvqb gvby‡li Pvwn`v †hgbÑ, , , ,

†hvMv‡b imvqb mve©¶wYKfv‡e wb‡qvwRZ|
1.3 imvq‡bi mv‡_ weÁv‡bi Ab¨vb¨ kvLvi m¤úK©

Avgiv †R‡bwQ †h, imvqb n‡jv cÖavb weÁvb¸‡jvi Ab¨Zg| imvq‡bi mv‡_ weÁv‡bi Ab¨vb¨ kvLv †hgbÑ MwYZ,
c`v_©weÁvb, RxeweÁvb, cwi‡ekweÁvb, f~ZË¡weÁvb BZ¨vwì we‡kl †hvMm~Î i‡q‡Q| †gvUK_v, Ab¨vb¨
weÁvbmg~n †hgbfv‡e imvq‡bi Dci wbf©ikxj, †Zgbfv‡e imvq‡bi A‡bK wel‡qi e¨vL¨v cÖ`vb ev ZË¡xq aviYv
Ab¨ weÁv‡bi mvnvh¨ wb‡qB Ki‡Z nq|
†Zvgiv RxeP‡µ c‡oQ †h, cÖZ¨¶ ev c‡iv¶fv‡e mgMÖ cÖvwYKy‡ji Lv‡`ï †hvMvb`vZv Dw™¢`| Dw™¢` Ômv‡jvK
ms‡kølYÕ (photosynthesis) bvgK Rxe-ivmvqwbK cÖwµqvi gva¨‡g wbR †`‡n Lv`¨ mÂq K‡i, hv Avgiv Lv`¨
wn‡m‡e MÖnY Kwi|| Avevi Rx‡ei †`n wewfbœ RwUj AYy †hgbÑ †cÖvwUb, Pwe©, K¨vjwmqv‡gi †hŠM, wWGbG
(DNA) cÖf…wZ Øviv MwVZ| Rx‡ei Rš§ I e„w× Rxe-ivmvqwbK cÖwµqvi gva¨‡gB mvwaZ nq, hv RxeweÁv‡bi
welq|
AvaywbKKv‡j weÁv‡bi Ae`vb e‡j L¨vZ we`y¨r, Py¤^K, Kw¤úDUvi I wewfbœ B‡jKUªwb·-Gi ZË¡, Drcv`b I
eënv‡ii Av‡jvPbv c`v_©weÁv‡b Kiv nq| Avgiv hw` j¶ Kwi Zvn‡j †`L‡Z cvB †h, c`v‡_©i wewfbœ ivmvqwbK
¸Yvewji mgš^q NwU‡qB Gme e¯‘i m„wó| GLv‡b D`vniY¯î~c we`y¨‡Zi Drcv`b I weZiY‡K we‡ePbv Kiv
†h‡Z cv‡i| †Zj, M¨vm, Kqjv cywo‡q A_©vr ivmvqwbK wewµqv NwU‡q Drcvw`Z Zvc †_‡K we`y¨r Drcbœ Kiv nq
Ges Zv avZe Zv‡ii (†hgbÑ Zvgv) B‡jKUªb cÖev‡ni gva¨‡g mieivn Kiv nq| Kw¤úDUvi I Ab¨vb¨
B‡jKUªwb·-Gi wewfbœ ¶z`ªvsk¸‡jv †hgbÑ wmwW, †g‡gvwi wW¯‹, gwbUi cÖ‡Z¨KwUi ¸Yvewj I wewfbœ c`v‡_©i
06 imvqb
ivmvqwbK a‡g©i mgš^q NwU‡q D³ e¯‘¸‡jv ˆZwi Kiv nq| Aciw`‡K ejv n‡q _v‡K †h, cÖK…wZ‡Z hZUzKz
AeëüZ Kcvi (Zvgv) gRy` Av‡Q, Zvi †P‡q †ewk cwigvY Zvgv BwZg‡a¨B Kw¤úDUvi I wewfbœ B‡jKUªwb· ˆZwi
Ki‡Z eënvi Kiv n‡q‡Q| Gfv‡e Zvgvi eënvi n‡j Zv GK mgq dzwi‡q hv‡e| ZvQvovI bó n‡q hvIqv Gme
hš¿vsk w`‡b w`‡b evo‡Z _vK‡e Ges Avgv‡ì cwi‡ek‡K ¶wZ Ki‡e| Zvn‡j Kw¤úDUvi I Ab¨vb¨
B‡jKUªwb· bó n‡q †M‡j, H me hš¿vsk †_‡K Zvgv cybi“×vi K‡i Zvi cybe©ënvi Kiv Ri“wi| †mwUI imvqb
PP©vi gva¨‡gB m¤¢e|
Ab¨w`‡K, Dw™¢` I cÖvYxi g„Zyï ci †`‡ni cPb nq Ges bvbv AYyRxe cÖÖwµqvi d‡j gvwUi mv‡_ wg‡k hvq|
f~M‡f©i we‡kvwlZ Zvc I Pv‡ci cªfv‡e gvwU‡Z wg‡k hvIqv c`v‡_©i AviI ivmvqwbK cwieZ©b nq| d‡j wewfbœ
LwbR c`v_© †hgbÑ †c‡Uªvwjqvg, Kqjv, cÖvK…wZK M¨vm BZ¨vw`‡Z cwiYZ nq| evqygÊjxq weÁv‡bi †¶‡Î
I‡Rvb¯Íi I I‡Rvb¯Íi ¶qKvix M¨vmmg~n wPwýZKiY imvq‡bi wewfbœ c×wZi mvnv‡h¨B Kiv nq|
Gevi Ab¨vb¨ weÁv‡bi Dci imvq‡bi wbf©ikxjZv we‡ePbv Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| MwYZ e¨ZxZ imvqb weÁv‡bi ZË¡
cÖ`vb Kiv ev ZË¡xq ÁvbvR©b Am¤¢e| imvq‡b wnmve-wbKvk, m~Î cª`vb I MvwYwZK m¤úK© meB †Zv MwYZ|
†Kvqv›Uvg g¨vKvwbKm (quantum mechanics), hv g~jZ MvwYwZK wnmve-wbKvk-Gi mvnv‡h¨ cigvYyi MVb
e¨vL¨v K‡i| Ab¨w`‡K, imvq‡bi wewfbœ cix¶Y hš¿-wbf©i| Gme h‡š¿i g~jbxwZ ev cix¶Y g~jbxwZ
c`v_©weÁv‡bi Dci wfwË K‡iB cÖwZwôZ| Dc‡ii Av‡jvPbv †_‡K GUv eySv †Mj †h, weÁv‡bi wewfbœ kvLvi mv‡_
imvq‡bi †hvMm~Î i‡q‡Q|
1.4 imvqb cv‡Vi ¸i“Z¡

Avgiv imvq‡bi cwiwa c‡o ey‡SwQ †h, gvby‡li †gŠwjK Pvwn`v †hgbÑ Abœ, e¯¿, evm¯’vb, wPwKrmv I wk¶vi
DcKiY †RvMv‡b imvqb mve©¶wYKfv‡e wb‡qvwRZ| GLv‡b D‡jøL¨ †h, ivmvqwbK c`v_© gv‡bB ¶wZKviK Ggb
aviYv mgv‡Ri wewfbœ †kªwYi gvby‡li g‡a¨ Av‡Q, hv åvš—|
Avgiv hv Lvw”Q, †hgbÑ fvZ, Wvj, †Zj, wPwb, jeY, cvwb Ges hv eënvi KiwQ †hgbÑ mvevb, wWUvi‡R›U,
k¨v¤úy, cvDWvi, JlacÎ BZ¨vw` meB ivmvqwbK c`v_©|
K…wlKv‡R eëüZ mvi, KxUbvkK (insecticides) meB ivmvqwbK `ªe¨vw`| KxUbvkK eënv‡ii gva¨‡g km¨nvwb
†_‡K †cvKvgvK‡oi Kvh©µg cÖwZ‡iva Kiv nq| Avgiv gkv Zvovevi Rb¨ K‡qj ev A¨v‡ivmj (aerosols) eënvi
KiwQ| mvevb, wWUvi‡R›U (detergents), k¨v¤úy (shampoo) BZ¨vw` cwi®‹vi Kivi Kv‡R eënvi Kwi|
Avgv‡ì kixi-¯^v¯’¨ i¶vq Jla †hgb- A¨vw›Uev‡qvwUK (antibiotics), wfUvwgb (vitamins) †meb Kwi|
†mŠ›`h©ea©‡bi Rb¨ wewfbœ ai‡bi cÖvK…wZK mvgMÖx †hgbÑ KuvPv njy`, †g‡n`x Ges K…wÎg Km‡gwUKm&
(cosmetics) I is eënvi K‡i _vwK| GQvovI wewfbœ ai‡bi †flR JlacÎ I Ab¨vb¨ mvgMÖx ¯^v¯’¨-i¶v I
†mŠ›`h©ea©‡bi wbwg‡Ë MÖnY KiwQ| KLbI KLbI AbwfÁ ev Amvay e¨w³ ev cÖwZôvb Gme mvgMÖx cÖ¯‘Z I
mieivn K‡i _v‡K| gvby‡li ¶wZi w`K we‡ePbv bv K‡i A_ev bv ey‡S Amvayfv‡e gvQ, gvsm BZ¨vwì
cPb‡iv‡a Ges djg~‡ji `ªyZ cwic°Zv Avbvq‡b ev cvKv‡Z wbwl× ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï eënvi n‡”Q| GKBfv‡e
Lvevi‡K AvKl©Yxq K‡i Zzj‡Z wbwl× I Lvev‡ii Aby‡cv‡hvMx (non-food grade) is eënvi Kiv n‡”Q|
imvqb 07
cªwµqvRvZ Lv`¨ we‡kl K‡i d‡ji Rym, mm, †KK, we¯‹zU cÖf„wZ‡Z †ewk mgq a‡i msi¶‡Yi Rb¨
wcÖRvi‡fwUfm& (preservatives) †Ìqv nq| wcÖRvi‡fwUfm Qvov msM„nxZ Lv`¨ ¯^v‡¯’ï Rb¨ SzuwKc~Y© n‡Z
cv‡i wVKB, wKš‘ `yf©vM¨RbKfv‡e A‡bK †¶‡ÎB Gme Lv`¨ msi¶‡Y AwaKgvÎvq wbwl× I Lvev‡ii Abyc‡hvMx
wcÖRvi‡fwUfm eënvi Kiv n‡”Q|
Ab¨w`‡K, Pz‡jvq ivbœv Kivi Kv‡R eëüZ Zvc- KvV ev cÖvK…wZK M¨vm cywo‡q Drcbœ Kiv nq, †hLv‡b evqyi
Aw·‡Rb I KvV ev cÖvK…wZK M¨vm wewµqv K‡i Zvc, Kve©b WvBA·vBW I Ab¨vb¨ c`v_© Drcbœ K‡i| D‡jøL¨,
AwZ ¯^í cwigvY evqyi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z KvV ev cÖvK…wZK M¨vm †cvov‡j ¯^v‡¯’ï Rb¨ gvivZ¥K ¶wZKi Kve©b
g‡bvA·vBW bvgK M¨vmI ˆZwi n‡Z cv‡i| GQvovI KvV I Kqjv †cvov‡j ¶wZKviK Kve©b KYv (carbon
particles) Drcbœ nq, hv cv‡Îi wb‡P Rg‡j Zv‡K Avgiv ÔKvwjÕ e‡j _vwK| GKBfv‡e Kj-KviLvbv I
hvwš¿K hvbevnb †_‡K cÖwZwbqZ Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm wbM©Z n‡”Q, hv cwi‡e‡ki Rb¨ gvivZ¥K ¶wZKi|
AwZwi³ mvi, KxUbvkK, mvevb, wWUvi‡R›U, k¨v¤úy cÖf…wZ gvwU‡K Ges b`x-bvjv I Lvj-we‡ji cvwb‡K `~wlZ
Ki‡Q| gkvi K‡qj ev A¨v‡ivm‡ji †auvqv Avgiv wbtk¦v‡mi mv‡_ MÖnY Kwi| K…wÎg Km‡gwUKm&, is I †flR
Jla eënvi Kwi, hv i‡³i gva¨‡g Avgv‡ì kix‡ii wfZ‡ii wewfbœ As‡k †cuŠ‡Q hv‡”Q| Ab¨w`‡K, Zvc ev kw³
ˆZwii mv‡_ Drcbœ Kve©b WvBA·vBW evqyi mv‡_ wg‡k cwi‡e‡ki ZvcgvÎv e„w× Ki‡Q|
Avgiv Rvwb, ivmvqwbK mv‡ii AwZwi³ eënv‡i Mv‡Qi ¶wZ nq ev MvQ g‡i hvq| gvÎvwZwi³ Jla †me‡b
gvby‡li g„ZzÏ n‡Z cv‡i| Zvn‡j GUv cwi®‹vi †h, fv‡jv _vKvi Rb¨ ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i cwiwgZ eënvi
AZ¨š— Ri“wi| Zv GKgvÎ imvqb m¤ú‡K© my¯úó ÁvbB wbwðZ Ki‡Z cv‡i| Aciw`‡K, imvqb cv‡Vi gva¨‡g
ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i wewfbœ ¶wZKviK w`K I SzuwK m¤ú‡K© ÁvbvR©b m¤¢e, hv Avgv‡ì‡K m‡PZb bvMwiK wn‡m‡e
M‡o Zzj‡Z cv‡i| Gi cvkvcvwk Avgiv wewfbœ mvgMÖx eënviKvix Ges cÖ¯‘ZKvix Df‡q ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i
¸Yv¸Y we‡ePbvc~e©K G‡ì mwVK eënvi wbwðZ K‡i mgvR I cwi‡ek i¶vq ¸i“Z¡c~Y© f~wgKv ivL‡Z cvwi|
Zvn‡j GUv ¯úó †h, cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki imvqb m¤ú‡K© Ávb _vKv AZxe Riywi|
1.5 imvq‡b AbymÜvb I M‡elYv cÖwµqv
†Kv‡bv welq m¤^‡Ü wRÁvmv AbymÜv‡bi i~c †bq Ges AbymÜvb †_‡KB M‡elYvi Rš§| †hgbÑ cvwb m¤ú‡K©
hw` cÖ_g cÖkœ nq, GUv Kx? Zvn‡j cieZ©x cÖkœUv n‡e, cvwb †Kv_vq †Kv_vq cvIqv hvq? wbðqB Gi c‡i †h
cÖkœwUi D‡`ªK n‡e, Zv n‡jvÑ cvwb Kx w`‡q MwVZ? cvwb m¤ú‡K© cÖ_g wRÁvmvwU, wØZxqwUi Rš§ w`‡q‡QÑ cvwb
†Kv_vq cvIqv hvq? DËiwU AbymÜv‡bi gva¨‡g Rvbv m¤¢e †h cvwbi Drm b`x, mvMi, e„wó, Sibv BZ¨vw`| Avi
cvwb‡Z Kx Kx Av‡Q, Zvi Rb¨ M‡elYvi cÖ‡qvRb| Gfv‡e AviI wRÁvmv Rš§v‡eÑ b`xi I mvM‡ii cvwb‡Z Kx
Kx _v‡K? Avgiv Rvwb mvM‡ii cvwb jeYv³, Zvn‡j c‡ii cÖkœwU n‡Z cv‡i, mvM‡ii cvwb †_‡K Kxfv‡e my‡cq
cvwb cvIqv †h‡Z cv‡i? GUv ¯úó n‡jv †h, Gfv‡eB †Kv‡bv wel‡qi Dci AbymÜvb I M‡elYv G‡K Ac‡ii
mv‡_ m¤úwK©Z Ges Zv Mv‡Qi g‡Zv kvLv-cÖkvLvq we¯—…wZ jvf K‡i|
08 imvqb
wb‡¤œ AbymÜvb I M‡elYv Kv‡Ri wewfbœ avcmg~‡ni Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|

AbymÜvb I M‡elYv cÖwµqvi cÖ_g avc n‡jv- welqe¯‘ wba©viY ev mgm¨v wPwýZ Kiv| welqe¯‘ wba©viY
M‡elYvi GKwU ¸i“Z¡c~Y© avc| mywbw`©ó j¶¨ I D‡Ïk¨ hv mgvR Z_v gvbeKj¨v‡Y ìKvi ev fwel¨‡Z ìKvi
n‡Z cv‡iÑ Ggb wPš—v K‡i AbymÜvb I M‡elYvi welqe¯‘ wba©viY Kiv nq| †hgbÑ c„w_ex‡Z my‡cq cvwbi
gvivZ¥K msKU, hwÌ Avgv‡ì †`‡k ZZUv eySv hvq bv| Zvn‡j my‡cq cvwbi AbymÜvb Kiv Ges cvwbi Ab¨vb¨
Drm †_‡K my‡cq cvwb cvIqvi Rb¨ M‡elYv GKwU ¸i“Z¡c~Y© welq e‡U| Ab¨w`‡K, c„w_ex‡Z LwbR R¡vjvwb
(fossil fuels) †hgbÑ cÖvK…wZK M¨vm, Kqjv, †c‡Uªvwjqvg BZ¨vwì gRy` K‡g Avm‡Q Ges ejv nq †h, AvMvgx
GKk eQ‡i Zv dzwi‡q hv‡e| fwel¨‡Zi K_v we‡ePbv K‡i weKí R¡vjvwbi AbymÜvb I G wel‡q M‡elYv GKwU
AZxe ¸i“Z¡c~Y© welq|
M‡elYvq welqe¯‘ wba©vi‡Yi mgq cwi‡ek, mvgvwRK AvPvi I ag©xq Abyf~wZi K_vI we‡ePbv Kiv nq|
AbymÜv‡bi welqe¯‘ wVK n‡j, AbymÜvb KvR‡K mdj Kivi Rb¨ cwiKíbv cÖYqb, AbywgZ wm×všÍ MVb I
cix¶Y Kiv nq| welqe¯‘ m¤ú‡K© Z_¨ msMÖn, cix¶‡Yi Rb¨ ivmvqwbK I Ab¨vb¨ DcKiY msMÖn, cix¶‡Yi
gva¨‡g cÖvß Z_¨-DcvË (data) msMÖn, we‡kølY (analysis) I e¨vL¨v (explanation) cÖ`vb Ges djvdj
MÖnYI AbymÜvb Kv‡Ri mv‡_ mswkøó|
Kv‡Ri cwiKíbv cix¶Y I Z_¨ -

welqe¯‘ wba©viY weÁvb I gvbe
cÖYqb DcvË msMÖn
Kj¨v‡Y cÖfve
welqe¯‘ P~Ôg. GMYGMP~Ôg. Z_¨- DcvË Gi
mg¨K ÁvbvR©b AvMvg aviYvKiY msMVb I we‡kølY
QK- 1.5 : AbymÜvb I M‡elYv cÖwµqvi wewfbœ avcmg~n|
wØZxq avcwU n‡jvÑ welqe¯‘ m¤ú‡K© mg¨K Ávb AR©b Kiv| AbymÜvb I M‡elYvi d‡j D™¢vweZ e¯‘
gvbeKj¨vY e¨ZxZ Avi †Kvb †Kvb Kv‡R eëüZ n‡Z cv‡i, cÖ‡qvRbxq cix¶vi Rb¨ eëüZ c`v_© ¯^v¯’¨ I
cwi‡e‡ki Kx ¶wZ Ki‡Z cv‡i, AbymÜvb I M‡elYvi wewfbœ av‡ci êÁvwbK e¨vL¨v m¤ú‡K© I cix¶vi mgq †h
†Kv‡bv AbvKvw•¶Z cwiw¯’wZ mvgvj †`qvi g‡Zv h‡_ó ÁvbvR©b I `¶Zv Avek¨K| welqe¯‘ I welqe¯‘i
Dci cix¶Y msµvš— c~‡e© cÖKvwkZ wewfbœ êÁvwbK Z_¨ msMÖn Kiv AbymÜv‡bi Kv‡Ri cÖ_g kZ©| †hgb-
Avgiv mvBwUªK GwmWhy³ d‡ji AbymÜvb Ki‡Z PvB| Zvn‡j †Kvb-RvZxq d‡j mvBwUªK GwmW _vK‡Z cv‡i
Zvi aviYv eBc‡Î ev êÁvwbK Rvb©v‡j (VFLHQWL¿F MRXUQDOV) cÖKvwkZ Z_¨ †_‡K Rvb‡Z n‡e| mv‡_ mv‡_
mvBwUªK GwmW bvgK c`v_©wU m¤¢ve¨ Kx Kx cix¶vi gva¨‡g kbv³ Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i, †m Z_Ï msMÖn Ki‡Z n‡e|
cÖvß Z‡_ï wfwË‡Z AbywgZ wm×všÍ (hypothesis) MVb Ki‡Z n‡e| †Kvb †Kvb dj¸‡jv‡Z mvBwUªK GwmW
_vK‡Z cv‡i Ges †Kvb †Kvb cix¶v Øviv mvBwUªK GwmW FLWULF DFLG kbv³ Kiv hvq Zv wba©viY Kiv
cwiKíbvi Ask| cwiKíbv cÖYq‡bi mgq Aek¨B gv_vq ivL‡Z n‡e, b~¨bZg †Kvb †Kvb cix¶v bv Ki‡j
mvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi kbv³KiY c~Y©v½ n‡e bv Ges wPwýZ cix¶vc×wZ¸‡jv †_‡K evQvBc~e©K †m¸‡jvB we‡ePbvq
†bqv DwPZ †h¸‡jvi cÖ‡qvRbxq DcKiY mnRjf¨ I cwi‡ekevÜe|
imvqb 9
Kv‡Ri cwiKíbv cÖYqb Kiv AbymÜvb I M‡elYv cÖwµqvi Z…Zxq avc| welqe¯‘ m¤ú‡K© mg¨K Ávb I AbywgZ
wm×všÍ MVb Kv‡Ri cwiKíbv cÖYqb‡K mnRZi K‡i| AbymÜvb I M‡elYv cÖwµqvi myweav‡_© cwiKíbv cÖYqb
G‡jv‡g‡jv fv‡e bv K‡i µgvbymv‡i Kiv evÃbxq| A_©vr †h Kv‡Ri aviYv Qvov c‡ii KvR ïi“ ev Kv‡Ri e¨vL¨v
Kiv hv‡e bv †mUv‡K Av‡M †i‡L c‡ii KvRwU cwiKíbvq †bIqv nq|
M‡elYvi cÖZ¨vwkZ djvdj m¤ú‡K© AvMvg aviYv Kiv AbymÜvb I M‡elYv cÖwµqvi Av‡iKwU ¸i“Z¡c~Y© avc| †Kv‡bv
cix¶‡Yi djvdj m¤ú‡K© Av‡MB aviYv _vK‡j cÖvß djvdj wb‡q Ah_v †KŠZ~nj m„wó n‡e bv, Zv‡Z K‡i
Kv‡Ri c‡ii avcwU‡Z AMÖmi nIqv `ªyZ I mnR n‡e| GQvovI djvdj m¤ú‡K© AvMvg aviYv Ki‡Z cvi‡j
Kv‡Ri cwiKíbv cÖYq‡bI myweav nq, A_©vr †Kv‡bv Kv‡Ri djvd‡ji Dci wfwË K‡i c‡ii KvRwUi cwiKíbv
†Kgb nIqv DwPZ †m m¤ú‡K© aviYv cvIqv hvq|
imvq‡b AbymÜvb I M‡elYv cÖwµqv A‡bK †¶‡ÎB cix¶Ywbf©i, Z‡e †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv †¶‡Î cix¶‡Yi cwie‡Z©
cÖkœgvjvi gva¨‡g Z_¨-DcvË msMªn Kiv hvq| cix¶Y I Z_¨-DcvË msMªn me©Rb MÖnY‡hvM¨ c×wZ g‡b Kiv
nq| hv‡Z K‡i cÖvß Z_¨-DcvË mevi Kv‡Q †evaMg¨ nq| Gi c‡ii avcwU n‡jv- Z_¨ I Dcv‡Ëi msMVb
(hvQvB-evQvB) I we‡kølY Kiv| cÖvß djvd‡ji êÁvwbK e¨vL¨v cÖ`vbc~e©K †Kvb AskwU MÖnYxq Avi †Kvb AskwU
eR©bxq Zvi GKwU wPÎ Zz‡j aiv nq|
AbymÜvb I M‡elYvq cÖvß djvdj weÁvb Ges gvbeKj¨v‡Y Kx cÖfve †dj‡e Zv m¤ú‡K© Av‡jvPbv _vKv
AbymÜvb I M‡elYv cÖwµqvi Av‡iKwU Ask| cÖvß djvdj weÁv‡bi †Kvb †gŠwjK welqwUi bZzb e¨vL¨v cÖ`vb
Ki‡e ev weÁv‡bi †Kvb AskwU mn‡R eyS‡Z mnvqZv Ki‡e Zv D‡jøL Ki‡Z nq| welqe¯‘i wba©viY gvby‡li
†Kvb †Kvb Kj¨v‡Y Avm‡e mywbw`©ófv‡e Zvi w`K-wb‡`©kbv †Ìqv nq| G ai‡bi Av‡jvPbvi gva¨‡g AbymÜvb
I M‡elYv Kv‡Ri welqe¯‘i ¸i“Z¡ dz‡U D‡V|
Dc‡ii Av‡jvPbv †_‡K GUv eySv hvq †h, AbymÜvb I M‡elYv cÖwµqv mywbw`©ó cwiKíbvi ga¨ w`‡q Kiv nq Ges
GKwU avc AciwUi m¤ú~iK|
G‡mv Avgiv Gevi `jMZfv‡e GKUv AbymÜvbg~jK KvR Kwi| cÖwZwU `j c„_Kfv‡e Kgc‡¶ `kwU d‡ji A_ev mewRi
bvg †ei Ki †h¸‡jv‡Z ˆRe GwmW _vK‡Z cv‡i Ges bvg¸‡jv QK-1.6-G wjwce× Ki| †Zvgv‡ì myweav‡_© GKwU
Bw½Z n‡jv, Gwm‡Wi ¯^v` UK nq| Gwm‡Wi Dcw¯’wZ wk¶‡Ki mnvqZvq wjUgvm †ccv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ wbwðZ Ki|
QK-1.6 : `jMZfv‡e c~iY Ki|
1| 2| 3|
4| 5| 6|
7| 8| 9|
10|
10 imvqb
1.6 imvq‡b AbymÜv‡bi mg‡q ivmvqwbK `ªe¨ msi¶Y I eënv‡i mZK©Zvg~jK eë¯’v
cix¶Y Qvov imvq‡b †hgb AbymÜvb I M‡elYv Kiv KwVb, †Zgwb ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï eënvi e¨ZxZ imvq‡b
cix¶Y mvaviYZ Kiv nq bv| A‡bK ivmvqwbK c`v_©B ¯^v¯’¨ I cwi‡e‡ki Rb¨ cÖZ¨¶ ev c‡iv¶fv‡e gvivZ¥K
¶wZ K‡i _v‡K| A‡bK `ªe¨ Av‡Q hviv AwZ mn‡RB we‡ùvwiZ n‡Z cv‡i| wKQz `ªe¨ Av‡Q hv welv³, `vn¨,
¯^v¯’¨ms‡e`bkxj Ges K¨vÝvi m„wóKvix| Zvn‡j ivmvqwbK `ªe¨ msMÖn Ges Zv w`‡q cix¶‡Yi c~‡e©B Zvi
Kvh©KvwiZv m¤ú‡K© cÖv_wgK Ávb _vKv LyeB Ri“wi|
mvivwe‡k¦ cix¶vMvi ev M‡elYvMvi, wkí-KviLvbv, K…wl, wPwKrmv cÖf…wZ †¶‡Î ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï eënvi Z_v
ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï evwYR¨ †e‡o hvIqvq G‡ì msi¶Y I eënv‡ii mZK©Zvg~jK eë¯’v Ri“wi n‡q c‡o| G
msµvšÍ GKwU me©Rbxb wbqg (Globally Harmonized System) Pvjyi welq‡K mvg‡b †i‡L RvwZms‡Ni D‡`¨v‡M
cwi‡ek I Dbœqb bv‡g GKwU m‡š§jb AbywôZ nq| D³ m‡š§j‡bi cÖwZcv`¨ welq wQj- (K) ivmvqwbK c`v_©‡K
SzuwK I SyuwKi gvÎvi wfwË‡Z wewfbœ fv‡M fvM Kiv (L) SzuwKi mZK©Zv msµvšÍ Z_¨-DcvË (WvUv‡eR) ˆZwi Kiv
Ges (M) SzuwK (hazard) I SyuwKi gvÎv eySvevi Rb¨ me©Rbxb mvs‡KwZK wPý wba©viY Kiv| D`vniY¯î~c
K‡qKwU mvs‡KwZK wPý QK-1.7 -G Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|
†Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK `ªe¨ mieivn ev msi¶Y Ki‡Z n‡j Zvi cv‡Îi Mv‡q †j‡e‡ji mvnv‡h¨ †kªwY‡f` Abyhvqx
cÖ‡qvRbxq mvs‡KwZK wPý cÖ`vb Kiv Aek¨B evÃbxq| Zvn‡j eënviKvix mn‡RB †Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï
cv‡Îi Mv‡q †j‡ej †`‡LB Gi Kvh©KvwiZv m¤ú‡K© cÖv_wgK aviYv wb‡Z cvi‡e Ges Gi Kvh©KvwiZvi SzuwK gv_vq
†i‡L msi¶Y I eënvi Ki‡Z cvi‡e| †hgb wec`RbK mvs‡KwZK wPý msewjZ †Kv‡bv cv‡Îi Mv‡qi †j‡ej
(label) †`‡L GUv eySv hv‡e †h, cv‡Îi ivmvqwbK `ªe¨wU GKwU gvivZ¥K welv³ c`v_© (QK- 1.7 †`L)| mv‡_
mv‡_ eënviKvixi gv_vq GUvI KvR Ki‡e †h, eënv‡ii mgq Aek¨B we‡kl mveavbZv Aej¤^b Ki‡Z n‡e|
hv‡Z GUv kix‡ii wfZ‡i cÖ‡ek Ki‡Z bv cv‡i| GQvovI cix¶vi ci cix¶Y wgkªY Db¥y³ cwi‡ek †d‡j †Ìqv
hv‡e wK bv ev cwi‡kvab Ki‡Z n‡e wK bv, †m m¤ú‡K© aviYv wb‡Z cvi‡e| msM„nxZ ivmvqwbK `ªe¨ †Kv_vq,
Kxfv‡e msi¶Y Ki‡j ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï gvb wVK _vK‡e I AbvKvw•¶Z `~N©Ubv Gov‡bv hv‡e, †mme aviYvI
cvIqv hv‡e|
QK-1.7 : ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï SzuwK I SyuwKi gvÎv eySvi Rb¨ wba©vwiZ mvs‡KwZK wPý, SzuwK, SyuwKi gvÎv I
mveavbZv |
mvs‡KwZK wPý SzuwK, SzuwKi gvÎv I mveavbZv
we‡ùviK (explosive) `ªe¨, wb‡R wb‡RB wewµqv Ki‡Z cv‡i, †hgbÑ ˆRe
cvi-A·vBW| wbR©b RvqMvq msi¶Y Kiv, mveav‡b bvovPvov Kiv, Nl©Y n‡Z cv‡i Ggb
RvqMvq bv ivLv, Ab¨ c`v‡_©i mv‡_ wgkª‡Yi mgq AwZ ax‡i hy³ Kiv, eënv‡ii mgq †Pv‡L
we‡ùvwiZ †evgv wbivc` Pkgv civ|
`vn¨ ÀDPPDEOH c`v_©- M¨vm, Zij, KwVb| mn‡RB Av¸b ai‡Z cv‡i| wewµqv K‡i Zvc
Drcbœ K‡i, †hgbÑ A¨v‡iv‡mvj, †c‡Uªvwjqvg| G ai‡bi `ªe¨ Av¸b ev Zvc †_‡K `~‡i ivLv,
Nl©Y n‡Z cv‡i Ggb Ae¯’vq bv ivLv|
Av¸‡bi wkLv
imvqb 11
mvs‡KwZK wPý SzuwK, SzuwKi gvÎv I mveavbZv
RviK (oxidizing agent) M¨vm ev Zij c`v_©, †hgbÑ †K¬vwib M¨vm| wbtk¦v‡m †M‡j k¦vmKó
n‡Z cv‡i, Z¡‡K jvM‡j ¶Z n‡Z cv‡i| M¨vm n‡j wbw”Q`ªfv‡e ivLv, RviY wewµqv Ki‡Z cv‡i
Ggb cv‡Î bv ivLv, eënv‡ii mgq nv‡Z mywbw`©ó `¯Ívbv, †Pv‡L wbivc` Pkgv I bv‡K-gy‡L
e„‡Ëi Dci Av¸‡bi wkLv gv¯‹ eënvi Kiv|
gvivZ¥K welv³ c`v_© (poison)Ñ M¨vm, Zij, KwVb| wbk¦v‡m, Z¡‡K jvM‡j A_ev †L‡j g„Zz¨
n‡Z cv‡i| G ai‡bi c`v_© Aek¨B Zvjve× ¯’v‡b msi¶Y Kiv evÃbxq| eënv‡ii mgq nv‡Z
`¯Ívbv, †Pv‡L wbivc` Pkgv I bv‡K-gyL gv¯‹ (M¨vm n‡j) eënvi Kiv| kix‡i cÖ‡ek Ki‡Z
wec`RbK cv‡i Ggb Ae¯’v Gwo‡q Pjv| cix¶vi ci cix¶Y wgkª‡Yi h_vh_ cwi‡kvab Kiv |
†`‡ni k¦vm-cÖk¦vm msµvšÍ (respiratory) Z‡š¿i Rb¨ ms‡e`bkxj, Rxevby msµgY NUv‡Z cv‡i
(mutagenic), K¨vÝvi m„wó (carcinogenic) Ki‡Z cv‡i| me©mvavi‡Yi evB‡i wbivc`
¯’v‡b msi¶Y Kiv, eënv‡ii mgq nv‡Z `¯Ívbv, †Pv‡L wbivc` Pkgv I bv‡K-gy‡L gv¯‹
eënvi Kiv| cix¶Y wgkª‡Yi msMÖn I h_vh_ cwi‡kvab Kiv|
¯^v¯’¨-SuzwKi ms‡KZ
cwi‡e‡ki Rb¨ ¶wZKi, we‡kl K‡i RjR (aquatic) Dw™¢` I cÖvwYi Rb¨ ¶wZKi| G
ai‡bi c`v_© b`x-bvjvi cvwb‡Z wgk‡Z †Ìqv DwPZ bq| cix¶Y wgkªY msMÖn I cwi‡kvab
Kiv|
cwi‡ek
AvšÍR©vwZK iwk¥ wPýwU 1946 mv‡j Av‡gwiKv‡Z cÖ_g eëüZ n‡qwQj| wPýwU‡K wUªd‡qj
(trefoil) I ejv nq| GwU Øviv AwZwi³ ¶wZKi †ZRw¯Œq iwk¥‡K (kw³) eySv‡bv nq| G
ai‡bi iwk¥ gvbe‡`n‡K weKjv½ K‡i w`‡Z cv‡i Ges kix‡i K¨vÝvi m„wó Ki‡Z cv‡i| iwk¥
†ei n‡Z bv cv‡i GiKg cyi“ ev we‡kl cv‡Î ivmvqwbK `ªe¨vw` msi¶Y Kiv| KvR Kivi mgq
†ZRw¯Œq iwk¥ wbivc` `~iZ¡ eRvq ivLv, Dchy³ †cvkvK cwiavb Kiv, †Pv‡L we‡kl ai‡bi Pkgv civ BZ¨vw`|
wPý (trefoil)
ai GKwU †evZ‡ji Mv‡qi †j‡e‡j wb‡gœi wPý (QK-1.8) †Ìqv Av‡Q| Gevi Dc‡i cÖ`Ë Z_¨ (QK 1.7) †_‡K
†kªwYK‡¶ e‡mB wb‡Riv wPý Øviv e¨³ m¤¢ve¨ SzuwK I SuywKi gvÎvi eY©bv Kivi †Póv Ki|
QK-1.8 : wkLbd‡ji gva¨‡g †Zvgiv wb‡Riv c~iY Ki|
e„‡Ëi Dci Av¸‡bi wkLv msi¶Y I eënv‡ii mZ©KZv:

12 imvqb
Abykxjbx
eûwbe©vPwb cÖkœ:
1. cÖwµqvRvZ Lv`¨ †ewk mgq a‡i msi¶‡Y wb‡Pi †Kvb c`v_©wU eëüZ nq?
K. wcÖRvi‡fwUfm L. wf‡bMvi
M. Bw_wjb N. A¨vwmwUwjb
2. wb‡Pi †KvbwU A‰Re †hŠM?

K. cvwb L. †k¦Zmvi
M. Avwgl N. Pwe©
3. GKwU wmwjÛv‡i †K¬vwib M¨vm Av‡Q| wmwjÛviwUi Mv‡q Zzwg †Kvb mvs‡KwZK wPý hy³ Ki‡e?
K. L.
M. N.
4.
wPÎwU †_‡K †evSv hvq-
i. GKwU ivmvqwbK cÖwµqv
ii. G‡Z Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm Drcbœ nq
iii. GwU GKwU `nb wewµqv
wb‡Pi †KvbwU mwVK?

K. i I ii L. ii I iii
M. i I iii N. i, ii I iii
imvqb 13
m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1.
wPÎ 1 : Jla †me‡bi Qwe Z3¨PHZ5gg=.[8EYN.

wQUv‡bvi Qwe
K. gwiPv Kx?
L. †cu‡c cvK‡j njy` nq †Kb?
M. '©[Fg.LJZ3g¨LPYTE.[IYgHP~ÔZ.=«HY/Y.L_
N. '©[Fg.Lf.YEZ8L$Z=ZLHHQYLFZLgHgNL5EZ=.LK\ZPQZM/_
wØZxq Aa¨vq
c`v‡_©i Ae¯’v
c`v_© n‡jv Ggb †fŠZ e¯‘ hvi fi I AvqZb Av‡Q| mKj c`v_©B mvaviYZ wZb Ae¯’vq weivR K‡iÑ KwVb,
Zij I evqexq| wKš‘ ¯^vfvweK K¶ ZvcgvÎvq wKQz c`v_© KwVb, wKQz Zij Ges wKQz evqexq Ae¯’vq _v‡K|
ZvcgvÎv cwieZ©‡bi mv‡_ mv‡_ c`v‡_©i Ae¯’vi cwieZ©b N‡U| wZb Ae¯’v‡ZB G‡ì wbR¯^ êwkó¨ I ag©
i‡q‡Q| Ae¯’v cwieZ©‡b c`v‡_©i AYyi MV‡bi †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b N‡U bv| KwVb Ae¯’vq AYymg~n KvQvKvwQ †_‡K
Kuvc‡Z _v‡K; Zvc cÖ`v‡bi mv‡_ mv‡_ AYymg~n MwZkxj nq Ges `~‡i m‡i †h‡Z _v‡K| wewfbœ gva¨‡g KwVb,
Zij I evqexq c`v‡_©i Qwo‡q covi cÖeYZv j¶ Kiv hvq| Zv n‡Z cv‡i ¯^Ztù‚Z©fv‡e A_ev Pv‡ci cÖfv‡e|
Zvc e„w× Ki‡j
KwVb Zij evqexq
Zvc n«vm Ki‡j
GB Aa¨vq cvV †k‡l Avgiv-

(1) KYvi MwZZ‡Ë¡i ¯^xKv‡h©i mvnv‡h¨ c`v‡_©i †fŠZ Ae¯’v e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) MwZZ‡Ë¡i mvnv‡h¨ e¨vcb I wbtmi‡Yi e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(3) c`v‡_©i †fŠZ Ae¯’v I Zv‡ci g‡a¨ m¤úK© e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) ZvcgvÎv e„w×‡Z e¨vcb nvi e„w× cix¶vi gva¨‡g †`Lv‡Z cvie|
(5) KwVb c`v‡_©i Mjb I EaŸ©cvZb Ges Zij c`v‡_©i ùzUb cÖwµqv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(6) KwVb c`v‡_©i Mjb I EaŸ©cvZb Ges Zij c`v‡_©i ùzUb cÖwµqv cix¶vi gva¨‡g †`Lv‡Z cvie|
(7) cÖK„wZ‡Z msNwUZ ev¯—e NUbv imvq‡bi `„wó‡Z we‡køl‡Y AvMÖn cÖ`k©b Ki‡Z cvie|
(8) ivmvqwbK `ªe¨ I _v‡g©vwgUvi mwVKfv‡e eënvi Ki‡Z cvie|
imvqb 15
2.1 c`v_© I c`v‡_©i Ae¯’v

hvi fi Av‡Q, RvqMv `Lj K‡i Ges RoZv Av‡Q ZvB c`v_©| c~‡e©B †R‡bwQ c`v_© mvaviYZ wZb Ae¯’vq _v‡KÑ
KwVb, Zij Ges evqexq|
wb‡Pi wP‡Î wKQy KwVb, Zij, evqexq c`v‡_©i wPÎ †Ìqv n‡jv:
Kv‡Vi UzKiv
cvi` Lvevi jeY Kve©b WvBA·vBW
wPwb wnwjqvg M¨vm cvwb jyweª‡KwUs
fiv M¨vm Rvi
fiv †ejyb †Zj
gv‡e©j cv_i Pzbvcv_i BU cv_i

`ya Aw·‡Rb mqvweb †Zj
wmwjÛvi
wPÎ 2.1 : wKQz KwVb, Zij I evqexq c`v_©
wb‡Pi Q‡K Ae¯’v Abyhvqx G¸‡jv mvRvI :-
KwVb Zij evqexq ev M¨vmxq
QK 2.1 : wewfbœ Ae¯’vi c`v_©

Avgiv c`v_©mg~n ch©‡e¶Y I cix¶Y K‡i- AvK…wZ, AvqZb, ms‡KvPbkxjZv, NbZ¡, mnRcÖevn,
cÖmviYkxjZv BZ¨vw` êwkó¨ m¤ú‡K© aviYv jvf Ki‡Z cvwiÑ
wb‡R wb‡R Ki :
evwo †_‡K Avbv †cwÝj, cv_i ev Ab¨ †Kv‡bv KwVb c`v‡_©i Dci Pvc `vI,
AvK…wZ I AvqZb ch©‡e¶Y Ki|
Gevi GKwU Møv‡m cvwb bvI, Ab¨ AvK…wZi GKwU cv‡Î Zv Xvj| Kx j¶ Ki‡j?
Bb‡RKk‡bi `ywU wmwi‡Ä cvwb I evZvm f‡i m~P Ly‡j gyL eÜ K‡i Pvc w`‡j Kx cwieZ©b nq †`L|
Lvwj †ejy‡b gyL w`‡q evZvm f‡i dzjvI, Zvici gyLwU Ly‡j `vI|
ch©‡e¶‡Yi djvdj LvZvq †bvU Ki|
`jMZfv‡e Ki :
ch©‡e¶Y I cix¶‡Yi gva¨‡g Dc‡ii †Kvb êwkó¨mg~n wba©viY Ki‡Z cvi‡j †Kvb¸‡jv cvi‡j bv Zv e¨vL¨v
Ki| wk¶‡Ki mvnvh¨ wb‡q j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z †Zvgiv NbZ¡ I cÖmviYkxjZv êwkó¨ `ywUi cix¶v Ki‡Z cvi|
16 imvqb
2.2 KYvi MwZZË¡ (Kinetic theory of particles)

mKj c`v_©B ¶z`ªZg KwYKv Øviv ˆZwi Ges Zv KwVb, Zij A_ev M¨vmxq Ae¯’vi †h †Kv‡bv GKwU Ae¯’vq
_v‡K| mKj Ae¯’vq c`v‡_©i KYvmg~n MwZkxj _v‡K|
wb‡P c`v‡_©i wZb Ae¯’vq KwYKvmg~n Kxfv‡e mw¾Z _v‡K Zv †Ìqv n‡jv| †KvbwU KwVb, †KvbwU Zij I
†KvbwU M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq Av‡Q LvZvq Gu‡K ci ci mvRvI :
(K) (L) (M)

wPÎ 2.2 : c`v‡_©i wZb Ae¯’vi wfwË
‡Z KwYKvmg~‡ni Ae¯’v
wPšÍv Ki :
• GKB c`v_©‡K Kxfv‡e KwVb †_‡K Zi‡j Ges Zij †_‡K M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq †bIqv hvq?
• wZb Ae¯’vq KwYKvmg~n Kxfv‡e Ae¯’vb K‡i?
• †Kvb Ae¯’vq AYymg~n me‡P‡q KvQvKvwQ Ae¯’vq, KLb gvSvgvwS Ae¯’vq Ges KLb me‡P‡q `~‡i
Ae¯’vb K‡i?
• KLb GKwU AYyi mv‡_ Aci AYyi AvKl©Y kw³ me‡P‡q †ewk, KLb wKQzUv Kg Ges KLb GK`g _v‡K
bv ej‡jB P‡j?
• wZb Ae¯’vq KwYKvmg~‡ni MwZkxjZvi Ae¯’v e¨vL¨v Ki|
Avgiv mK‡jB cvwbi wZb Ae¯’vi mv‡_ cwiwPZ; eid (KwVb), cvwb (Zij) I Rjxqev®ú (M¨vmxq)| wP‡Î Zvc
cÖ`v‡b Gi wZb Ae¯’vi cwieZ©b †`Lv‡bv n‡jv:
Zvc Zvc
eid cvwb j
Rxqev®ú
wPÎ 2.3: Zvc cÖ`v‡b c`v‡_©i Ae¯’vi cwieZ©b
wPšÍv Ki : Kxfv‡e Rjxqev®ú‡K cvwb‡Z Ges cvwb‡K ei‡d cwiYZ Kiv hvq? wWc wd«‡R cvwb ivL‡j Zv
Kxfv‡e ei‡d cwiYZ nq?
imvqb 17
m`¨ dzUv‡bv GKKvc Mig cvwb‡K †Uwe‡j ivL‡j Kx †`L‡Z cv‡e?

Dc‡i Rjxqev‡®úi KYv evZv‡m Qwo‡q co‡Q| G‡K hw` AviI
Zvc †Ìqv n‡Zv GK mgq KvcwU Lvwj n‡q †hZ| wKš‘ hw`
KvcwU ¯^vfvweK Ae¯’vq †i‡L w`‡Z Z‡e Zv ax‡i ax‡i VvÊv n‡q
†hZ; Rjxqev®ú‡K Avi †ewi‡q co‡Z †`L‡Z bv|
KYvi MwZZË¡ †_‡K, KYvmg~n (AYy) Kxfv‡e KwVb, Zij I
M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq MwZkxj _v‡K Zv Rvbv hvq|
KwVb c`v‡_©i wbw`©ó AvKvi I AvqZb Av‡Q| kw³kvjx AvKl©Y
e‡ji Kvi‡Y KYvmg~n Lye KvQvKvwQ Ae¯’vb K‡i| KwVb c`v‡_©i
KYvmg~n KvQvKvwQ Ae¯’vb K‡i Kuvc‡Z _v‡K| wPÎ 2.4 : Kv‡c dzUv‡bv cvwb
Zij c`v_© AvqZb cwieZ©b bv K‡i †h cv‡Î ivLv nq †m cv‡Îi AvKvi aviY K‡i| Pv‡c Zij c`v‡_©i AvqZb
¯^í gvÎvq ms‡KvPbkxj| Zij c`v‡_©i KYvi MwZ KwVb c`v‡_©i Zzjbvq †ewk| Zij c`v‡_©i KYvmg~‡ni g‡a¨
AvKl©Y ej KwV‡bi †P‡q Kg| †m Kvi‡Y Zi‡ji KYvmg~n †gvUvgywU `~i‡Z¡ Ae¯’vb K‡i|
M¨vmxq c`v_© †h cv‡Î ivLv nq Zvi cy‡ivUvB `Lj K‡i| KYvmg~‡ni g‡a¨ AvKl©Y ej LyeB Kg, G‡K A‡bï KvQ
†_‡K A‡bK `~‡i Ae¯’vb K‡i| M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i KYvmg~n evavnxbfv‡e PjvPj K‡i| KYvmg~n wewfbœ w`‡K
Pjgvb Ae¯’vq Qwo‡q _v‡K| Pv‡c M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i AvqZb AwaK gvÎvq ms‡KvPbkxj|
hZB Zvc †Ìqv nq KYvmg~n ZZ MwZkw³ AR©b K‡i Ges PjvPj †e‡o hvq| Zij Ae¯’vq KYvmg~n `~‡i `~‡i
m‡i hvq| ùzU‡b M¨vmxq KYvmg~n Zi‡ji DcwiZj †_‡K evB‡i †ewi‡q hvq Ges B”Qvg‡Zv wewfbœ w`‡K PjvPj
Kivi g‡Zv h‡_ó kw³ mÂq K‡i|
MwZZ‡Ë¡i wfwË‡Z Zvckw³ eënvi K‡i c`v_©‡K GK Ae¯’v †_‡K Aci Ae¯’vq i~cvšÍi Kiv m¤¢e| KwVb‡K
Zvc w`‡q Mjbvs‡K †cŠQv‡j Zv Zi‡j cwiYZ nq| Zij‡K Zvc w`‡q ùzUbvs‡K †cŠQv‡j Zv M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq
cwiYZ nq|
KwVb Ae¯’vq AvšÍtAvYweK AvKl©Y me‡P‡q †ewk _v‡K|

AvšÍtAvYweK `~iZ¡ me‡P‡q Kg _v‡K|
Zij Ae¯’vq AvšÍtAvYweK AvKl©Y Zzjbvg~jKfv‡e K‡g
hvq Ges c`v‡_©i AYymg~‡ni g‡a¨ `~iZ¡ †e‡o hvq| M¨vmxq
†ejy‡bi †fZ‡ii M¨v‡mi KYvmg~n †ejy‡bi
Ae¯’vq AvšÍtAvYweK AvKl©Y G‡Kev‡iB Kg _v‡K| `~iZ¡
†fZ‡ii Avei‡Yi mv‡_ av°v †L‡Z _v‡K
GZUvB †e‡o hvq †h KYvmg~n B”Qvg‡Zv Gw`K-Iw`K Ny‡i
Ges evB‡ii w`‡K †V‡j †`q|
†eovq I AvšÍtAvYweK kw³‡K AwZµg K‡i evB‡i Qwo‡q
G‡K M¨v‡mi Pvc e‡j| Zvc evov‡j Pvc
c‡o|
AviI †e‡o hv‡e †Kb e¨vL¨v Ki|
18 imvqb
2.3 e¨vcb (Diffusion)

m`¨ ˆZwi A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vmRv‡ii XvKbv mwi‡q hw` evqyc~Y© GKwU M¨vmRvi ivL, †`L‡e Dc‡ii M¨vmRv‡i
A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm evqyi mv‡_ wg‡k †M‡Q| cÖgvY¯î~c GKwU jvj wjUgvm †ccvi cÖ‡ek Kiv‡jB †`L‡e Zv bxj is
aviY K‡i‡Q|
evqy
evqy I A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨v‡mi wgkÖY
A¨v‡gvwbqv
M¨vm
wPÎ 2.5: M¨v‡mi g‡a¨ M¨vm KYvi e¨vcb
wb‡Pi cix¶v¸‡jv K¬v‡m `jMZfv‡e Ki :

cix¶vÑ1
1. GKwU †U÷wUD‡e wKQz weï× cvwb bvI|
2. Wªcv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ ax‡i ax‡i K‡qK †duvUv Zij bxj/Kj‡gi Kvwj/Kcvi mvj‡dU `ªeY †hvM Ki|
3. cy‡ivUv cvwb GKB is aviY Ki‡Z KZUv mgq jvMj ch©‡e¶Y K‡i †bvU Ki|
4. Gevi Aci GKwU †U÷wUDe Mig cvwbi weKv‡i ivL Ges 1 I 2 bs cÖwµqvwU m¤úbœ Kivi ci 3 bs cÖwµqvwU
n‡Z KZ mgq jvMj Zv †bvU Ki|
cvwb bxj/Kj‡gi Kvwj/

Kcvi mvj‡dU cvwbi `ªeY
Zij bxj/Kj‡gi Kvwj/

Kcvi mvj‡dU `ªeY
wPÎ 2.6: Zi‡ji g‡a¨ `ªeY KYvi e¨vcb
cix¶vÑ2
1. GKwU †U÷wUD‡e wKQz weï× cvwb bvI| Zv‡Z cUvwmqvg cvig¨v½v‡b‡Ui K‡qKwU ùwUK †hvM Ki|
2. cy‡ivUv cvwb nvjKv †e¸wb is aviY Ki‡Z KZUv mgq jvMj †bvU Ki|
3. Gevi Aci GKwU †U÷wUDe Mig cvwbi weKv‡i ivL Ges mgcwigvY cUvwmqvg cvig¨v½v‡bU I cvwb w`‡q
1 I 2 bs cÖwµqvwU m¤úbœ n‡Z KZ mgq jvMj Zv †bvU Ki| Nwo a‡i mgq bvI|
GB cix¶vwU Zzwg wPwb, Lvevi jeY w`‡qI Ki‡Z cvi| †h‡nZz iwOb bq, ¯^v` wb‡q Zv †`L‡Z n‡e cvwbi mv‡_
wPwb ev je‡Yi KYv¸‡jv wg‡k †M‡Q wK bv|
imvqb 19
cvwb
nvjKv †e¸
wb i‡Oi
cUvwmqvg cvig¨v½v‡b‡Ui
`ªeY
cUvwmqvg cvig¨v½
v‡b‡Ui
ùwUK
wPÎ 2.7: Zi‡ji g‡a¨ KwVb KYvi e¨vcb
cix¶v 1 I 2 bs-Gi †¶‡Î Kx †`L‡j? Zvc cÖ`v‡bi c~‡e© mgq †j‡M‡Q †ewk Ges Zvc cÖ`v‡bi ci mgq
†j‡M‡Q Kg| KYvmg~n Qwo‡q covi nvi 2bs cix¶vi Zzjbvq 1bs cix¶vq †ewk wQj| Avevi ¯^vfvweK cvwbi
Zzjbvq Mig cvwb‡Z KYvmg~n Qwo‡q covi nvi †ewk| Avgiv hw` M¨vmxq c`v_© (A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨v‡mi) cix¶vwU wbR
nv‡Z Ki‡Z cviZvg †`LZvg 1g cix¶vwUi †P‡qI M¨vmxq KYv Qwo‡q covi nvi A‡bK †ewk| Dc‡ii
cix¶v¸‡jv †_‡K Zzwg ZvcgvÎvi mv‡_ e¨vc‡bi nv‡ii m¤úK© wbY©q
wPšÍv Ki :
Ki|
Dc‡ii cix¶vmg~‡ni †¶‡Î †Kv‡bvwU‡ZB †Kv‡bv Pvc cÖ‡qvM Kiv 1. He, H2, CO2 M¨v‡mi †¶‡Î CO2
nqwb| -Gi e¨vcb mgq me‡P‡q †ewk, H2 Gi
†Kv‡bv gva¨‡g KwVb, Zij ev M¨vmxq e¯‘i ¯^Ztù~Z© I mgfv‡e me‡P‡q Kg jvM‡e †Kb? He -Gi
cwie¨vß nIqvi cÖwµqv‡K e¨vcb e‡j| †¶‡Î Kx NU‡e e‡j †Zvgvi aviYv?
Dc‡ii cix¶vmg~n Ges wb‡R‡ì AwfÁZvi Av‡jv‡K wbR wbR 2. Zij I KwV‡bi †¶‡Î Zv‡ci cÖfve
LvZvq e¨vc‡bi wKQz ev¯—e D`vniY wjL| ,0Z==g¥{LP~Ô..["
2.4 wbtmiY (Effusion)

GKwU wnwjqvg M¨vm ev evqyfiv †ejyb bvI| †QvU GKUv wQ`ª Ki| Kx NU‡Q j¶ Ki| wKQz¶‡Yi g‡a¨B †`L‡e
†ejybwU Pzc‡m †M‡Q| †f‡e †`‡LQ, †Kb Ggb n‡jv? M¨v‡mi ev evqyi AYymg~n wQ`ªc‡_ †ewi‡q c‡o‡Q| G‡¶‡Î
wK †Kv‡bv Pvc KvR K‡i‡Q? hw` Pvc KvR K‡i Z‡e †Zv M¨vmxq e¯‘i ¯^Ztù~Z© I mgfv‡e cwie¨vß nIqvi
K_v bq| wQ`ªc_ AYyi ¯^Ztù~Z© MwZ‡K evav †`q| wQ`ª hZ eo n‡Z _v‡K ¯^Ztù~Z©Zv ZZ e„w× †c‡Z _v‡K|
hLb m¤ú~Y© Pvcgy³ nq ZLb e¨vc‡b i~cvšÍwiZ nq|
wnwjqvgM¨vm fiv †ejyb
wQ`ª
wPÎ 2.8: wnwjqvg M¨vmfwZ© †ejyb
wnwjqvg M¨v‡mi Pvc †ejy‡bi †fZ‡i Ges evwn‡i mgvb bq| †ejy‡bi †fZ‡i Pvc †ewk _v‡K| mi“ wQ`ªc‡_ †Kv‡bv
M¨v‡mi AYymg~‡ni D”PPvc †_‡K wb¤œPvc AÂ‡j †ewi‡q Avmvi cÖwµqv‡K wbtmiY e‡j|
D`vniY¯î~c cÖvK…wZK M¨vm ev wg‡_b (CH4) M¨vm‡K AwaK Pvc cÖ‡qvM K‡i wm.Gb.wR (Compressed
20 imvqb
natural gas)Ñ†Z cwiYZ K‡i hvbevn‡bi R¦vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq| Nievwo‡Z R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e
eënv‡ii Rb¨ AwaK Pv‡c wg‡_b Ges widvBbvwi †_‡K cÖvß weD‡Ub I †cÖv‡cb M¨vm wmwjÛv‡i ivLv nq|
nvmcvZv‡j eënv‡ii Rb¨ AwaK Pv‡c Aw·‡Rb M¨vm wmwjÛv‡i f‡i ivLv nq| †Kv‡bvfv‡e wmwjÛvimg~‡n wQ`ª
n‡q †M‡j †`Lv hv‡e m‡Rv‡i M¨vm †ewi‡q Avm‡Q| hv †_‡K wec`RbK Ae¯’vi m„wó n‡Z cv‡i|
GKwU cvKv KuvVvj N‡ii GKwU K‡¶ †i‡L w`‡j Zvi MÜ KuvVv‡ji Z¡‡Ki wQ`ªc‡_ †ei n‡q wewfbœ K‡¶ Qwo‡q
c‡o| Z¡‡Ki wQ`ªc‡_ MÜ †ei n‡q Avmv wbtmiY Ges †ei nIqvi ci wewfbœ K‡¶ Qwo‡q cov e¨vcb|
wPšÍv Ki: †KvbwU †_‡K M¨vm me‡P‡q †ewk `ªyZ †ei“‡e? wg‡_b M¨v‡mi fi I NbZ¡ me‡P‡q Kg, Aw·‡Rb M¨v‡mi
fi I NbZ¡ Zvi †P‡q †ewk| weD‡Ub M¨v‡mi me‡P‡q †ewk| †cÖv‡cb M¨v‡mi fi I NbZ¡ weD‡U‡bi †P‡q Kg|
e¨vcb I wbtmiY e¯‘i fi Ges Nb‡Z¡i Dci wbf©ikxj| e¯‘wUi fi Ges NbZ¡ hZ †ewk n‡e e¨vcb I
wbtmi‡Yi nvi ZZ n«vm cv‡e|
†kªwYi KvR : e¨vcb I wbtm‡Yi ¶wZKi w`K Kx? wbR wbR LvZvq †jL|
2.5 †gv‡gi R¡jb I c`v‡_©i wZb Ae¯’v †gv‡gi
†gvg hLb R¡j‡Z _v‡K ZLb c`v‡_©i wZbwU Ae¯’vB GKmv‡_ †`Lv hvq| †gvg Mj‡Z ïiæ ev®ú
Ki‡j Gi g‡aï myZvwU Zv †kvlY K‡i †bq| myZvi AMÖfv‡M †gvg M¨vmxq Ae¯’v cÖvß nq|
G‡K Avgiv †gv‡gi ev®ú ewj| ZLb evqyi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z †gv‡gi `nb n‡Z _v‡K| hZ¶Y MwjZ
myZvwU _vK‡e ZZ¶Y Zv R¡j‡Z _vK‡e| †h‡nZz †gvg GKwU nvB‡WªvKve©b A_©vr ˆRe †hŠM, †gvg
ch©vß evZv‡mi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z †gv‡gi `n‡bi d‡j Kve©b WvBA·vBW I Rjxqev®ú Drcbœ
nq| KwVb
†gvg + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + H2O (g) + Zvc + Av‡jv
†gvg
2.6 Mjb I ùzUb (Melting and Boiling) wPÎ 2.9 : †gv‡gi R¡jb
c`v‡_©i Mjb I ùzUb wbw`©ó Pv‡c wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq N‡U _v‡K|
cix¶v-1: KwVb c`v‡_©i Mjb
1. wKQy †gvg ¸uov K‡i GKwU Zvcmn KvPb‡j wb‡Z n‡e Ges GKwU KvwV w`‡q
†gvg¸‡jv †V‡j w`‡Z n‡e| weKvi
_v‡g©vwgUvi
2. wP‡Îi g‡Zv K‡i hš¿cvwZ I DcKiY¸‡jv mvRv‡Z n‡e| Mjb-wUD‡ei mv‡_
Mjb-wUDe
_v‡g©vwgUviwU Bjvw÷K e¨v‡Ûi gva¨‡g AvU‡K ivL‡Z n‡e| cvwb
bvovwb
KwVb
3. Aí wkLvq ax‡i ax‡i Zvc w`‡Z n‡e Ges AbeiZ weKv‡ii cvwb‡K bvovwb c`v_©
w`‡q bvo‡Z n‡e| KZ ZvcgvÎvq Zv Mj‡Z ïi“ K‡i Zv †bvU wb‡Z n‡e| Zvc
Mj‡Z ïi“ Ki‡j Zvc mwi‡q wb‡Z n‡e| GK wgwbU ci ci ZvcgvÎv †bvU
Ki‡Z n‡e| wPÎ 2.10 : KwVb c`v‡_©i Mjb
5. cix¶vwU cÖ_g †_‡K †kl ch©šÍ Nwo a‡i 1 wgwbU ci ci mgq I ZvcgvÎv †bvU Ki‡Z n‡e|
6. MÖvd †ccv‡i X-A‡¶ mgq I Y- A‡¶ ZvcgvÎv a‡i eµ‡iLvwU (curve) Gu‡K Zv †_‡K Gi MjbvsK wbY©q
Ki‡Z n‡e|
Mjb cÖwµqvi gva¨‡g GKvwaK KwVb c`v‡_©i wgkÖY †_‡K Dcv`vbmg~n‡K µgvš^‡q c„_K Kiv m¤¢e|
imvqb 21
cix¶v-2 : Zij c`v‡_©i ùzUb

1. wP‡Îi g‡Zv hš¿cvwZ I DcKiY¸‡jv mvRv‡Z n‡e| †Lqvj ivL‡Z n‡e hv‡Z
_v‡g©vwgUviwU cvwb‡Z Wzev‡bv _v‡K| _v‡g©vwgUvi
2. cvwb dzU‡Z ïiy Kiv ch©šÍ Zvc `vI| A_©vr hLb cvwb m‡Rv‡i eyèy` AvKv‡i
dz‡U Rjxqev®úvKv‡i †ewi‡q †h‡Z _v‡K ZLb Zvc †Ìqv eÜ Ki| cvwb
3. m‡e©v”P ZvcgvÎv †bvU Ki| Zvc
4. 1g †_‡K †kl ch©šÍ Nwo a‡i 1 wgwbU ci ci ZvcgvÎv †bvU Ki‡e|

5. MÖvd‡ccvi eënvi K‡i cix¶v-1-Gi g‡Zv ùzU‡bi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Ki | wPÎ 2.11 : Zi‡ji ùzUb
¯^vfvweK Pv‡c (1 atm) †h ZvcgvÎvq †Kv‡bv KwVb c`v_© Zi‡j cwiYZ nq †mB ZvcgvÎv‡K †mB c`v‡_©i
MjbvsK e‡j| (atm = atmosphere ev evqygÐjxq Pvc)
¯^vfvweK Pv‡c (1 atm) †h ZvcgvÎvq †Kv‡bv Zij c`v_© M¨vmxq Ae¯’v cÖvß nq †mB ZvcgvÎv‡K †mB
c`v‡_©i ùzUbvsK e‡j|
140 F E-F- Rjxqev®ú (M¨vm)

120
100
D D-E- cvwb dzU‡Q (Zij I Rjxqev®ú)
E
80
(OC)
C-D- cvwb (Zij)

60
B-C- eid Mj‡Q (eid I cvwb)
ZvcgvÎv
40
20 A-B- eid (KwVb)

B
0
-20
C
A mgq
wPÎ 2.12 : Zvc cÖ`v‡bi eµ‡iLv (heating curve)
Ó]8EF°ZTYLJYDgJ*.YZD.=LMFCYgBLZJN°<fBg.'FYCYEPJaQg.JYvAgTFdB..LYP~|H_
wPšÍv Ki: A-B ch©šÍ ZvcgvÎv cwieZ©b n‡jv, wKš‘ B-C ch©šÍ n‡jv bv| Avevi C-D ch©šÍ ZvcgvÎv
cwieZ©b n‡jv wKš‘ D-E ch©šÍ n‡jv bv| E-F ch©šÍ ZvcgvÎv Avevi evo‡Z _vKj| Zvckw³ cÖ`vb Kiv n‡jv
wKš‘ ZvcgvÎv e„w× †cj bv †Kb?
c`v‡_©i Ae¯’v cwieZ©b‡K wjLv hvq-
Zvc Zvc M¨vm
KwVb Zij M¨vm ùzUbvsK
− Zvc − Zvc
Zij + M¨vm
ZvcgvÎv
MjbvsK
Zij
KwVb +Zij
KwVb
mgq
mvaviY kxZjxKi‡Yi eµ‡iLv (Cooling Curve)
22 imvqb
cÖ‡R± : cvwbi kxZjxKi‡Yi eµ‡iLvwU (cooling curve) cÖ`k©b K‡i wewfbœ we›`y‡Z Gi Ae¯’v
we‡kølY Ki| †Kvb †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq Zvc cÖ`vb Ki‡jI ZvcgvÎv cwieZ©b nq bv eY©bv Ki|
2.7 EaŸ©cvZb
wb‡Pi wPÎwU j¶ Ki :
wPšÍv Ki:
cv‡ki wP‡Îi
Zvc †¶‡Î Zvcxq I
kxZjxKiY
− Zvc eµ‡iLv (curve)
†Kgb n‡Z cv‡i?
wPÎ 2.13: KwVb c`v‡_©i EaŸ©cvZb
eid
Ggb wKQz c`v_© Av‡Q hviv Zv‡c KwVb †_‡K mivmwi M¨vmxq Ae¯’v
cÖvß nq Ges kxZjxKi‡Y M¨vmxq Ae¯’v †_‡K KwV‡b i~cvšÍwiZ nq| KwVb
†hgb, b¨vc_vwjb, Av‡qvwWb, Kc~©i, KwVb CO2 BZ¨vw`| Ae¯’v
M¨vmxq
cix¶v : wP‡Îi g‡Zv hš¿cvwZ mvRvI| cv‡Î wKQz cwigvY Kc~©i Ae¯’v
KwVb
bvI| ax‡i ax‡i weKv‡ii wb‡P Zvc w`‡Z _vK|
Ae¯’v
Kx cwieZ©b †`L‡j LvZvq †bvU Ki| GKB c×wZ‡Z b¨vc_vwjb,
Zvc
Av‡qvwWb‡K Zvc w`‡q KwVb †_‡K M¨v‡m Ges M¨vm †_‡K KwV‡b
i~cvšÍwiZ Ki‡Z cvi| wPÎ 2.14 : DØvqx c`v‡_©i EaŸ©cvZb
EaŸ©cvZb cÖwµqvi gva¨‡g EaŸ©cvwZZ c`v_©‡K Ab¨ c`v_© †_‡K c„_K Kiv hvq|
hw` KwVb c`v_©‡K Zvc w`‡j Zv mivmwi M¨v‡m cwiYZ nq Ges VvÛv Ki‡j mivmwi KwV‡b iƒcvšÍwiZ
nq Z‡e G cÖwµqv‡K EaŸ©cvZb e‡j|
cÖ‡R± : 1. `ywU cv‡Î cvkvcvwk Kc©~i I eid †i‡L bvov‡Z _vK| Kx cwieZ©b j¶ KiQ Ges †Kb? we‡kølY
Ki| `yw`b ci Kx Ae¯’v nq Ges Kx Kvi‡Y nq e¨vL¨v Ki|
imvqb 23
Abykxjbx
1. Kv‡c Mig Pv ivL‡j wb‡Pi †Kvb cÖwµqvwU N‡U?
K. ev®úxfeb L. EaŸ©cvZb
M. e¨vcb N. wbtmiY
2. Rjxqev®ú‡K hLb Nbxfeb Kiv nq, ZLb KYvmg~‡ni †¶‡Î Kx NU‡e?

K. AvKvi msKywPZ n‡e L. PjvPj Ki‡Z _vK‡e
M. GKB Ae¯’v‡b †_‡K Kuvc‡Z _vK‡e N. kw³ wbM©Z Ki‡e
3. wb‡Pi †Kvb wPÎwU EaŸ©cvZ‡bi Rb¨ cÖ‡hvR¨?

K. L.
M. N.
4. ARvbv KwVb e¯‘ Z -Gi Zvcxq eµ‡iLv
250 ARvbv e¯‘ Z -Gi F

Zvcxq eµ‡iLv
C G
(OC)
D
154 H
ZvcgvÎv
54 A B
1 5 6 10 12
mgq (wgwbU)
24 imvqb
c~‡e©i c„ôvi wPÎ n‡Z †evSv hvqÑ

i. Z e¯‘wUi MjbvsK 54qc
ii. Z e¯‘wU DØvqx
iii. A -B IC -D †iLv e¯‘wUi MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK eySvq|

K. i Iii L.ii Iiii
M.i Iiii N. i, ii Iiii
m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1.
evwj IMøy‡KvR
Av‡qvwWb wgwk
ªZ Lv`¨ jeY
K-c
vÎ L-c
vÎ
K. e¨vcb Kv‡K e‡j?

L. ewW †¯úª‡Z e¨vcb I wbtmi‡Yi g‡a¨ †KvbwU Av‡M N‡U?
M. ZvcgvÎv evov‡Z _vK‡j DÏxc‡Ki †Kvb c`v_©wU mevi Av‡M ev®úxf~Z n‡e? KviY
e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. K-cv‡Îi Dcv`vb I L-cv‡Îi Dcv`vb¸‡jv‡K c„_KxKi‡Y GKB c×wZi eënvi m¤¢e wK
bvÑ hyw³mn e¨vL¨v Ki|
imvqb 25
2.
40 †m.wg 60 †m.wg
A B
Zzjvq wm³ Nb nvB‡W&ªv‡Rb KwVb mv`v ejq Zzjvq wm³ Nb

†K¬vivBW A¨v‡gvwbqv
K. wbtmiY Kx?
L. GKB c`v‡_©i MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK wfbœ †Kb?
M. DÏxc‡Ki cÖwµqvwU †Kvb ai‡bi cwieZ©bÑ e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. Drcbœ mv`v †auvqv A cÖv‡šÍi KvQvKvwQ Drcbœ nIqvi †hŠw³K KviY e¨vL¨v Ki|
Z…Zxq Aa¨vq
c`v‡_©i MVb
c„w_ex‡Z hZ c`v_© Av‡Q meB AwZ ¶z`ª KwYKv w`‡q ˆZwi| Giv GZB ¶z`ª †h AwZ D”P ¶gZvm¤úbœ AYyex¶Y
hš¿ ØvivI †`Lv hvq bv| †gŠwjK c`v‡_©i ¶z`ªZg KwYKvi bvg cigvYy Ges †hŠwMK c`v‡_©i ¶z`ªZg KwYKvi bvg
AYy| cÖwZwU cigvYyiB wbR¯^ êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q| cigvYyi cÖavb êwkó¨ n‡jv, G‡ì wbR wbR cvigvYweK msL¨v|
cigvYy I AYyi Av‡cw¶K Ges cªK…Z fi i‡q‡Q| †cÖvUb, B‡jKUªb I wbDUªb cigvYyi cÖavb KwYKv| cigvYyi
†K‡›`ª †cÖvUb I wbDUªb wb‡q MwVZ wbDwK¬qvmB Zvi cÖvq mKj fi enb K‡i| †cÖvU‡bi mgmsL¨K B‡jKUªb
wbDwK¬qv‡mi Pviw`‡K wewfbœ K¶c‡_ Ny‡i †eovq| GKB †gŠ‡ji Avevi GKvwaK fimsL¨vwewkó cigvYy i‡q‡Q
hv‡ì AvB‡mv‡Uvc ejv nq| gvbeRxe‡b wewfbœ †¶‡Î AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci eënvi e¨vcK|
O H H
GB Aa¨vq cvV †k‡l AvgivÑ

(1) †gŠ‡ji Bs‡iwR bvg †_‡K Zvi cÖZxK wjL‡Z cvie|
(2) †gŠwjK I ¯’vqx KwYKv¸‡jvi êwkó¨ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(3) cvigvYweK msL¨v, fimsL¨v, Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi †_‡K Av‡cw¶K AvYweK fi wnmve Ki‡Z cvie|
(5) cigvYyi B‡jKUªb, †cÖvUb I wbDUªb wnmve Ki‡Z cvie|
(6) AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci eënvi e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(7) cigvYyi MVb m¤ú‡K© iv`vi‡dvW© I †evi cigvYy g‡W‡ji eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(8) iv`vi‡dvW© I †evi cigvYy g‡W‡ji g‡a¨ †KvbwU †ewk MÖnY‡hvM¨ Zvi e¨vL¨v w`‡Z cvie|
(9) K¶c‡_ Ges K¶c‡_i wewfbœ Dc¯Í‡i cigvYyi B‡jKUªbmg~n‡K web¨vm Ki‡Z cvie|
imvqb 27
3.1 †gŠj
bvB‡Uªv‡Rb dmdivm Kve©b
Aw·‡Rb wnwjqvg K¨vjwmqvg

AvM©b g¨vM‡bwmqvg mvjdvi
QK 3.1 : wewfbœ †gŠ‡ji bvg
Dc‡i wKQz †gŠ‡ji bvg †Ìqv n‡jv| G‡ì cigvYyi cÖZxK I cvigvYweK msL¨v †jL
†gŠ‡ji bvg cÖZxK cvigvYweK msL¨v
wb‡R Ki : †gŠjmg~‡ni
B‡jKUªb web¨vm Ki|
QK 3.2 : †gŠ‡ji bvg, cÖZxK I cvigvYweK msL¨v

QK 3.2 G †Zvgvi †jLv cÖZxK¸‡jv wb‡Pi wbqgvewji mv‡_ wgwj‡q bvI|
3.2 †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK (Symbol of Elements)
imvq‡b cÖwZwU †gŠ‡ji cigvYy‡K GKwU cÖZx‡Ki (Symbol) mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk Kiv nq| †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK‡K Bs‡iwR
eY©gvjvi GKwU eY© ev `ywU e‡Y©i gva¨‡g cÖKvk Kiv nq|
KvR : ch©vq mviwY †_‡K wewfbœ c×wZ eënvi
†gŠ‡ji Bs‡iwR bv‡gi cÖ_g eY© (Capital Letter) A_ev
K‡i †gŠ‡ji cÖZx‡Ki ZvwjKv ˆZwi K‡i
Bs‡iwR bv‡gi cÖ_g e‡Y©i (Capital Letter) Gi mv‡_
wk¶K‡K †`LvI|
wØZxq ev Z…Zxq eY© ev Ab¨ †Kv‡bv eY© (Small Letter)
G wj‡L †gŠ‡ji cigvYy‡K cÖKvk Kiv nq| `ywU eY© Øviv †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK †jLv n‡j †gŠ‡ji Bs‡iwR bv‡gi cÖ_g eY©
Ges D”Pvi‡Yi mgq cieZ©x †h eY©wU †ewk D”PvwiZ nq Zv‡K cvkvcvwk wj‡L cÖZxK †jLv nq|
cÖ_g e‡Y©i cÖZxK cÖ_g I wØZxq e‡Y©i cÖZxK cÖ_g I Z…Zxq e‡Y©i cÖZxK
Bs‡iwR bvg cÖZxK Bs‡iwR bvg cÖZxK Bs‡iwR bvg cÖZxK
Hydrogen H Aluminium Al Chlorine Cl
Boron B Cobalt Co Zinc Zn
Carbon C Bromine Br Chromium Cr
Oxygen O Nickel Ni Manganese Mn
QK 3.3: †gŠ‡ji Bs‡iwR bvg †_‡K †bIqv wewfbœ cÖZxK

28 imvqb
†Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi cÖZxK Zvi Bs‡iwR bvg †_‡K bv wj‡L †gŠ‡ji j¨vwUb bvg †_‡K †jLv nq|
†gŠ‡ji Bs‡iwR bvg †gŠ‡ji j¨vwUb bvg †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK

Sodium Natrium Na
Copper Cuprum Cu
Potassium Kalium K
Lead Plumbum Pb
QK 3.4: †gŠ‡ji j¨vwUb bvg †_‡K †bIqv K‡qKwU cÖZxK
3.3 cigvYyi KwYKvmg~n
cigvYy‡Z †cÖvUb, B‡jKUªb I wbDUªbmn wewfbœ KwYKv i‡q‡Q| GB 3wU cigvYyi ¯’vqx KwYKv| ¯^vfvweK
Ae¯’vq cigvYyi †cÖvUb I B‡jKUªb msL¨v mgvb _v‡K| wbDUªb msL¨v KL‡bv mgvb Avevi KL‡bv †ewk _v‡K|
wfbœ wfbœ †gŠ‡ji cÖwZwU cigvYyB GKB êwk‡óï AwaKvix| †cÖvUb I wbDUª‡bi Av‡cw¶K fi mgvb, B‡jKUª‡bi
Av‡cw¶K fi 1wU †cÖvUb ev 1wU wbDUª‡bi 1 fv‡Mi mgvb| A_©vr GZ Kg †h Gi fi †bB ej‡jB P‡j|
1840
Z‡e cÖwZwU KwYKviB cÖK…Z fi i‡q‡Q|
KwYKv cÖZxK Av‡cw¶K fi Av‡cw¶K cÖK…Z fi cÖK…Z Avavb
Avavb
†cÖvUb p 1 +1 1. 67 u 10- 24 MÖvg 1. 60 u 10 - 19
Kzj¤^
wbDUªb n 1 0 1. 675u 10 - 24
MÖvg 0
B‡jKUªb e 1 -1 9. 11u 10 - 28
MÖvg - 1. 60 u 10 - 19
1840 Kzj¤^
QK 3.5: wewfbœ KwYKvi fi I Avavb
cigvYyi †K‡›`ª _v‡K wbDwK¬qvm| wbDwK¬qv‡m Ae¯’vb K‡i †cÖvUb I wbDUªb| G‡ì mgwó‡K wbDwK¬qb msL¨v
e‡j; hv‡K fimsL¨vI ejv nq|
cigvYyi †cÖvUb msL¨v‡K ejv nq cvigvYweK msL¨v hv GKwU cigvYyi wbR¯^ mËv ev Zvi cwiPq|
wjw_qvg cigvYyi B‡jKUªb/†cÖvUb msL¨v 3, wbDUªb msL¨v 4| wbDwK¬qv‡m abvZ¥K Avavbwewkó †cÖvUb I Avavb
wbi‡c¶ wbDUªb _v‡K| wbDwK¬qv‡mi evB‡i Pviw`‡K wewfbœ kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªbmg~n wbR¯^ kw³ Abyhvqx wewfbœ
K¶c‡_ Ae¯’vb wb‡q Nyi‡Z _v‡K|
wb‡P wjw_qvg (Li) cigvYywUi MVbwPÎ †Ìqv n‡jv:
B‡jKUªb
kw³¯Íi
wbDwK¬qvm wbDUªb
†cÖvUb
wPÎ 3.1: wjw_qvg cigvYyi MVb

imvqb 29
†gŠj †cÖvUb/B‡jKUªb wbDUªb

msL¨v msL¨v
B 5 6
N 7 7
Mg 12 12
QK 3.6: wewfbœ †gŠ‡ji †cÖvUb I wbDUªb msL¨v
3.6 Q‡Ki Z_¨ †_‡K wbDwK¬qv‡m †cÖvUb I wbDUªb Ges wewfbœ ¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb web¨vm K‡i cigvYymg~‡ni MVb
wPÎ A¼b Ki (KvRwU `jMZfv‡e Ki)|
3.4 cigvYy cwiwPwZ
†cÖvUb msL¨v (cvigvYweK msL¨v) I wbDwK¬qb msL¨v (fimsL¨v)
mKj †gŠ‡jiB wbR¯^ †cÖvUb msL¨v Ges wbDwK¬qb msL¨v Av‡Q| †cÖvUb msL¨v ev cvigvYweK msL¨v‡K Z Øviv I
fimsL¨v‡K A Øviv wPwýZ Kiv nq|
D`vniY wn‡m‡e awi, A¨vjywgwbqv‡gi (Al) †cÖvUb msL¨v 13 Ges wbDwK¬qb msL¨v 27| wbDUªb msL¨v n‡e
27(A) -13(Z) = 14
msw¶ßfv‡e G‡K wbgœi~‡c cÖKvk Kiv nqÑ
wbDwK¬qb/fi msL¨v (A)
27
13
Al †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK
†cÖvUb/cvigvYweK msL¨v (Z)
QK 3.7-G ch©vq mviwYi cÖ_g 10wU †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi cvigvYweK msL¨v I fimsL¨v †Ìqv n‡jv| Zv †_‡K
B‡jKUªb, †cÖvUb I wbDUªb msL¨v wbY©q Ki Ges G‡ì msw¶ß cÖKvk †jL:
KZUzKz eyS‡j wb‡R‡K
†gŠ‡ji cvigvYweK fi †cÖvUb B‡jKUªb wbDUªb msw¶ß
cix¶v Ki :
cÖZxK msL¨v msL¨v msL¨v msL¨v msL¨v cÖKvk
(Z ) (A) (A-Z ) 1. †cÖvUb msL¨v ej‡Z
1
H 1 1 1 1 1- 1=0 1 H Kx †evSvq e¨vL¨v Ki|
4
He 2 4 2 2 4- 2=2 2 He 2. wbDwK¬qb msL¨v I
Li 3 7 fimsL¨v wK GK?
e¨vL¨v Ki|
Be 4 9
3. wb‡Pi ms‡KZ †_‡K
B 5 11 cvigvYweK msL¨v,
C 6 12 †cÖvUb, B‡jKUªb I
N 7 14 wbDUªb msL¨v wbY©q
Ki|
O 8 16 31
28
14 Si , 15 p, 178 O, 39
19 K ,
F 9 19 14
6 C , 64
29 Cu ,
56
26 Fe
Ne 10 20
QK 3.7: wewfbœ cigvYyi msw¶ß cÖKvk
30 imvqb
3.5 AvB‡mv‡Uvc
wb‡Pi Q‡K nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi wZb ai‡bi cigvYyi MVb, cÖZxK, wbDUªb msL¨v ch©vßZvi kZKiv cwigvY †Ìqv n‡jv:
bvg cigvYy wPÎ cÖZxK wbDUb msL¨v ch©vßZvi kZKiv cwigvY
1
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb 1 H 0 99.98
ev
†cÖvwUqvg
2
1 H
wWD‡Uwiqvg 1 0.015
A_ev
2
1 D
3
1 H †ZRw¯ŒqZvi gva¨‡g
wUªwUqvg 2
A_ev Drcbœ nq Ges cÖK…wZ‡Z Lye
3
1 T mvgvb¨ cwigvY cvIqv hvq
QK 3.8 : nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi wZbwU ¯’vqx AvB‡mv‡Uvc
hwÌ nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi 7wU AvB‡mv‡Uvc (1H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H) Av‡Q G‡ì g‡a¨ wZbwU cÖK…wZ‡Z
cvIqv hvq| Aewkó PviwU M‡elYvMv‡i ms‡kølY Kiv nq|
wPšÍv Ki :
x QKwU‡K we‡kølY K‡i Zzwg Kx eyS‡j?
x cÖwZwU cigvYyi †cÖvUb I B‡jKUªb msL¨v KZ? cÖwZwU cigvYyi fimsL¨v ev wbDwK¬qb msL¨v KZ?
x fimsL¨v cwieZ©‡bi KviY Kx?
x mewKQz we‡kølY K‡i Zzwg Kx wm×vš— wb‡Z cvi?
wewfbœ fimsL¨vwewkó GKB †gŠ‡ji cigvYy‡K ci¯ú‡ii AvB‡mv‡Uvc e‡j| †hgb, †K¬vwi‡bi `yÕwU AvB‡mv‡Uvc
n‡jv 35Cl I 37Cl| wbDUªb msL¨vi wfbœZvi Kvi‡Y Zv nq| GKB †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi †cÖvUb ev B‡jKUªb msL¨v
KL‡bv cwieZ©b nq bv|
3.6 Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi
nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi wZb ai‡bi AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci kZKiv ch©vßZvi cwigvY‡K Mo Ki‡j Gi fi cvIqv hvq 1.008|
G‡K Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi|
j¶ Ki‡j †`L‡e, A‡bK cigvYyi cvigvYweK fi c~Y© msL¨vq bv †_‡K `kwgK fMœvs‡k †`Lv hvq| †hgb,
†K¬vwi‡bi Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi 35.5| †K¬vwi‡bi 2wU AvB‡mv‡Uvc i‡q‡Q Ges ch©vßZvi w`K †_‡K 35Cl
I 37Cl -Gi kZKiv cwigvY h_vµ‡g 75% I 25% | †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji GKvwaK AvB‡mv‡Uvc cÖK…wZ‡Z _vK‡j,
Zv‡ì wbR wbR kZKiv cwigvY I f‡ii ¸Yd‡ji mgwó‡K 100 Øviv fvM Ki‡j Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK wVK fi
cvIqv hvq|
imvqb 31
Kxfv‡e †K¬vwi‡bi Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi wbY©q Kiv nq Zv wb‡P †`Lv‡bv n‡jv:

35 37
AvB‡mv‡Uvc Cl Cl
fimsL¨v 35 37
kZKiv cwigvY 75 25
Av‡cw¶K (35u75) + (37u25) = 35.5
cvigvYweK fi 100
QK 3.9: †K¬vwi‡bi Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi
†Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji GKwU cigvYyi fi nvB‡WªvR‡bi GKwU cigvYyi f‡ii Zzjbvq hZ¸Y fvwi Zv‡K H †gŠ‡ji
Av‡cwÿK cvigvYweK fi e‡j| †hgb, Aw·‡R‡bi Av‡cwÿK cvigvYweK fi 16|
†gŠ‡ji GKwU cigvYyi fi
†gŠ‡ji Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi =
nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi GKwU cigvYyi fi
eZ©gv‡b Kve©b-12 AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci f‡ii 1 Ask‡K cvigvYweK f‡ii cÖgvY wn‡m‡e MÖnY K‡i‡Qb| AvaywbK
12
msÁvbymv‡iÑ †gŠ‡ji GKwU cigvYyi fi
†gŠ‡ji Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi = 1
GKwU Kve©b 12 AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci f‡ii Ask
12
wkÿv_©xi KvR : GB msÁv †_‡K e¨vL¨v Ki, Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK f‡ii †Kb GKK _v‡K bv? †Kb G‡K Av‡cw¶K fi ejv nq?
D‡jøL¨, ch©vq mviwY‡Z cigvYymg~‡ni †h cvigvYweK fi †Ìqv n‡q‡Q Zv mKjB Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK
fi|
Dc‡ii m~Î eënvi K‡i †Zvgiv cigvYy¯’ †cÖvUb I wbDU‡bi cÖK…Z f‡ii (MÖvg GK‡K) mgwó‡K Kve©b-12
1
AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci f‡ii 12 Ask w`‡q fvM Ki‡jB †mB cigvYyi Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi wbY©q Ki‡Z cvi|
1 -24
D‡jøL¨, Kve©b-12 AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci f‡ii 12 As‡ki fi n‡jv 1.66u10 MÖvg|
KvR: 1. Al Gi †cÖvUb msL¨v 13, Gi GKwU cigvYyi fi hw` 4.482u10-23 MÖvg nq Z‡e Gi Av‡cw¶K
cvigvYweK fi KZ?
2. Mg Gi †cÖvUb msL¨v 12 Ges Gi wbDUªb msL¨v 12| Mg Gi Av‡cwÿK cvigvYweK fi wbY©q Ki|
3.7 Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi †_‡K Av‡cw¶K AvYweK fi
Avgiv Rvwb, Aw·‡R‡bi Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi 16
Zvn‡j Aw·‡Rb AYyi (O2) Av‡cw¶K AvYweK fi KZ n‡e?
GKwU Aw·‡Rb AYy Aw·‡R‡bi 2wU cigvYy wb‡q MwVZ|
(O2) Gi Av‡cw¶K AvYweK fi n‡e
16u2 = 32 [16 n‡jv Aw·‡R‡bi Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi Ges 2 n‡jv Aw·‡R‡bi GKwU AYy‡Z cigvYyi msL¨v]|
GKB fv‡e CO 2 , N 2 , HCl, H 2SO 4 BZ¨vwì Av‡cw¶K AvYweK fi wbY©q Ki|

GwU †kÖwYi KvR wn‡m‡e wbR wbR LvZvq Ki|
wPšÍv Ki : Kxfv‡e Dc‡ii aviYv eënvi K‡i GKwU cigvYyi fi I GKwU AYyi fi wbY©q Ki‡Z
cvi| Dfq †¶‡Î MÖvg GK‡K fi cvIqv hv‡e|
32 imvqb
3.8 †ZRw¯Œq AvB‡mv‡Uvc I Zv‡ì eënvi

e e e
n
p pn pn
1H 2H 3H
1 1 1
wPÎ 3.2: nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi wZbwU ¯’vqx AvB‡mv‡Uvc
Avgiv c~‡e©B Dc‡iv³ wZbwU AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci K_v †R‡bwQ| cÖK…wZ‡Z cvIqv hvq Ggb ai‡bi eû AvB‡mv‡Uvc
Av‡Q †hgb :
13
C, 14 C, 87 Rb , 90 Sr , 115
In , 130 Te , 131 I , 137 Cs , 138 La , 147 Sm, 148 Sm, 176 Lu , 187 Re, 186 Os, 222 Rn , 226 Ra ,
234
235
Th , 232 Th Ges U †_‡K 238 U ch©šÍ BZ¨vw`|
GQvovI wewfbœ †¶‡Î eënv‡ii Rb¨ K…wÎg Dcv‡q eû AvB‡mv‡Uvc ˆZwi Kiv nq|
cÖvK…wZK I K…wÎg Dcv‡q ˆZwi AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci msL¨v 1300 Qvwo‡q‡Q| G‡ì g‡a¨ wKQz myw¯’Z Ges †ewki fvM
Aw¯’Z| Aw¯’Z AvB‡mv‡Uvç‡jv wewfbœ ai‡bi iwk¥ †hgbÑ (D-Avjdv, E-weUv, J-Mvgv) wewKiY K‡i GKB
†gŠ‡ji Ab¨ AvB‡mv‡Uvc A_ev Ab¨ †gŠ‡ji AvB‡mv‡Uv‡c cwiYZ nq| †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi GB ag©‡K †ZRw¯ŒqZv
e‡j| G ai‡bi AvB‡mv‡Uvç‡jv‡K †ZRw¯Œq AvB‡mv‡Uvc e‡j| cÖK…Zc‡¶ G mKj cigvYyi wbDwK¬qv‡m
cwieZ©b N‡U| wbDwK¬qv‡m cwieZ©b N‡U e‡j G cÖwµqv‡K wbDwK¬qvi wewµqv e‡j| cigvYy †_‡K wbM©Z iwk¥mg~n
AwaK MwZm¤úbœ| Mvgv (J) iwk¥ RxešÍ †Kv‡li ¶wZ mvab K‡i| wbDK¬xqvi wewµqvi gva¨‡g Gme †ZRw¯Œq
AvB‡mv‡Uvc ˆZwi Kiv nq| 238 234 4
92 Uo 90 Th + 2 He + Mvgv iwk¥
†ZRw¯Œq AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci eënvi

1. wPwKrmv‡¶‡Î : G †¶‡Î †ZRw¯Œq AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci `yÕ ai‡bi eënvi i‡q‡Q:
(K) †Kv‡bv †ivM ev †ivMvµvšÍ ¯’vb wbY©q
(L) †ivM wbivgq
(i) †`‡ni nvo †e‡o hvIqv Ges †Kv_vq, †Kb e¨_v n‡”Q Zv wbY©‡qi Rb¨ Tc-99m ev 99mTc (Isotope of
Technetium) B‡ÄKkb w`‡j †ek wKQz mgq c‡i c`©vq †`Lv hvq nv‡oi †Kv_vq Kx ai‡bi mgm¨v Av‡Q|
99m
Tc †_‡K Mvgv iwk¥ wbM©Z nq| fi msL¨vi c‡i ÔmÕ Øviv AvB‡mv‡Uv‡ci †gUv÷¨vej (metastable)
Ae¯’v cÖKvk K‡i| 99mTc †_‡K Mvgv iwk¥ wbM©Z nIqvi ci 99Tc fiwewkó AvB‡mv‡Uvc Drcbœ nq|
99m 99
( Tc o Tc + J)
153 89
Sm A_ev Sr eënvi K‡i nv‡oi e¨_vi wPwKrmv Kiv nq|
imvqb 33
(ii) wUDgv‡ii Dcw¯’wZ wbY©q I Zv wbivg‡q †ZRw¯Œq AvB‡mv‡Uvc eënvi Kiv nq| wbivg‡qi Rb¨
60
Co †_‡K wbM©Z Mvgv iwk¥ wb‡¶c K‡i K¨vÝvi †KvlKjv‡K aŸsm Kiv nq|
131
(iii) I, _vBi‡qW MÖwš’i †Kvl-Kjv e„w× cÖwZnZ K‡i|
(iv) i‡³i wjD‡Kvwgqv †iv‡Mi wPwKrmvq 32P Gi dm‡dU eëüZ nq|
238
(v) Pu nv‡U© †cBm‡gKvi emv‡Z eënvi Kiv nq|
AviI wewfbœ ai‡bi K¨vÝvi wbivg‡q 131Cs, 192Ir, 125I, 103Pd, 106Ru, eëüZ nq|
2. K…wl‡¶‡Î : †ZRw¯Œq iwk¥ eënvi K‡i K…wl‡¶‡Î bZzb bZzb DbœZ gv‡bi exR D™¢veb Kiv n‡”Q Ges Gi
gva¨‡g dj‡bi gv‡bi DbœwZ I cwigvY evov‡bv n‡”Q| †ZRw¯Œq 32P hy³ dm‡dU `ªeY Dw™¢‡ì g~javivq m~wPZ
Kiv nq| MvBMvi KvD›Uv‡ii gva¨‡g cy‡iv Dw™¢‡` Gi PjvPj wPwýZ K‡i Kx †KŠk‡j (mechanism) dmdivm
eënvi K‡i Dw™¢` †e‡o D‡V Zv weÁvbxiv Rvb‡Z cv‡ib|
MvBMvi KvD›Uvi : GwU

GKwU hš¿, hvi mvnv‡h¨
†ZRw¯Œq †gŠj †_‡K
wewKwiZ iwk¥ ev KYv
kbv³ Kiv nq|
wPÎ 3.3 : Dw™¢‡` 32P eënvi
3. Lv`¨ msi¶‡Y : mKj cÖKvi kvK-mewR, dj mwVK msi¶‡Yi Afv‡e ev ivbœvcÖwµqv mwVK bv n‡j wewfbœ
ai‡bi ¶wZKi e¨vK‡Uwiqvi Rb¥ nq hv Avgv‡ì kix‡ii Rb¨ ¶wZKi| †¶Îwe‡k‡l g„Zzï KviY ch©šÍ n‡Z
cv‡i| mvaviYZ 60Co †_‡K †h Mvgv iwk¥ wbM©Z nq Zv Gme ¶wZKi e¨vK‡Uwiqv‡K †g‡i †d‡j| †cvjwUª dv‡g©I
G iwk¥ eënvi Kiv nq hLb †Kv‡bv e¨vK‡UwiqvRwbZ †iv‡Mi D™¢e N‡U| GKwU wbw`©ó gvÎvi †ZRw¯Œq iwk¥
cÖ‡qvM K‡i Lv`¨ msi¶Y Kiv nq| AwZwi³ †ZRw¯Œq iwk¥ eënvi Kiv ¯^v‡¯’ï Rb¨ gvivZ¥K ¶wZKi|
Lv`¨`ª‡e¨ †ZRw¯Œq iwk¥ Aek¨B cwiwgZ gvÎvq msiw¶Z ¯’v‡b cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e| cwiwgZ gvÎvq G †ZRw¯Œq
iwk¥ (Mvgv iwk¥) m~‡h©i Av‡jvi b¨vq wbivc`|
g„Z e¨vK‡Uwiqv
Mvgv iwk¥
wPÎ 3.4: †ZRw¯Œq iwk¥ eënvi K‡i Lv`¨`ªe¨ msi¶Y

34 imvqb
4. we`y¨r Drcv`‡b: AvB‡mv‡Uvcmg~n ¶‡qi mgq ev wbDwK¬q wewµqvi mgq cÖPzi cwigv‡Y Zvc Drcbœ K‡i| GB
Zvckw³‡K wewfbœ wWfvBm eënvi K‡i we`y¨rkw³‡Z i~cvšÍwiZ Kiv nq| c„w_exi wewfbœ †`‡k cvigvYweK Pzwjø‡Z
wbDwK¬q wewµqvi gva¨‡g cÖPzi cwigv‡Y we`y¨r Drcbœ Kiv nq|
GQvovI KxUcZ½ wbqš¿‡Y, wkí‡¶‡Î, avZe cv‡Zi cyiyZ¡ cwigv‡c, e×cv‡Î Zi‡ji D”PZv cwigv‡c, cvBc
jvB‡b wQ`ª A‡š^l‡Y †ZRw¯Œq AvB‡mv‡Uvc eënvi Kiv nq| dwmj gwgmn c„w_exi hveZxq e¯‘i eqm, GgbwK
c„w_exi eqm wba©vi‡Y †ZRw¯Œq AvB‡mv‡Uvc (14C) eënvi Kiv hvq|
†ZRw¯Œq AvB‡mv‡Uvc eënv‡ii cÖfve :
†ZRw¯Œq c`v_© †_‡K wewfbœ ai‡bi iwk¥ wbM©Z nq| GB c`v_©mg~‡ni †Kv‡bvwUi mgq-Kvj (life time) Kg,
†Kv‡bvwUi †ewk| †ZRw¯ŒqZv K¨vÝvi nIqvi we‡kl GKwU KviY| mwVK gvÎvq GwU eënvi Kiv gvby‡li Rb¨
Kj¨vYKi|
K¨vÝvi wbivg‡q †K‡gv‡_ivwc †Ìqv nq| G †K‡gv‡_ivwc‡Z †ZRw¯Œq c`v_© eënvi nq| †K‡gv‡_ivwci d‡j gv_vi
Pzj c‡o hvq, ewg ewg fve nq| G †_ivwc A‡bK mgq Avgv‡ì Rb¨ cª‡qvRbxq e¨vK‡Uwiqv‡KI †g‡i †d‡j|
wbDwK¬q wewµqv n‡Z cÖvß wbDwK¬q kw³ †hgb aŸsmvZ¥K Kv‡R eënvi nq †Zgwb we`y¨r Drcv`‡bI eëüZ nq|
wn‡ivwmgv I bvMvmvwK‡Z wbw¶ß GUg †evgvmn me ai‡bi cvigvYweK †evgvi kw³i Drm wbDwK¬q wewµqv| wKš‘
eZ©gv‡b wbDwK¬q kw³ eënvi K‡i we‡k¦ cÖPzi cwigvY we`y¨r Drcv`b Kiv nq|
3.9 cigvYyi g‡Wj
3.9 (K) iv`vi‡dvW© cigvYy g‡Wj: †mŠi g‡Wj
1911 wLªóv‡ã Avjdv KYv (wnwjqvg wbDwK¬qvm) we”QyiY cix¶vi wm×v‡šÍi Dci wfwË K‡i iv`vi‡dvW© cigvYyi
MVb m¤ú‡K© GKwU g‡Wj cÖ`vb K‡ib| Zv wbgœi~c:
(1) cigvYyi †K›`ª¯’‡j GKwU abvZ¥K Avavbwkó fvix e¯‘ we`¨gvb| GB fvix e¯‘‡K cigvYyi †K›`ª ev
wbDwK¬qvm ejv nq| cigvYyi †gvU AvqZ‡bi Zzjbvq wbDwK¬qv‡mi AvqZb AwZ bMY¨| wbDwK¬qv‡m cigvYyi
mg¯Í abvZ¥K Avavb I cÖvq mg¯Í fi †K›`ªxf~Z _v‡K|
(2) cigvYy we`y¨rwbi‡c¶| AZGe wbDwK¬qv‡mi abvZ¥K Avavbhy³ KYv msL¨vi mgvb msL¨K FYvZ¥K Avavbhy³
B‡jKUªb cigvYyi wbDwK¬qvm‡K cwi‡eób K‡i iv‡L|
(3) †mŠiRM‡Zi m~‡h©i Pviw`‡K N~Y©vqgvb MÖnmg~‡ni g‡Zv cigvYyi B‡jKUªb¸‡jv wbDwK¬qv‡mi Pviw`‡K Aweivg
Nyi‡Q| abvZ¥K Avavbwewkó wbDwK¬qvm I FYvZ¥K Avavbwewkó B‡jKUªbmg~‡ni cvi¯úwiK w¯’i ê`y¨wZK
AvKl©YRwbZ †K›`ªgyLx ej Ges N~Y©vqgvb B‡jKUª‡bi †K›`ª-ewng©yLx ej ci¯úi mgvb|
wPÎ 3.5: iv`vi‡dv‡W©i cigvYy g‡Wj

imvqb 35
`jMZfv‡e KvR Ki : iv`vi‡dv‡W©i cigvYy g‡W‡ji cÖwZwU cÖ¯Ívebv fv‡jvfv‡e we‡kølY Ki Ges Gi g‡a¨
Kx Kx mxgve×Zv †c‡j Zv wjL|
`jMZfv‡e cvIqv mxgve×Zv¸‡jvi mv‡_ wb‡Pi mxgve×Zv¸‡jv wgwj‡q †`L:

mxgve×Zvmg~n n‡jv :
1. †mŠigÛ‡ji MÖnmg~n mvgwMÖKfv‡e Avavbwenxb A_P B‡jKUªbmg~n FYvZ¥K Avavbhy³|
2. g¨v·I‡q‡ji ZË¡vbymv‡i †Kv‡bv Avavbhy³ e¯‘ ev KYv †Kv‡bv e„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyi‡Z _vK‡j Zv µgvMZ kw³
wewKiY Ki‡e Ges Zvi AveZ©bPµI ax‡i ax‡i †QvU n‡Z _vK‡e| myZivs B‡jKUªbmg~n µgk kw³ nviv‡Z
nviv‡Z wbDwK¬qv‡m cÖ‡ek Ki‡e| A_©vr iv`vi‡dv‡W©i cigvYy g‡Wj Abymv‡i cigvYy m¤ú~Y©fv‡e GKwU
A¯’vqx Ae¯’v cÖvß n‡e| A_P cigvYy n‡Z µgvMZ kw³ wewKiY ev B‡jKUª‡bi wbDwK¬qv‡m cÖ‡ek KLbB
N‡U bv|
3. cigvYyi eY©vwj MV‡bi †Kv‡bv myôz e¨vL¨v G g‡Wj w`‡Z cv‡i bv|
4. AveZ©bkxj B‡jKUª‡bi K¶c‡_i AvKvi I AvK„wZ m¤^‡Ü †Kv‡bv aviYv iv`vi‡dv‡W©i g‡W‡j †Ìqv nqwb|
5. GKvwaK B‡jKUªbwewkó cigvYy‡Z B‡jKUªb¸‡jv wbDwK¬qvm‡K Kxfv‡e cwiågY K‡i Zvi †Kv‡bv D‡jøL G
g‡W‡j †bB|
+ e-
wPÎ 3.6: AveZ©bkxj B‡jKUªb Gi m¤¢ve¨ µgvMZ kw³ wewKiY I wbDwK¬qv‡m cZb
3.9 (L) †evi cigvYy g‡Wj

cigvYyi MVb Ges GKB mv‡_ cvigvYweK eY©vwj e¨vL¨vi Rb¨ bxjm †evi (Neils Bohr)
1913 mv‡j Zuvi weL¨vZ cigvYy g‡Wj cÖKvk K‡ib| G g‡W‡ji ¯^xKvh©mg~n n‡jv:
1. wbDwK¬qvm‡K †K›`ª K‡i e„ËvKvi c‡_ B‡jKUªbmg~n Nyi‡Z _v‡K|
2. wbDwK¬qv‡mi Pviw`‡K e„ËvKvi KZ¸‡jv w¯’i K¶c_ Av‡Q hv‡Z Ae¯’vb wb‡q B‡jKUªbmg~n Nyi‡Z _v‡K|
G¸‡jv‡K kw³¯Íi ev AiweU ejv nq| kw³¯Íimg~n‡K KwíZ msL¨v n -Gi gvb Abymv‡i K, L, M, N Øviv cÖKvk
36 imvqb
Kiv nq| cÖ_g kw³¯Íi‡K (n = 1), K kw³¯Íi Ges 2q kw³¯Íi‡K (n = 2) L kw³¯Íi e‡j| Gfv‡e n -Gi
gvb 3, 4, 5 BZ¨vw` c~Y©msL¨v gv‡b e„w× †c‡Z _v‡K Ges kw³¯Íimg~n‡K h_vµ‡g M, N, O Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
GKwU wbw`©ó kw³¯Í‡i Ae¯’vbKv‡j B‡jKUªbmg~n kw³ †kvlY A_ev wewKiY K‡i bv|
3. hLb †Kv‡bv B‡jKUªb GKwU wbgœZi K¶c_ ev kw³¯Íi †hgb n = 1 †_‡K D”PZi K¶c_ n = 2 †Z
¯’vbvšÍwiZ nq ZLb wbw`©ó cwigvY kw³ †kvlY K‡i| Avevi hLb †Kv‡bv D”PZi kw³¯Íi †hgb n = 2
†_‡K wbgœZi K¶c_ n = 1 -G ¯’vbvšÍwiZ nq ZLb kw³ wewKiY K‡i|
wewKwiZ kw³ wewKwiZ I †kvwlZ kw³‡K

eY©vwj wn‡m‡e cvIqv hvq|
eY©vwj n‡jv, wewfbœ e‡Y©i
†kvwlZ kw³ Av‡jvi mgv‡ek| e„wói ci
K AvKv‡k m~‡h©i wecixZ cv‡k
L
eY©vwj †`Lv hvq| GB eY©vwj I
M cigvYy †_‡K cÖvß eY©vwj
N †`L‡Z GKB iKg|
wPÎ 3.7: †ev‡ii cigvYy g‡Wj I †iLv-eY©vwji Drm
†evi cigvYy g‡W‡ji mxgve×Zv:
†evi cigvYy g‡W‡ji †hgb A‡bK mdjZv i‡q‡Q †Zgwb Gi wKQz mxgve×ZvI Av‡Q| †hgb,
1. †evi cigvYy g‡Wj GK B‡jKUªbwewkó nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYyi eY©vwj e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡jI GKvwaK
B‡jKUªbwewkó cigvYymg~‡ni eY©vwj e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cv‡i bv|
2. GK kw³¯Íi n‡Z Aci kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUª‡bi ¯’vbvš—i NU‡j, †evi cigvYy g‡Wj Abymv‡i eY©vwj‡Z GKwU
K‡i †iLv m„wó nIqvi K_v| wKšÍy nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I Ab¨vb¨ cigvYymg~‡ni Avq‡bi †iLv-eY©vwj AwaKZi m~²
hš¿ Øviv cix¶Y Ki‡j †`Lv hvq, cÖwZwU †iLv K‡qKwU m~² †iLvq wef³ _v‡K|
3.10 kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb web¨vm
†ev‡ii cigvYy g‡Wj †_‡K Avgiv †R‡bwQ †h, cigvYyi B‡jKUªbmg~n Zv‡ì wbR wbR kw³ Abyhvqx wewfbœ
kw³¯Í‡i Ae¯’vb K‡i| wbDwK¬qv‡mi me‡P‡q Kv‡Qi kw³¯Íi‡K 1g A_©vr n = 1 ev K †kj, 2q kw³¯Íi‡K
n = 2 ev L †kj n = 3 ev M †kj BZ¨vw` bv‡g AvL¨vwqZ Kiv nq|
cÖwZwU cÖavb kw³¯Í‡ii m‡eŸ©v”P B‡jKUªb aviY¶gZv 2n2 †hLv‡b n = 1, 2, 3, 4 .... BZ¨vw`| 2n2 m~Îvbymv‡i -
K †k‡ji B‡jKUªb aviY¶gZv 2 x 12 = 2 wU
L †k‡ji B‡jKUªb aviY¶gZv 2 x 22 = 8 wU
M †k‡ji B‡jKUªb aviY¶gZv 2 x 32 = 18 wU
N †k‡ji B‡jKUªb aviY¶gZv 2 x 42 = 32 wU BZ¨vw`|
imvqb 37
B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi mgq wbgœ kw³¯Íi B‡jKUªb Øviv c~Y© n‡j cieZ©x kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb cÖ‡ek K‡i| 1 †_‡K
18 cvigvYweK msL¨vwewkó †gŠjmg~n A_©vr nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †_‡K AvM©b ch©šÍ GB wbqg †g‡b P‡j| GB †gŠjmg~‡ni
B‡jKUªb‡K wewfbœ kw³¯Í‡i aviY¶gZv Abymv‡i mvRv‡bv hvq|
wewfbœ cvigvYweK msL¨vwewkó †gŠ‡ji wewfbœ kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUª‡bi eÈb:
cvigvYweK
†gŠj K L M
msL¨v wb‡R Ki : 1 †_‡K 18
1 H 1 cvigvYweK msL¨vwewkó
2 He 2 †gŠjmg~‡ni wPÎmn B‡jKUªb
6 C 2 4 web¨vm Ki (Q‡Ki¸‡jv ev`
9 F 2 7 w`‡q) |
15 P 2 8 5
18 Ar 2 8 8
QK 3.10: wewfbœ †gŠ‡ji K¶c‡_ ev kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb web¨vm

cvigvYweK msL¨v 19 A_ev Zvi AwaK cvigvYweK msL¨vwewkó †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi mgq Z…Zxq
kw³¯Íi c~Y© bv n‡q PZz_© kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb cÖ‡ek K‡i| kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi aviYv w`‡q Gi
e¨vL¨v †Ìqv m¤¢e bq| cÖwZwU kw³¯Í‡i Avevi KZ¸‡jv Dc¯Íi _v‡K| Dc¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi gva¨‡g
Gi e¨vL¨v †`qv hvq|
cUvwmqv‡gi (K) cvigvYweK msL¨v 19 I K¨vjwmqv‡gi (Ca) 20| G‡ì B‡jKUªb web¨vm wbgœi~c Ñ
cvigvYweK †gŠj AiweU ev cÖavb kw³¯—i

web¨v‡mi wPÎ
msL¨v K L M N
19 K 2 8 8 1
20n
19p
20 Ca 2 8 8 2
20n
20p
QK 3.11: cigvYyi kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb web¨vm

2
2n m~Îvbyhvqx cUvwmqv‡gi M †k‡j 9 wU Ges K¨vjwmqv‡gi 10wU B‡jKUªb _vKvi K_v wQj| †Kb _vKj bv?
Gi DË‡i Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi, cÖwZwU cÖavb kw³¯Íi (orbit) Avevi GK ev GKvwaK Dckw³¯Íi (orbital) wb‡q
38 imvqb
MwVZ| G Dc¯Íi¸‡jv‡K s, p, d, f BZ¨vw` bv‡g AvL¨vwqZ Kiv nq| s Dc¯Í‡ii m‡e©v”P B‡jKUªb aviY¶gZv
2, p Dc¯Í‡ii 6, d Dc¯Í‡ii 10 Ges f Dc¯Í‡ii 14| B‡jKUªbmg~‡ni mvaviY ag© n‡”Q Giv cÖ_‡g wbgœ
kw³m¤úbœ Dc¯Íi (orbital) c~Y© K‡i Ges µgvš^‡q D”P kw³m¤úbœ Dc¯Í‡i Mgb K‡i|
K ev 1g †k‡ji Dc¯Íi msL¨v 1wU hv‡K 1s ejv nq 1 w`‡q 1g Kÿc‡_i cÖavb kw³¯Íi‡K †evSvb nq|
L ev 2q †k‡ji Dc¯Íi msL¨v 2wU: 2s, 2p
M ev 3q †k‡ji Dc¯Íi msL¨v 3wU: 3s, 3p, 3d
N ev 4_© †k‡ji Dc¯Íi msL¨v 4wU: 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
cigvYyi B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi mgq B‡jKUªbmg~n wewfbœ AiweUv‡j (Dckw³¯Í‡i) Zv‡ì kw³i D”Pµg Abymv‡i cÖ‡ek
K‡i| w¯’wZkxjZv AR©‡bi Rb¨ cÖ_‡g wbgœkw³i AiweUv‡j B‡jKUªb Mgb K‡i Ges AiweUvj c~Y© K‡i; Gi ci
µgvš^‡q D”Pkw³i AiweUvj B‡jKUªb Øviv c~Y© nq| AiweUvjmg~‡ni kw³µg wbgœi~c :
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f <
6d < 7p < 8s
PZz_© kw³¯Í‡ii †Kv‡bv GKwU Dc¯Í‡ii (4s) kw³ Z…Zxq kw³¯Í‡ii GKwU Dc¯Í‡ii (3d) Zzjbvq Kg| d‡j
Z…Zxq kw³¯Íi c~Y© bv n‡q PZz_© kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb cÖ‡ek K‡i|
GB bxwZ AbymiY K‡i Avgiv K (19) Ges Sc (21) Gi B‡jKUªb web¨vm †`Lv‡Z cvwi
K(19) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 0 4s1
Sc(21) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d1 4s 2
†h‡nZz 4s AiweUv‡ji kw³ 3d AiweUv‡ji kw³i †P‡q Kg, ZvB cUvwmqv‡gi me©‡kl B‡jKUªbwU 3d AiweUv‡j
cÖ‡ek bv K‡i 4s AiweUv‡j ¯’vb wb‡q‡Q| Avevi ¯‹¨vwÛqv‡gi †ejvq 4s AiweUvj c~Y© K‡i cieZx© D”P
kw³m¤úbœ 3d AiweUv‡j me©‡kl ev 21Zg B‡jKUªbwU cÖ‡ek K‡i‡Q| Dc¯Íimg~‡ni kw³i µg g‡b ivLvi Rb¨
wb‡Pi QKwUi mvnvh¨ wb‡Z cvi|
1s
wb‡R Ki : wP‡Îi mvnvh¨ wb‡q wb‡gœv³ †gŠj¸‡jvi
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
B‡jKUªb web¨vm KiÑ
4s 4p 4d 4f
20 Ca 23V26 Fe 30 Zn 33 As 36 Kr 38 Sr 35 Br
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p
wPÎ 3.8: AiweUvjmg~‡ni kw³i µg
we‡kl K‡i g‡b ivL‡e hLb B‡jKUªb web¨vm wjL‡e ZLb GKB cÖavb kw³¯Í‡ii mKj Dc¯Íi‡K cvkvcvwk wjL‡e
imvqb 39
K L M N
†hgb: Sc (21) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d1 4s 2 wjL‡e|
Sc (21) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d1 Gfv‡e bq|

Zv bv n‡j B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi wPÎ AuvKvi mgq fyj nIqvi m¤¢vebv †_‡K hv‡e|
B‡jKUªªb web¨v‡mi mvaviY wbq‡gi wKQz e¨wZµg: mvaviYfv‡e †`Lv hvq †h, mgkw³m¤úbœ AiweUvjmg~n Aa©c~Y©
ev m¤ú~Y©i~‡c c~Y© n‡j †m B‡jKUªb web¨vm AwaKZi myw¯’wZ AR©b K‡i| A_©vr np3, np6, nd5, nd10, nf7, Ges
nf14 AwaKZi myw¯’Z nq| Gi d‡jB d10s1 Ges d5s1 B‡jKUªb web¨vmwewkó †gŠj AwaKZi ¯’vqx nq|
GB wbqg AbymiY K‡i †µvwgqv‡gi B‡jKUªb web¨vm:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
[wb‡R Ki : Kcvi (29) ev 29Cu -Gi B‡jKUªb web¨vm]
Abykxjbx
1. wb‡Pi †Kvb AvB‡mv‡UvcwU wPwKrmv I K…wl Dfq †¶‡Î eëüZ nq?
K. 131I L. 125I
M. 32P N. 153Sm
2. Z GKwU †gŠj hvi †cÖvUb msL¨v 111 Ges wbDUªb msL¨v 141| †KvbwU Øviv cigvYywU‡K cÖKvk Kiv
hvq?
K. 111 Z L. 141 Z
M. 252 Z N. 141 Z
3. ÔXÕ †gŠjwUi Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi KZ?
AvB‡mv‡Uvc ch©vßZvi kZKiv cwigvY
146 X 25
154 X 75
[GLv‡b X cÖZxKx A‡_©; cÖPwjZ †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK bq]
K. 148 L. 150
M. 152 N. 153
40 imvqb
56
4. 26
Y
DÏxcK †gŠjwUi
i. GKvwaK †hvRbx we`¨gvb
ii. †cÖvUb I wbDUªb msL¨v wfbœ
iii. B‡jKUªb web¨vm ¯^vfvweK wbq‡gi
m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1. GKwU †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi g‡Wj AuvKvi Rb¨ ejv n‡j beg †kÖwYi QvÎ dwi` wb‡Pi wPÎwU A¼b Kij|
B‡jKUªb
+
K. cvigvYweK msL¨v Kv‡K e‡j?

64 64
L. 29 X Ges 30 Y cigvYy `yBwUi wbDwK¬qb msL¨v mgvb wKš‘ wbDUªb msL¨v wfbœÑ e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. dwi‡ì AuvKv g‡WjwU †h cigvYy g‡Wj‡K wb‡`©k K‡i Zv e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. $Z=Jg:M$E\PYgLFLJY<\LnYZT={P~Ôg.fKjZ.J=YJ=CY,_
2.
4W 12X 20Y 29Z
[GLv‡b W, X, Y Ges Z cÖZxKx A‡_©; cÖPwjZ †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK bq]
K. fimsL¨v Kx?
L. 3Li I 11Na -Gi †hvRbx GKB †Kb e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. DÏxc‡Ki †Kvb †Kvb †gŠ‡ji me©‡kl ¯—‡i mgvbmsL¨K B‡jKUªb we`¨gvb|
N. Dc‡ii GKwU †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb web¨vm ¯^vfvweK wbq‡g Kiv hvq bv- hyw³mn Dc¯’vcb Ki|
PZz_© Aa¨vq
ch©vq mviwY
ch©vq mviwY n‡jv Q‡Ki gva¨‡g cÖKvwkZ ivmvqwbK †gŠjmg~‡ni a‡g©i GKwU aviYvwPÎ| 2012 mvj ch©šÍ me©‡gvU
118wU †gŠj kbv³ n‡q‡Q| cÖ‡Z¨K †gŠ‡ji Gme aviYv Avjv`v Avjv`vfv‡e AvqË Kiv Am¤¢e| ch©vq mviwY‡Z
¯^í cwim‡i †gŠjmg~n‡K Zv‡ì a‡g©i wfwË‡Z fvM Kiv n‡q‡Q| ch©vq mviwY †`‡LB Avgiv †Kv‡bv GKwU
†gŠ‡ji ivmvqwbK AvPiY m¤ú‡K© aviYv Ki‡Z cvwi| G Aa¨v‡q ch©vq mviwYi m„wó †_‡K ïi“ K‡i ev¯Í‡e Gi
eënvi I DcKvwiZvi Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡q‡Q|
¯—¤¢
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
mvwi
1 H He
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
8 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn wewfbœ
Fe Co †gŠj
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Kr
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo

(1) ch©vq mviwY weKv‡ki cUf~wg eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) †gŠ‡ji me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi mv‡_ chv©q mviwYi cÖavb MÖyç‡jvi m¤úK© wbY©q
Ki‡Z cvie (cÖ_g 30wU †gŠj)|
(3) GKwU †gŠ‡ji ch©vq kbv³ Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) ch©vq mviwY‡Z †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji Ae¯’vb †R‡b Gi †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK ag© m¤ú‡K© aviYv Ki‡Z cvie|
(5) †gŠjmg~‡ni we‡kl bvgKi‡Yi KviY ej‡Z cvie|
(6) ch©vq mviwYi ¸i“Z¡ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(7) ch©vq mviwYi GKB †kÖwYi †gŠj Øviv MwVZ †hŠ‡Mi GKB ai‡bi ag© nv‡Z-Kj‡g Kv‡Ri gva¨‡g cÖ`k©b
Ki‡Z cvie|
(8) cix¶‡Yi mgq Kv‡Pi hš¿cvwZi mwVK eënvi Ki‡Z cvie|
(9) cix¶Y Kv‡R mZK©Zv Aej¤^b Kie|
(10) ch©vq mviwY AbymiY K‡i †gŠjmg~‡ni ag© Abygv‡b AvMÖn cÖ`k©b Kie|
42 imvqb
4.1 ch©vq mviwYi cUf~wg

ch©vq mviwY n‡jvÑ kZel© a‡i msM„nxZ wewfbœ ivmvqwbK aviYvi GK Awe¯§iYxq cÖwZdjb| gvbyl cÖvPxbKvj
†_‡K wew¶ßfv‡e c`v_© I Zv‡ì ag© m¤ú‡K© †h mKj aviYv AR©b K‡iwQj Zvi GKwU mw¤§wjZ i~c †Ìqvi
cÖ‡Póv weÁvbx‡ì wQj Av‡M †_‡KB| hv cieZ©x‡Z †gŠjmg~‡ni ag©wfwËK †kªwY‡Z fvM Ki‡Z mnvqZv K‡i‡Q
Z_v AvaywbK ch©vq mviwY Dcnvi w`‡q‡Q| j¨vfqwm‡q (Antoine Lavoisier) me©cÖ_g 1789 mv‡j †fŠZ
Ae¯’vi Dci wfwË K‡i †gŠjmg~n‡K wZb †kªwY‡Z wef³ K‡ib| cieZ©x‡Z 1864 mv‡j Bs‡iR weÁvbx Rb
wbDj¨vÛ (John A. R. Newlands) †gŠj‡K Zv‡ì fi Abyhvqx mvwR‡q cÖwZ Aóg †gŠjmg~‡ni †fŠZ I
ivmvqwbK a‡g© wgj †`L‡Z cvb| 1869 mv‡j i“k weÁvbx g¨v‡Ûwjd (Dmitri I. Mendeleev) Ges Rvg©vb
weÁvbx jy_vi †gqi (J. Lothar Meyer) c„_K c„_Kfv‡e GKB ag©wewkó wewfbœ †gŠj‡K mg‡kªwYfy³ Kivi
cÖqv‡m †gŠjmg~‡ni GKwU ZvwjKv cÖKvk K‡ib| hv imvq‡b Ôch©vq mviwYÕ (periodic table) bv‡g L¨vZ|
2012 mvj ch©š— me©‡gvU 118 wU †gŠj kbv³ n‡q‡Q| Avš—R©vwZK imvqb I dwjZ imvqb ms¯’v
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), me¸‡jv‡K ¯^xK…wZ w`‡q‡Q| GLv‡b †R‡b
ivLv fv‡jv †h, ms¯’vwU‡K ms‡¶‡c IUPAC ejv nq| ms¯’vwU Avš—R©vwZKfv‡e imvqb I dwjZ imvq‡bi
wewfbœ welqvw` †hgbÑ wewfbœ wbqgKvbyb, µgea©gvb cwieZ©‡bi ev m„wói †KvbwU MÖnYxq Avi †KvbwU eR©bxq
Zvi †`Lfvj BZ¨vwì wbqš¿Y K‡i _v‡K| hv‡nvK, me©‡kl ¯^xK…Z 118 wU †gŠ‡ji g‡a¨ 118 wUi bvgKiY Kiv
n‡q‡Q| G‡ì g‡a¨ 98 wU †gŠj cÖK…wZ‡Z cvIqv hvq| evwK †gŠj¸‡jv DbœZgv‡bi cix¶vMv‡i ˆZwi Kiv m¤¢e|
98 wU †gŠ‡ji g‡a¨ 84 wU †gŠj‡K cÖv_wgK †gŠj ejv nq Ges evwK 14 wU †gŠj †ZRw¯ŒqZvi gva¨‡g Drcbœ
nq| gRvi e¨vcvi n‡jv, j¨vfqwm‡q gvÎ 33wU †gŠ‡ji GKwU QK ˆZwi K‡iwQ‡jb| cieZ©x‡Z i“k weÁvbx
g¨v‡Ûwjd 67 wU †gŠj wb‡q AvaywbK ch©vq mviwY cÖeZ©b K‡ib, hvi g‡a¨ 63 wU †gŠj Awe®K…Z n‡qwQj Ges
evwK 4wU †gŠj ZLbI Awe®K…Z nqwb| wKš‘ cieZ©x‡Z †gŠj PviwU Awe®K…Z n‡q‡Q| Zvici 1900 mv‡ji
g‡a¨B ch©vq mviwY‡Z AviI 30wU †gŠj hy³ nq|
ch©vq mviwY
1 18
IA 0
MÖyc msL¨v 1
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 1 cvigvYweK msL¨v
IIA †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK
H IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
Hydrogen †gŠ‡ji bvg
2 ch©vq msL¨v 1 1.01 cvigvYweK fi
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII VIII VIII IB IIB
4
5
7 Nh Fl
Nihonium
Mc Lv Ts
Flerovium Moscovium Livermovium Tennessine
Og
Oganesson
284 289 288 292 294
wPÎ 4.1 : AvaywbK ch©vq mviwY

imvqb 43
4.2 ch©vq mviwYi êwkó¨

†fŠZ w`K we‡ePbvq ch©vq mviwY n‡jv, ivmvqwbK †gŠjmg~‡ni Q‡K mwbœ‡ek gvÎ| cÖK…Zc‡¶, ch©vq mviwY
†gŠjmg~‡ni a‡g©i aviYvwPÎ| ch©vq mviwY Avwe®‹v‡ii ci †_‡K wewfbœ mg‡q Gi cwieZ©b I cwigvR©b Kiv
n‡q‡Q| me©‡kl ch©vq mviwYi †h ms¯‹iYwU IUPAC KZ…©K M„nxZ n‡q‡Q Zv wPÎ-4.1 -G †`Lv‡bv n‡jv|
GUv‡K AvaywbK ch©vq mviwY ejv nq| AvaywbK ch©vq mviwYi D‡jøL‡hvM¨ êwkó¨¸‡jv wb¤œi~c :
ch©vq mviwY‡Z 7 wU ch©vq ev Avbyf~wgK mvwi (row) I 18 wU MÖyc ev Lvov ¯Í¤¢ (column) i‡q‡Q|
cÖwZwU ch©vq evg w`K †_‡K MÖ“c-1 wn‡m‡e ïi“ K‡i MÖyc-18 ch©šÍ we¯Í…Z|
g~j ch©vq mviwYi wb‡P 2 wU Avbyf~wgK mvwi Ges 14wU Lvov ¯Í¤¢wewkó GKwU †QvU QK cÖ`wk©Z n‡q‡Q|
GwUI g~j ch©vq mviwYi ch©vq-6 I ch©vq-7 -Gi Askwe‡kl|
ch©vq-1 -G ïay `ywU †gŠj i‡q‡Q, hviv MÖyc-1 I MÖyc-18 †Z Aew¯’Z| GKBfv‡e ch©vq-2 I ch©vq-3 G
AvUwU K‡i †gŠj Av‡Q hviv MÖ“c-1 †_‡K MÖ“c-2 Ges MÖ“c-13 †_‡K MÖ“c-18 -Gi g‡a¨ Aew¯’Z|
ch©vq-4 †_‡K ch©vq-7 ch©šÍ me¸‡jv ch©v‡qi cÖwZwU MÖycB †gŠj Øviv c~Y©|
ch©vq-4 I ch©vq- 5 GB ch©vq `ywUi †¶‡Î 18wU MÖy‡c 18wU †gŠj i‡q‡Q| A_©vr cÖ‡Z¨K MÖy‡c GKwU K‡i
†gŠj ¯’vb `Lj K‡i wb‡q‡Q|
ch©vq-6 I ch©vq-7 -Gi †¶‡Î e¨wZµg j¶Yxq| Zv‡ì cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki †¶‡Î 18 wU MÖy‡c 32wU K‡i †gŠj
i‡q‡Q| G‡ì †¶‡Î ïay MÖyc-3 †ZB 15 wU †gŠ‡ji Ae¯’vb| evwK 17 wU MÖy‡c GKwU K‡i †gŠj Ae¯’vb
K‡i| Gfv‡e me©‡gvU 32 wU †gŠj mwbœ‡ewkZ n‡q‡Q|
Pj Gevi wb‡Pi KvRwU m¤úbœ Kwi| QK 4.1-G wewfbœ ch©v‡q mwbœ‡ewkZ †gŠ‡ji msL¨v D‡jøL Ki| wewfbœ MÖy‡c
†gŠ‡ji Ae¯’vb eySvevi Rb¨ Q‡K cÖ`Ë AvqZvKvi duvKv Ni¸‡jv †_‡K ïay cÖ‡qvRbxq Ni¸‡jv †cwÝj w`‡q fivU
Ki| hw` cÖ`Ë AvqZvKvi Ni¸‡jv cÖ‡Z¨K ch©v‡q Aew¯’Z me †gŠj‡K cÖ`©k‡bi Rb¨ ch©vß bv nq, Zvn‡j Q‡Ki
wb‡P cÖ`Ë eo AvqZ‡¶ÎwU‡Z cÖ‡qvRbgZ Ni Gu‡K fivU Ki| KvRwU m¤úbœ n‡j cªvß QKwU cÖ`Ë ch©vq mviwY
(wPÎ 4.1) Gi mv‡_ Zzjbv Ki|
ch©vq †gvU MÖ“c
†gŠ‡ji 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII VIII VIII IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 0
msL¨v
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
QK 4.1: ch©vq mviwYi wewfbœ †gŠj

44 gva¨wgK imvqb
DcwiwjøwLZ êwkó¨¸‡jv ch©vq mviwYi evwn¨K w`K j¶ Ki‡j †`L‡Z cvB| Gevi †gŠjmg~‡ni a‡g©i wfwË‡Z
ch©vq mviwY‡K we‡ePbv Kwi|
GKB ch©v‡q evgw`K †_‡K Wvbw`‡K †gŠjmg~‡ni ag© cwiewZ©Z nq|
mvaviYfv‡e †gŠjmg~‡ni ag© Zv‡ì MÖ“‡ci Dci wbf©ikxj| GKB MÖy‡ci mKj †gŠ‡ji †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK
ag© cÖvq GKB iKg|
mvaviYfv‡e †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji me©‡kl ¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb msL¨v Zvi MÖ“c msL¨vi mgvb|
†Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq me©‡gvU K¶c_ msL¨v Zvi ch©vq msL¨vi mgvb|
4.3 wewfbœ ch©vq m~Î

cÖ_gw`‡K Avwe®‹…Z †gŠjmg~n‡K weÁvbxiv avZz I AavZz GB `yB †kÖwY‡Z wef³ K‡ib| avZzmg~n‡K Avevi
Zyjbvg~jKfv‡e Kg mwµq avZz [†mvbv, i“cv; hv‡ì‡K AwfRvZ avZz (noble metals) e‡j] Ges AwaK mwµq
avZz [†jvnv, `¯Ív; hv‡ì‡K wbK…ó avZz (inferior metals) e‡j] wn‡m‡e wef³ Kiv nq| Ebwesk kZvãxi
ïi“‡Z Wvë‡bi cvigvYweK ZË¡ Dc¯’vc‡bi ci imvqb PP©vq e¨vcK cwieZ©b Av‡m| 1829 mv‡j Rvg©vb weÁvbx
†R. WweøD. †Wv‡eivBbvi cvigvYweK f‡ii mv‡_ m¤úwK©Z K‡i Îqx m~Î (law of Triads) cÖ`vb K‡ib|
Îqx m~Î: ch©vq mviwYi `ywU †gŠ‡ji cvigvYweK f‡ii Mo Ab¨ GKwU †gŠ‡ji cvigvYweK f‡ii cÖvq mgvb Ges
†gŠj wZbwUi ag© GKBiKg| GB wZbwU †gŠj‡K cvigvYweK fi Abymv‡i mvRv‡j cÖ_g Ges Z…Zxq †gŠ‡ji f‡ii
Mo wØZxq †gŠ‡ji f‡ii mgvb nq| †gŠj wZbwU‡K Ô†Wv‡eivBbvi ÎqxÕ e‡j| †hgb, wjw_qvg (7) I cUvwmqv‡gi
(39) cvigvYweK f‡ii Mo †mvwWqv‡gi (23) cvigvYweK f‡ii cÖvq mgvb|
1864 mv‡j Bs‡iR weÁvbx Rb wbDj¨vÛ (John A. R. Newlands) †gŠj‡K Zv‡ì fi Abyhvqx mvwR‡q cÖwZ
Aóg †gŠjmg~‡ni †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK a‡g© wgj †`L‡Z cvb| Gi wfwË‡Z wZwb AóK ZË¡ cÖ¯Íve K‡ib|
AóK ZË¡: †gŠj¸‡jv‡K Zv‡ì cvigvYweK fi Abyhvqx mvRv‡j cÖwZ Aóg †gŠjmg~‡ni a‡gi© wgj †`Lv hvq| hv
ch©vq mviwYi ÔAóK ZË¡Õ (law of octaves) bv‡g cwiwPZ|
ivwkqvb imvqbwe` wWwgwUª g¨v‡Ûwjd †gŠjmg~‡ni ivmvqwbK ag© wb‡q M‡elYv K‡i 1869 mvj ch©šÍ Avwe®‹…Z
†gŠjmg~‡ni cvigvYweK f‡ii D”Pµgvbymv‡i mvwR‡q †`‡Lb GKB ag©wewkó †gŠjmg~n GKB Kjv‡g ¯’vb cvq|
Gi Dci wfwË K‡i wZwb ch©vq m~Î cÖ¯Íve K‡ib| ch©vq mviwY D™¢ve‡b wewfbœ weÁvbxi Ae`vb _vK‡jI
Ae`v‡bi ¸i“Z¡ we‡ePbv K‡i g¨v‡Ûwjd‡K ch©vq mviwYi RbK e‡j|
g¨v‡Ûwj‡di ch©vq m~Î: Òhw` †gŠjmg~n‡K µgea©gvb cvigvYweK fi Abymv‡i mvRv‡bv nq, Z‡e Zv‡ì †fŠZ I
ivmvqwbK ag©vewj ch©vqµ‡g AvewZ©Z nqÓ|
1913 mv‡j weÁvbx †nbwi †gvm‡j cvigvYweK msL¨v Avwe®‹v‡ii ci g¨v‡Ûwjd Zvi ch©vq m~Î ms‡kvab K‡ib|
g¨v‡Ûwj‡di ms‡kvwaZ ch©vq m~Î: Ò†gŠjmg~‡ni †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK ag©vewj Zv‡ì cvigvYweK msL¨v Abyhvqx
ch©vqµ‡g AvewZ©Z nqÓ|
imvqb 45
4.4 ch©vq mviwYi g~j wfwË

weÁvbx g¨v‡Ûwjd cÖ_g AvaywbK chv©q mviwY‡Z †gŠjmg~‡ni cvigvYweK f‡ii wfwË‡Z Zv‡ì‡K mvRv‡bvi †Póv
K‡ib| wKš‘ cvigvYweK f‡ii wfwË‡Z †gŠjmg~‡ni web¨vm Ki‡j wKQz wKQz e¨wZµg j¶ Kiv hvq| cUvwmqvg
(K) I AvM©b (Ar) -Gi Ae¯’vb D`vniY wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv Ki| cUvwmqv‡gi (K) cvigvYweK fi- 39 I
AvM©‡bi (Ar) cvigvYweK fi n‡jv- 40| hw` cvigvYweK fi Abymv‡i mvRv‡bv nq, Zvn‡j cUvwmqvg‡K
AvM©‡bi Av‡M ¯’vb w`‡Z nq| †m‡¶‡Î cUvwmqv‡gi Ae¯’vb nq MÖyc-18 †Z Ges MÖyc-1-G ¯’vb cvq AvM©b |
ev¯Í‡e †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK ag©vewji wePv‡i cUvwmqv‡gi mv‡_ MÖyc-1-G Aew¯’Z ¶vi avZz¸‡jvi Ges AvM©‡bi
mv‡_ MÖ“c-18-†Z Aew¯’Z wbw®Œq M¨v‡mi mv`„k¨ cwijw¶Z nq| wKš‘ †gŠjmg~n‡K cvigvYweK msL¨vi wfwË‡Z
mvRv‡j G ai‡bi RwUjZvi Aemvb nq|
Avgiv Z„Zxq Aa¨v‡q B‡jKUªb I †cÖvUb m¤ú‡K© †R‡bwQ| †cÖvUb msL¨v‡KB cvigvYweK msL¨v e‡j| Avi †Kv‡bv
†gŠ‡j hZwU B‡jKUªb _v‡K wVK ZZwU †cÖvUb _v‡K| Zvn‡j †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb msL¨v‡KI Zvi cvigvYweK
msL¨v ejv hvq| hwÌ B‡jKUªb msL¨v cwieZ©‡bi mv‡_ cigvYyi cwieZ©b nq bv wKšÍy †cÖvUb msL¨v cwieZ©‡b
cigvYyi cwieZ©b nq| ch©vq mviwY‡Z B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi Dci wfwË K‡iB †gŠjmg~‡ni †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK
ag©vewj Zv‡ì cvigvYweK msL¨v Abyhvqx ch©vqµ‡g AvewZ©Z nq| †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb web¨vmB g~jZ Zvi
ivmvqwbK ag©vewj wb‡`©k K‡i|
1869 mv‡j g¨v‡Ûwjd AvaywbK ch©vq mviwYi cÖeZ©b K‡ib, hLb cvigvYweK msL¨v m¤ú‡K© †Kv‡bv aviYv wQj
bv| 1913 mv‡j weªwUk weÁvbx †nbwi †gvm‡j cvigvYweK msL¨vi aviYv †`b| cieZx©‡Z g¨v‡Ûwjd AvaywbK
ch©vq mviwY‡Z cvigvYweK msL¨vi aviYv eënvi K‡i ch©vq m~‡Îi ms‡kvwaZ i~c cÖKvk K‡ib| weÁvbx
g¨v‡Ûwjd‡K AvaywbK ch©vq mviwY cÖeZ©‡bi m¤§vb †Ìqv nq| KviY Abygvb Kiv nq †h, cvigvYweK msL¨v
m¤ú‡K© Rvbv _vK‡j weÁvbx g¨v‡Ûwjd Zuvi cÖ`Ë ch©vq m~‡Î cvigvYweK f‡ii cwie‡Z© cvigvYweK msL¨vi K_vB
nq‡Zv ej‡Zb|
4.5 B‡jKUªb web¨vm †_‡K ch©vq mviwY‡Z †gŠ‡ji Ae¯’vb wbY©q
Dc‡i Avgiv †R‡bwQ †h, B‡jKUªb web¨vmB n‡jv, ch©vq mviwYi g~j wfwË| Zvn‡j ch©vq mviwY‡Z †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji
Ae¯’vb Zvi B‡jKUªb web¨vm †_‡K eySv hvq| wb‡Pi Q‡K (QK- 4.2) K‡qKwU †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK I B‡jKUªb
web¨vm wjwce× Kiv n‡jv| †gŠjmg~‡ni wewfbœ ¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb web¨vm †`Lv‡bv n‡jv| †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji hZwU
kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb web¨¯Í _v‡K, kw³¯Í‡ii †m msL¨vB n‡jv H †gŠ‡ji ch©vq msL¨v| †hgbÑ nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I
wnwjqv‡gi K_v we‡ePbv Kiv hvK| G‡ì †¶‡Î GKwU gvÎ kw³¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb web¨¯Í _v‡K Ges ch©vq
mviwY‡Z G‡ì Ae¯’vb ch©vq-1 -G| Abyi~cfv‡e †mvwWqvg †_‡K AvM©b ch©šÍ †gŠjmg~‡ni B‡jKUªb wZbwU
kw³¯Í‡i web¨¯Í| Zvn‡j mn‡RB ejv hvq †h, Zv‡ì ch©vq msL¨v n‡jv 3|
wKQy e¨wZµg e¨ZxZ, mvaviYfv‡e me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡i Aew¯’Z B‡jKUªb msL¨vB †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó ch©v‡q D³ †gŠ‡ji
MÖyc msL¨v wb‡`©k K‡i| Zvn‡j Avgiv †f‡e †`L‡j eySe †h, 7wU ch©v‡qiB MÖyc-1 Gi †¶‡Î DwjøwLZ wbqgwU
cÖ‡hvR¨ n‡e| A_©vr MÖyc-1 -G Aew¯’Z †gŠjmg~‡ni me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb msL¨v n‡jv 1, †mRb¨
wbqgvbymv‡i MÖyc msL¨vI 1| MÖyc-2 -Gi †¶‡Î GKBfv‡e me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb msL¨v w`‡qB mn‡RB
MÖyc msL¨vi aviYv cvIqv hvq| Ab¨w`‡K B‡jKUªb Øviv me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Íi c~Y© †gŠjmg~n MÖyc-18 -G ¯’vb cvq|
46 imvqb
MÖyc
ch©vq
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
He
H
1
2
1
2,1
2,2
2,3
2,4
2,5
2,6
2,7
2,8
Ne
Be
Li
O
C
N
B
F
2
2,8,1
2,8,2
2,8,3
2,8,4
2,8,5
2,8,6
2,8,7
2,8,8
Mg
Na
Ar
Al
Cl
Si
S
3
2,8,8,1
2,8,8,2
Ca
K
4
QK-4.2: wewfbœ †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb web¨vm

ch©vq-2 I ch©vq-3 -Gi †¶‡Î A_©vr †h mKj †gŠ‡ji `yBwU I wZbwU kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb web¨¯Í _v‡K Zv‡ì
†¶‡Î me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡i 3wU B‡jKUªb _vK‡j Zv‡ì‡K MÖ“c-13 †Z ¯’vb †Ìqv n‡q‡Q| †Kbbv ch©vq-2 I
ch©vq-3 -Gi †¶‡Î MÖ“c-3 †_‡K MÖyc-12 ch©šÍ †Kv‡bv †gŠj Dcw¯’Z †bB| Zvn‡j 2q I 3q ch©v‡qi †Kv‡bv
†gŠ‡ji †¶‡Î, hw` me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡i `ywUi †ewk B‡jKUªb _v‡K †m‡¶‡Î me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡i Dcw¯’Z
B‡jKUªb msL¨vi mv‡_ `k (10) †hvM K‡i MÖ“c msL¨v wbY©q Kiv m¤¢e|
ch©vq-4 †_‡K ch©vq-7 ch©šÍ †h mKj †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb d Dc¯Í‡i cÖ‡ek K‡i Zv‡ì †¶‡Î d Dc¯Í‡i
cÖ‡ekK…Z B‡jKUªb Ges me©‡kl K¶c‡_i B‡jKUªb msL¨vi mgwó Zvi MÖ“c wb‡`©k K‡i| Z‡e ch©vq-6 Ges
ch©vq-7 -Gi †h mKj †gŠ‡ji me©‡kl B‡jKUªb f Dc¯Í‡i cÖ‡ek K‡i Zv‡ì‡K g~j ch©vq mviwYi wb‡P
c„_Kfv‡e Ae¯’vb †Ìqv nq|
QvÎ/QvÎxiv 5 Rb K‡i `‡j fvM n‡q wb‡Riv †kªwYK‡¶ e‡mB wb‡Pi Q‡K (QK-4.3) cÖ`Ë KvRwU m¤úbœ Ki|
D`vniY wn‡m‡e Q‡K bvB‡Uª‡Rb †gŠj‡K †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q|
†gŠj B‡jKUªb web¨vm ch©vq mviwY‡Z e¨vL¨v
Ae¯’vb
ch©vq- 2 2wU kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb web¨¯Í| AZGe ch©vq
N msL¨v n‡e 2| me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb
++ MÖyc - 15 msL¨v n‡jv 5wU, wKš‘ ch©vq msL¨v 2| AZGe MÖyc
msL¨v 5 bv n‡q, (5 + 10) = 15 n‡e|
Li
Al
Ne
Cl
QK-4.3: B‡jKUªb web¨vm †_‡K ch©vq mviwY‡Z †gŠ‡ji Ae¯’vb wbY©q
imvqb 47
4.6 †gŠ‡ji ch©vqe„Ë ag©

ch©vq mviwY‡Z †h †Kv‡bv GKwU ch©v‡qi w`‡K j¶ Ki‡j †`wL †h, evg w`‡Ki †gŠj¸‡jv mvaviYZ avZz,
µgvš^‡q Wvb w`‡K Zv AcavZz Ges AavZz‡Z AvewZ©Z nq| 3q ch©v‡qi me© ev‡g †mvwWqvg i‡q‡Q, hv GKwU
mwµq avZz| Ab¨w`‡K †K¬vwib (Wvbw`‡K wØZxq) GKwU mwµq AavZz| G `y&B‡qi gvSvgvwS †gŠj¸‡jvi g‡a¨ avZz
†_‡K AavZz‡Z AveZ©‡bi GKwU avivevwnKZv cwijw¶Z nq| †mvwWqvg, g¨vM‡bwmqvg I A¨vjywgwbqvg avZe
cÖK…wZi| wmwjKb GKwU AcavZz (hv avZz I AavZz Df‡qi êwkó¨ enb K‡i)| dmdivm, mvjdvi I †K¬vwib
Giv mevB AavZy I G‡ì MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK Kg| †h †Kv‡bv MÖy‡c †gŠjmg~‡ni †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK ag© ax‡i
ax‡i Ges A‡bKUv wbqwgZfv‡e AvewZ©Z nq| †hgb- MÖ“c-1 -Gi ¶vi avZzmg~n cÖ‡Z¨‡KB big, wbgœ
MjbvsKwewkó| G MÖy‡ci avZzmg~‡ni MjbvsK cvigvYweK msL¨v e„w×i mv‡_ mv‡_ K‡g| ch©vq mviwYi evg w`K
†_‡K Wvb w`‡K A_©vr MÖyc-1 †_‡K MÖyc-17 ch©šÍ †gŠjmg~‡ni MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK cÖ_‡g e„w× †c‡q (avZz ch©šÍ)
cieZ©x‡Z (AavZz †_‡K) n«vm cvq| Gfv‡e MÖyc-17 A_©vr n¨v‡jv‡Rbmg~‡ni MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK MÖyc-1 -Gi
¶vi avZzmg~‡ni Zzjbvq A‡bK Kg nq| n¨v‡jv‡Rbmg~‡ni †¶‡Î wewfbœ †fŠZ a‡g© GKB i~‡c avivevwnK
cwieZ©b †`Lv hvq| †hgbÑ Gme †gŠ‡ji MjbvsK, ùzUbvsK I NbZ¡ cvigvYweK msL¨v e„w×i mv‡_ mv‡_ ev‡o|
GQvovI †gŠjmg~‡ni wKQz ¸i“Z¡c~Y© êwkó¨ †hgb, cvigvYweK AvKvi, AvqwbKiY kw³, Zwor FYvZ¥KZv,
B‡jKUªb Avmw³ BZ¨vw` ag© ch©vq mviwY‡Z ch©vqµ‡g cwiewZ©Z nq| ch©vq mviwYi GKB ch©v‡qi evgw`K †_‡K
Wvbw`‡K cvigvYweK AvKvi n«vm cvq Ges †Kv‡bv MÖ“‡ci Dci †_‡K wb‡Pi w`‡K cvigvYweK AvKvi e„w× cvq|
cvigvYweK AvKvi e¨ZxZ Ab¨vb¨ ag©mg~n mvaviYfv‡e (wKQz e¨wZµgmn) ch©vq mviwYi GKB ch©vq evg w`K
†_‡K Wvb w`‡K cvigvYweK msL¨v e„w×i mv‡_ e„w× cvq| A_©vr MÖ“c-1 -Gi ¶vi avZzmg~‡ni AvqwbKiY kw³
Kg Ges MÖ“c-17 -Gi n¨v‡jv‡Rbmg~‡ni AvqwbKiY kw³ †ewk| GKBfv‡e †Kv‡bv GKwU MÖy‡ci †gŠjmg~‡ni
cvigvYweK msL¨v e„w×i mv‡_ D³ ag©mg~n µgvš^‡q n«vm cvq| G wel‡q cieZ©x †kÖwY‡Z AviI Rvb‡Z cvi‡e|
wjw_qvg (Li) †
†mvwWqvg (Na)
wb‡Kj (Ni) †eªvwgb (Br2)
†mwjwbqvg (Se)
cUvwmqvg (K)
wPÎ 4.2: wewfbœ †gŠj
48 imvqb
4.7 wewfbœ †kªwY‡Z Dcw¯’Z †gŠjmg~‡ni we‡kl bvg (¶vi avZz, g„r¶vi avZz, gy`ªv avZz,
n¨v‡jv‡Rb, wbw®Œq M¨vm, Ae¯’všÍi †gŠj)
¶vi avZz: ch©vq mviwY‡Z MÖyc-1 -G Aew¯’Z †gŠjmg~n †hgb- Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs Ges Fr ¶vi avZz
(alkali metal) ejv nq| Giv cÖ‡Z¨‡KB cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm I ¶vi `ªeY ˆZwi K‡i|
me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡i Aew¯’Z GKgvÎ B‡jKUªbwU AavZz‡K cÖ`vb K‡i AvqwbK †hŠM (jeY) ˆZwi K‡i|
g„r¶vi avZz : MÖyc-2 -G Aew¯’Z Be †_‡K ïi“ K‡i Ra ch©šÍ †gŠjmg~n‡K g„r¶vi avZy ejv (alkaline
earth metal) nq| G‡ì ag© A‡bKUv ¶vi avZzi g‡ZvB| G‡ì A·vBWmg~n cvwb‡Z ¶vixq `ªeY ˆZwi K‡i|
GivI me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡ii 2 wU B‡jKUªb AavZz‡K cÖ`vb K‡i AvqwbK †hŠM (jeY) ˆZwi K‡i| GB †gŠjmg~n
wewfbœ †hŠM wn‡m‡e gvwU‡Z _v‡K|
Ae¯’vš—i †gŠj: ch©vq mviwY‡Z MÖyc-3 †_‡K MÖyc-12 ch©šÍ MÖy‡c Aew¯’Z †gŠjmg~n Ae¯’všÍi †gŠj
(transition metal) wn‡m‡e cwiwPZ| Ae¯’všÍi †gŠjmg~‡ni wbR¯^ eY© i‡q‡Q| Giv avZe c`v_© wn‡m‡e cÖPzi
eëüZ nq| me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb cÖ`vb K‡i AvqwbK †hŠM ˆZwi K‡i| †Kv‡bv ch©v‡qi Ae¯’všÍi
†gŠjmg~‡ni g‡a¨ evgw`‡Ki †gŠj †_‡K Wvbw`‡Ki †gŠj Øviv MwVZ †hŠ‡Mi êwkó¨ AvqwbK †_‡K mg‡hvRx‡Z
cwiewZ©Z nq|
gy`ªv avZy : ch©vq mviwY‡Z MÖycÑ11 †Z Aew¯’Z †gŠjÑ Zvgv (Cu), i“cv (Ag) I †mvbv (Au) G‡ì avZe
êwkó¨ †hgb D¾¡jZv we`¨gvb| HwZnvwmKfv‡e Gme avZy Øviv gy`ªv ˆZwi K‡i Zv‡ì‡K µq-weµq I Ab¨vb¨
cÖ‡qvR‡b wewbg‡qi gva¨g wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq| G‡ì‡K gy`ªv avZz (coinage metals) ejv nq|
cÖK…Zc‡¶ Giv Ae¯’všÍi †gŠj|
n¨v‡jv‡Rb: MÖ“c-17 †Z Aew¯’Z †gŠjÑ F, Cl, Br, I Ges At GB 5wU †gŠj‡K GK‡Î n¨v‡jv‡Rb (halogen)
e‡j| n¨v‡jv‡Rb k‡ãi A_© jeY MVbKvix (salt maker)| Giv me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡i GKwU B‡jKUªb MÖn‡Yi
gva¨‡g n¨vjvBW Avqb ˆZwi K‡i| n¨v‡jv‡Rbmg~‡ni g~j Drm mvgyw`ªK jeY| Giv wb‡R wb‡RB B‡jKUªb
fvMvfvwMi (electron sharing) gva¨‡g wØ-†gŠj AYy ˆZwi K‡i|
wbw®Œq M¨vm: ch©vq mviwY‡Z MÖyc-18 †Z Aew¯’Z †gŠjmg~n‡K wbw®Œq †gŠj e‡j| G‡ì me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Íi
cÖ‡qvRbxq msL¨K B‡jKUªb Øviv c~Y© _vKvq Giv B‡jKUªb Av`vb-cÖ`vb ev †kqv‡ii gva¨‡g †hŠM MV‡b mvaviYZ
AvMÖn cÖ`k©b K‡i bv| A_©vr eÜb MV‡b ev ivmvqwbK wewµqvi cÖwZ GB †gŠjmg~n wbw®Œq _v‡K|
4.8 ch©vq mviwYi myweav (Advantanges of Periodic Table)
imvqbkv¯¿ Aa¨qb I cÖ‡qvMKvix‡ì Rb¨ ch©vq mviwY GKwU Acwinvh© nvwZqvi (tool)| AvaywbK chv©q mviwY
e¨ZxZ imvqb PP©v m¤¢e bq| Dc‡i †R‡bwQ †h, 2012 mvj ch©šÍ 118wU †gŠj kbv³ n‡q‡Q| cÖ‡Z¨KwU †gŠ‡ji
4wU †fŠZ ag© †hgbÑ MjbvsK, ùzUbvsK, NbZ¡ I †fŠZ Ae¯’v (KwVb, Zij I evqexq) Ges 4wU ivmvqwbK ag©
†hgbÑ Aw·‡Rb, cvwb, GwmW I ¶v‡ii mv‡_ wewµqv we‡ePbv Ki| Zvn‡j 118wU †gŠ‡ji Rb¨ 4wU K‡i †fŠZ I
4wU K‡i ivmvqwbK ag© wg‡j me©‡gvU 944wU ag© g‡b ivLv KwVb bq wK? Avgiv GUvI Rvwb †h, †Kv‡bv
imvqb 49
ch©vq wbw`©ó †gŠ‡ji ïaygvÎ 4wU †fŠZ I 4wU ivmvqwbK a‡g©i g‡a¨B mxgve× bq| G ai‡bi A‡bK
-1
MÖyc
1 H †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK ag© Av‡Q, hv Avgiv cieZ©x‡Z wkLe| hv‡nvK GUv eySv †Mj †h, chv©q mviwY‡Z
2 Li
Aew¯’Z me †gŠ‡ji nvRv‡iv ag© i‡q‡Q Ges Zv‡ì‡K Avjv`vfv‡e g‡b ivLv mZ¨B Am¤¢e|
3 Na ch©vq mviwY‡Z mwbœ‡ewkZ †gŠ‡ji Ae¯’v‡bi gva¨‡g Zvi †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK ag© m¤ú‡K© Avgiv
4 K mn‡RB aviYv Ki‡Z cvwi| †hgb MÖyc-1 -G Aew¯’Z nvB‡Wªv‡Rb e¨ZxZ Ab¨ †gŠj¸‡jv‡K ¶vi
avZz ejv nq Ges G‡ì Qzwi w`‡q KvUv hvq| G ¸ª‡ci me †gŠjB Zvi me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡ii
5 Rb
GKwU B‡jKUªb cÖ`vb Ki‡Z cv‡i| nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †gŠj e¨ZxZ, mevB cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i
6 Cs
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i| Gfv‡e †Kv‡bv MÖy‡c Aew¯’Z †gŠjmg~‡ni ag© m¤ú‡K© aviYv GKB
7 Fr
ch©vq/
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
3
1
MÖyc
3 Na Mg Al S i P S Cl A r
MÖy‡ci Aew¯’Z Ab¨ †h †Kv‡bv GKwU †gŠ‡ji a‡g©i mv‡_ Zzjbv K‡i g‡b ivLv †h‡Z cv‡i| Ab¨w`‡K, GKB
ch©v‡q wewfbœ MÖy‡c Aew¯’Z †gŠjmg~‡ni a‡g©i wfbœZv H †gŠ‡ji cvwicvwk©¦K Ae¯’v †`‡L A_©vr Zvi cvk©¦eZx©
†gŠ‡ji a‡g©i mv‡_ Zzjbv K‡i Zvi ag© m¤ú‡K© aviYv †bIqv hvq| ch©vq-3 -G wewfbœ MÖy‡c Aew¯’Z †gŠjmg~‡ni
†fŠZ Ae¯’v †`L‡j Avgiv †`wL †h, †mvwWqvg ¶vi avZz, hv KwVb c`v_© Ges hv‡K Qzwi w`‡q KvUv hvq| ch©vq
mviwYi Wvb w`‡Ki †gŠjmg~‡ni †fŠZ Ae¯’v µgvš^‡q cwiewZ©Z nq| GgbwK †K¬vwib I AvM©b M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq
_v‡K| hwÌ ch©vq mviwY‡Z Zij †gŠ‡ji msL¨v LyeB Kg|
Zvn‡j Avgiv eySjvg †h, evwn¨K w`K †_‡K ch©vq mviwY Q‡K †gŠjmg~n‡K mwbœ‡ek Kiv n‡q‡Q g‡b n‡jI
ev¯Í‡e Gi Zvrch© Acwimxg| G K_vq ejv hvq †h, ch©vq mviwYi eënvi Qvov eZ©gvb hy‡M imvqb PP©v Am¤¢e|
4.9 ch©vq mviwYi GKB MÖy‡ci †gŠj Øviv MwVZ †hŠ‡Mi mv‡_ cvwb I jNy Gwm‡Wi wewµqv
avZe †hŠ‡Mi mv‡_ cvwb I jNy Gwm‡Wi wewµqvq Drcbœ M¨vm cix¶vi gva¨‡g kbv³KiY
cix¶Y: (`jMZ KvR)
cÖ‡qvRbxq DcKiY: NaHCO3, Na2CO3, KHCO3, K2CO3/CaCO3, MgCO3, jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK
GwmW (HCl)/wmiKv (B_vbwqK GwmW), Pz‡bi cvwb; Ca(OH)2, eo †U÷wUDe, KK©, euvKv‡bv KvPbj, weKvi,
KvwV, g¨vP|
euvKv‡bv
KvPbj
KK©
wmiKv
K2CO3/ NaHCO3 Pz‡bi

Na2CO3 / KHCO3 cvwb
wPÎ -K wPÎ -L
wPÎ 4.3: (K) cix¶vi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq DcKiY I Zv‡ì ms‡hvM (L) wbM©Z M¨vm‡K Pz‡bi cvwb‡Z cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv
50 imvqb
GKwU KvPwUD‡e AvbygvwbK 2/3 MÖvg Na2CO3/NaHCO3 bvI| AZtci weï× cvwb‡Z †mwU `ªexf~Z Ki Ges
`ªe‡Yi g‡a¨ ax‡i ax‡i jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW †hvM Ki| ch©‡e¶Y Ki †Kv‡bv M¨vm Drcbœ nq wK bv| Drcbœ
M¨vm‡K R¡jšÍ KvwVi mvnv‡h¨ kbv³ Ki| ivmvqwbK cix¶vi gva¨‡g kbv³ Kivi Rb¨ Drcbœ M¨vm‡K euvKv‡bv
KvPb‡ji mvnv‡h¨ weKv‡i ivLv cwi®‹vi Pz‡bi cvwb‡Z cÖ‡ek KivI Ges cwieZ©b ch©‡e¶Y Ki| GB cwieZ©‡bi
KviY e¨vL¨v Kivi †Póv Ki| Pz‡bi cvwb‡Z AwZwi³ M¨vm cÖ‡ek Kiv‡j Kx cwieZ©b nq Zv ch©‡e¶Y Ki Ges
KviY e¨vL¨v Kivi †Póv Ki|
GKBfv‡e eo †U÷wUD‡e AvbygvwbK 2/3 MÖvg K2CO3/KHCO3 wb‡q cix¶v Ki| cix¶v K‡i wb‡Pi †Uwej c~Y© Ki|
eo †U÷wUD‡e Na2CO3 /NaHCO3 eo †U÷wUD‡e K2CO3/KHCO3
†hvMK…Z Dcv`vb m¤úbœ cwieZ©b I msNwUZ ivmvqwbK m¤úbœ cwieZ©b I msNwUZ ivmvqwbK gšÍe¨
cwieZ©‡bi KviY wewµqv cwieZ©‡bi KviY wewµqv
weï× cvwb
†jeyi im/wmiKv/jNy
HCl
R¡jšÍ KvwV‡K Drcbœ
M¨v‡mi Dci ai
Drcbœ M¨vm‡K Pz‡bi
cvwb‡Z cÖ‡ek KivI
AwZwi³ cwigv‡Y
Drcbœ M¨vm‡K Pz‡bi
cvwb‡Z cÖ‡ek KivI
(Z_¨: avZe Kve©‡bU Ges avZe nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i jeY, Kve©b WvBA·vBW I cvwb Drcbœ K‡i|)
wkÿYxq KvR : †nvwgIc¨vw_K †evZ‡j wW‡gi †Lvmv ¸uov K‡i wb‡q Zv‡Z †jeyi im †hvM Ki I ch©‡eÿY
Ki| GB ch©‡eÿ‡Yi mv‡_ Dc‡ii cixÿ‡Yi Zzjbv Ki|
Abykxjbx
1. AvaywbK ch©vq mviwYi g~j wfwË Kx?
K. cvigvYweK msL¨v L. cvigvYweK fi
M. Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi N. B‡jKUªb web¨vm
2. A = 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2; †gŠjwU ch©vq mviwYi †Kvb MÖ“‡c Aew¯’Z?

K. Group-2 L. Group-5
M. Group-11 N. Group-13
imvqb 51
wb‡Pi mviwY †_‡K 3 I 4 bs cÖ‡kœi DËi `vI :
ch©vq mviwYi †Kv‡bv GKwU MÖ“‡ci LwÊZ Ask
19K
X
Y
Z
[GLv‡b X, Y Ges Z cÖZxKx A‡_©; cÖPwjZ †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK bq]
3. Ô XÕ †gŠjwU ch©vq mviwYi †Kvb ch©v‡qi?

K. 3q L. 4_©
M. 5g N. 6ô
4. DwjøwLZ †gŠj¸‡jvi-
i. me©‡kl ¯—‡i 1wU B‡jKUªb Av‡Q
ii. cvigvYweK AvKvi µgvš^‡q n«vm cvq
iii. mwµqZv µgvš^‡q e„w× cvq

m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1.
Na Mg
52 imvqb
DÏxc‡Ki wPÎwU ch©vq mviwYi GKwU LwÊZ Ask

K. Îqx m~ÎwU wjL|
L. †ewiqvg‡K g„r¶vi avZz ejv nq †KbÑ e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. DÏxc‡Ki †Kvb †gŠjwUi AvKvi me‡P‡q eo? e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. DÏxc‡Ki ch©vq I MÖ‡y ci cÖ_g †gŠj`ywU D”P gvÎvq mwµq n‡jI mwµqZvi KviY wfbœÑ hyw³ `vI|
2.
†gŠj †kÖwY †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb msL¨v
A 2
B 7
D 8
[GLv‡b A, B Ges D cÖZxKx A‡_©; cÖPwjZ †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK bq]
K. gy`ªv avZz Kx?

L. He †K MÖ“c II -G ivLv nqwb †Kb?- e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. B †kÖwYi †gŠ‡ji Drm e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. A I D †kÖwYi †gŠj¸‡jvi ivmvqwbK a‡g©i Zzjbv Ki|
cÂg Aa¨vq
ivmvqwbK eÜb
wbw®Œq M¨vmmg~n GK-cigvYyK M¨vmi~‡c cÖK…wZ‡Z ¯’vqx| G M¨vm¸‡jv e¨ZxZ Ab¨ †gŠ‡ji cigvYymg~n
¯^vaxbfv‡e cÖK…wZ‡Z weivR K‡i bv| †gŠwjK M¨v‡mi AYymg~n mvaviYZ wØcigvYyK †hgbÑ O2, N2, F2, Cl2,
Br2 BZ¨vw`| Avevi †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji AYy `yB‡qi AwaK cigvYy wb‡q MwVZ nq †hgbÑ O3, P4, S8 |
Avevi wfbœ wfbœ †gŠ‡ji cigvYy wg‡j †hŠM MVb K‡i †hgbÑ NaCl, H2O, HCl, CH4 cÖf„wZ| me AYy‡ZB
cigvYymg~n GK we‡kl AvKl©Ykw³ Øviv ci¯úi Ave× _v‡K| G kw³‡K eÜbkw³ e‡j| mvaviYZ eÜb MVb
Kv‡j mKj cigvYyyB Zvi †kl kw³¯Í‡i wbKUeZ©x wbw®Œq M¨v‡mi B‡jKUªb web¨vm jvf Ki‡Z Pvq| avZz-AavZz
wg‡j mvaviYZ AvqwbK eÜb, AavZz-AavZz wg‡j mg‡hvRx eÜb MVb K‡i| avZe L‡Ê avZe cigvYymg~n
avZe eÜ‡bi gva¨‡g G‡K A‡bï mv‡_ Ave× _v‡K| wZb cÖKvi eÜ‡b m„ó †gŠj ev †hŠ‡Mi Avjv`v Avjv`v
êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|
oo
xx oo
x o
x Na x x o Cl o o
o o
H
x x o o
x
xx
o
oo
oo
H
oo
xx oo
x o
x
Na x x o
x x o o Cl o o
o o
o
x oo
xx oo

(1) †hvR¨Zv B‡jKUª‡bi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK, †hŠMg~j‡Ki ms‡KZ I G¸‡jvi †hvRbx eënvi K‡i †hŠ‡Mi ms‡KZ wjL‡Z cvie|
(3) wbw®Œq M¨vm-Gi w¯’wZkxjZv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) AóK I `yB-Gi wbq‡gi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(5) ivmvqwbK eÜb Ges Zv MV‡bi KviY e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(6) Avqb Kxfv‡e Ges †Kb m„wó nq Zv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(7) AvqwbK eÜb MV‡bi cÖwµqv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(8) mg‡hvRx eÜb MV‡bi cÖwµqv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(9) AvqwbK I mg‡hvRx eÜ‡bi mv‡_ MjbvsK, ùzUbvsK, `ªve¨Zv, we`y¨r cwievwnZv Ges †Kjvm MV‡bi
ag© e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(10) avZe eÜ‡bi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(11) avZe eÜ‡bi mvnv‡h¨ avZzi we`y¨r cwievwnZv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(12) ¯’vbxqfv‡e mnRcÖvc¨ `ª‡eï g‡a¨ AvqwbK I mg‡hvRx †hŠM kbv³ Ki‡Z cvie|
54 imvqb
5.1 †hvR¨Zv B‡jKUªb

wKQz †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK †Ìqv n‡jv, G‡ì cvigvYweK msL¨v wj‡L B‡jKUªb web¨vm Ki Ges B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi wPÎ
AuvK|
Li, Na, O
,F
†KvbwUi †kl kw³¯Í‡i KZwU K‡i B‡jKUªb Av‡Q wjL|

†Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji me©‡kl cÖavb kw³¯Í‡ii †gvU B‡jKUªb msL¨v‡K †mB †gŠ‡ji †hvR¨Zv B‡jKUªb e‡j|
wb‡R Ki :
bvB‡Uªv‡Rb I
K¨vjwmqv‡gi
7n †hvR¨Zv
7p B‡jKUªb msL¨v
KZwU ?
(†gŠjmgy‡ni cÖ_g K¶c‡_i `ywU B‡jKUªb‡K †e‡Rvo Ae¯’vq †`Lv‡bv n‡jI cÖK…Zc‡¶ Giv GKwU Dc¯—‡i †Rvo Ae¯’vq _v‡K)
wPÎ 5.1: bvB‡Uªv‡Rb I K¨vjwmqv‡gi B‡jKUªb web¨vm
5.2 †hvRbx ev †hvR¨Zv (Valency)

†Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb web¨v‡m me©‡kl K¶c‡_ hZ msL¨K B‡jKUªb _v‡K A_ev hZ msL¨K †e‡Rvo B‡jKUªb
_v‡K Zv‡K †gŠ‡ji †hvRbx ev †hvR¨Zv e‡j| avZe †gŠ‡ji †¶‡Î me©‡kl K¶c‡_i B‡jKUªb msL¨v Ges AavZe
†gŠ‡ji †¶‡Î me©‡kl K¶c‡_i †e‡Rvo B‡jKUªb msL¨v †gŠ‡ji †hvR¨Zv wb‡`©k K‡i| †Kvb AavZe †gŠj Zvi
AóK c~i‡Yi Rb¨ hZ msL¨K B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i †m msL¨v‡KI H †gŠ‡ji †hvR¨Zv e‡j| †gŠ‡ji me©‡kl
K¶c‡_i Dc¯Íimg~‡ni g‡a¨ B‡jKUªb cybwe©b¨v‡mi Kvi‡Y †e‡Rvo B‡jKUªb msL¨v cwiewZ©Z nq| GB
†gŠjmg~n cwieZ©bkxj †hvR¨Zv ev GKvwaK †hvR¨Zv cÖ`k©b K‡i| D”P cvigvYweK msL¨vwewkó avZe †gŠj
cwieZ©bkxj †hvR¨Zv cÖ`k©b K‡i| †hvR¨Zv g~jZ †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji, Ab¨ †gŠ‡ji mv‡_ hy³ nIqvi mvg_©¨ ev
¶gZv| ch©vq mviwYi wbw®Œq †kÖwYi †gŠjmg~n mvaviYZ Ab¨ †gŠ‡ji mv‡_ hy³ nq bv, ZvB G‡ì †hvR¨Zv k~b¨
aiv nq|
imvqb 55
†gŠ‡ji cÖZxK †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb web¨vm me©‡kl me©‡kl †hvR¨Zv

K¶c‡_i K¶c‡_i
B‡jKUªb †e‡Rvo
msL¨v B‡jKUªb
msL¨v
1H 1s1 1 1 1
3Li 1s22s1 1 1 1
4Be 1s22s2 2 0 2
4Be* 1s22s12px1 2 2 2
5B
1s22s22px1 3 1 3
5B* 1s22s12px12py1 3 3 3
6C 1s22s22px12py1 4 2 2
6C* 1s22s12px12py12pz1 4 4 4
7N 1s22s22px12py12pz1 5 3 3
11Na 1s22s22p63s1 1 1 1
15P 1s22s22p63s23px13py13pz1 5 3 3
15P* 1s22s22p63s13px13py13pz13d1 5 5 5
QK 5.1: †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb web¨vm Ges †hvR¨Zv

* wPý Øviv †gŠ‡ji D‡ËwRZ Ae¯’v cÖKvk K‡i| G Ae¯’vq †gŠ‡ji †hvR¨Zv¯Í‡ii duvKv Dc¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb cybwe©b¨¯Í nq|
p -Dc¯Íi msL¨v 3wU (px, py, pz) nq| p-Dc¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb aviY ÿgZv QqwU| cÖwZwU p-Dc¯Í‡i `ywU K‡i
B‡jKUªb _vK‡Z cv‡i| Z‡e cÖ‡_g p-Dc¯Íimg~‡ni cÖ‡Z¨KwU‡Z GKwU K‡i B‡jKUªb cÖ‡ek K‡i| cieZ©x‡Z AviI
GKwU K‡i B‡jKUªb cÖ‡ek K‡i|GKBfv‡e d-Dc¯Í‡ii `kwU B‡jKUªb cuvPwU d-Dc¯Í‡i cÖ‡ek K‡i|
KvR : wb¤œwjwLZ †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb web¨vm K‡i †hvR¨Zv m¤ú‡K© gZvgZ `vI|
2He, 12Mg, 17Cl, 9F, 13Al, 19K, 10Ne, 16S
5.3 †hŠMg~jK (Radical)

†hŠMg~jK n‡”Q GKvwaK †gŠ‡ji GKvwaK cigvYyi mgš^‡q MwVZ GKwU cigvYy¸”Q hv GKwU Avq‡bi (Single
ion) b¨vq AvPiY K‡i| †hŠMg~jKmg~n‡K Avavbmn (Charge) †jLv nq| Giv abvZ¥K ev FYvZ¥K Avavbwewkó
n‡Z cv‡i| †hŠMg~jKmg~‡ni Avavb msL¨vB Zv‡ì †hvR¨Zv|
56 imvqb
†hŠMg~j‡Ki bvg †hŠMg~j‡Ki ms‡KZ Avavb †hvR¨Zv
A¨v‡gvwbqvg NH4+ +1 1
dm‡dvwbqvg PH4+ +1 1
nvBWª·vBW OH- -1 1
Kv‡e©v‡bU CO32- -2 2
mvj‡dU SO42- -2 2
mvjdvBU SO32- -2 2
bvB‡UªU NO3- -1 1
bvBUªvBU NO2- -1 1
dm‡dU PO43- -3 3
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU HCO3- -1 1

QK 5.2: K‡qKwU †hŠMg~j‡Ki bvg, ms‡KZ, Avavb I †hvR¨Zv
5.4 †hŠ‡Mi ms‡KZ

cÖ‡Z¨KwU †gŠ‡ji †hgb cÖZxK (Symbol) _v‡K †Zgb cÖ‡Z¨K †hŠ‡Mi c„_K ms‡KZ (Formula) _v‡K|
ms‡KZ Øviv †hŠ‡Mi AYy‡Z cigvYy ev Avq‡bi AbycvZ cÖKvk K‡i| wbi‡c¶ cigvYy I Avavbwewkó Avqb
(abvZ¥K ev FYvZ¥K) Øviv †hŠ‡Mi AYy MwVZ nq| abvZ¥K I FYvZ¥K Avavbwewkó Avqb Øviv †hŠM MwVZ n‡j
Zviv Ggbfv‡e hy³ nq †hb †hŠ‡Mi †gvU Avavb k~b¨ nq| †h‡nZz abvZ¥K I FYvZ¥K Avq‡bi Avavb msL¨vB
Zv‡ì †hvR¨Zv ev wecixZ Avq‡bi mv‡_ hy³ nIqvi ¶gZv, ZvB GKwU GKK abvZ¥K Avqb GKwU GKK
FYvZ¥K Avq‡bi mv‡_ hy³ n‡q †hŠM MVb K‡i| `yBwU GKK abvZ¥K Avqb GKwU wØ-FYvZ¥K Avq‡bi mv‡_ hy³
nq| GKwU wØ-abvZ¥K Avqb `yBwU GKK FYvZ¥K Avq‡bi mv‡_ hy³ nq| abvZ¥K I FYvZ¥K Avqb Øviv MwVZ
†hŠ‡Mi ms‡KZ †jLvi mgq abvZ¥K Ask cÖ_‡g Ges FYvZ¥K Ask c‡i †jLv nq|
ms‡KZ MV‡bi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq Avq‡bi msL¨v I †hŠ‡Mi ms‡KZ
abvZ¥K Avqb FYvZ¥K Avqb †hŠ‡Mi †gvU Avavb
abvZ¥K Avq‡bi FYvZ¥K Avq‡bi †hŠ‡Mi †gvU
I Zvi Avavb I Zvi Avavb
msL¨v msL¨v
Avavb
Cu2+ , +2 SO42- , -2 1 1 0 CuSO4
Na+ , +1 PO43- , -3 3 1 0 Na3PO4
Al3+ , +3 NO3- , -1 1 3 0 Al(NO3)3
QK: 5.3: abvZ¥K I FYvZ¥K Avqb Øviv MwVZ K‡qKwU †hŠ‡Mi ms‡KZ|
imvqb 57
KvR : †kÖwY‡Z abvZ¥K I FYvZ¥K Avqb wb‡q `kwU ms‡KZ wj‡L wk¶K‡K †`LvI|
`ywU wbi‡c¶ cigvYyi gva¨‡g †hŠM MV‡bi mgq

mvaviYZ ch©vq mviwYi evg cv‡ki †gŠj‡K cÖ_‡g
†jLv nq| Zzjbvg~jKfv‡e AwaK abvZ¥K †gŠj‡K
cÖ_‡g †jLv nq| †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji †hvR¨Zv, Ab¨
†gŠ‡ji mv‡_ hy³ nIqvi ¶gZv cÖKvk K‡i|
mvaviYZ GKwU †gŠ‡ji †hvR¨Zv‡K Aci †gŠ‡ji
cigvYy msL¨v wn‡m‡e a‡i, †hv‡M †gŠjmg~‡ni cigvYy
msL¨vi AbycvZ †_‡K ms‡KZ †jLv nq|
wPÎ 5.2 : †hvR¨Zvi mvnv‡h¨ AYyi ms‡K‡Zi aviYv
ms‡KZ MV‡bi Rb¨ †gŠ‡ji cÖ‡qvRbxq cigvYyi
msL¨v I Zv‡ì AbycvZ †hŠ‡Mi ms‡KZ
cÖ_g †gŠj I wØZxq †gŠj I
Zvi †hvR¨Zv Zvi †hvR¨Zv cÖ_g †gŠ‡ji wØZxq †gŠ‡ji AbycvZ
cigvYyi msL¨v cigvYyi msL¨v
H, 1 Cl , 1 1 1 1:1 HCl
C,4 H, 1 1 4 1:4 CH4

C,4 O,2 2 4 1:2 CO2
N,5 O,2 2 5 2:5 N2O5
QK 5.4: `yBwU wbi‡c¶ cigvYy Øviv MwVZ K‡qKwU †hŠ‡Mi ms‡KZ
5.5 wbw®Œq M¨vm Ges Gi w¯’wZkxjZv

wbðq †Zvgiv Rvb ch©vq mviwYi '18' MÖy‡ci †gŠjmg~n‡K wbw®Œq M¨vm ejv nq|
GB MÖ“‡ci wnwjqvg, wbqb, AvM©b I wµcU‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨vm Ki|
[ wPšÍv Ki : B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi †¶‡Î Kx wgj Ges Kx Awgj j¶ KiQ?]
wb‡gœ wbw®Œq M¨vmmg~‡ni B‡jKUªb web¨vm †Ìqv n‡jv :
He (2) : 1s2
Ne (10) : 1s2 2s2 2p6
Ar (18) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Kr (36): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
Xe (54) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p6
Rn (86) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10 6s2 6p6
58 imvqb
Dc‡ii B‡jKUªb web¨vm †_‡K †`Lv hvq, GKgvÎ wnwjqvg Qvov Ab¨ mKj wbw®Œq †gŠ‡ji †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i 8wU
B‡jKUªb i‡q‡Q| He -Gi cvigvYweK msL¨v 2| 1g cÖavb kw³¯Í‡i GKwU gvÎ Dc¯Íi (s) _vKvq Gi †hvR¨Zv
¯Íi 2 wU B‡jKUªb Øviv c~Y© _v‡K, hv He -Gi Rb¨ ¯’vqx web¨vm| He -Gi †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i 2 Ges Ab¨vb¨
wbw®Œq M¨v‡mi †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i 8wU B‡jKUªb w¯’wZkxj Ae¯’v cÖ`vb K‡i| wbw®Œq †gŠjmg~n Gi~c B‡jKUªb
web¨vm cwieZ©‡b AbvMÖnx nIqvi Kvi‡YB Giv ivmvqwbKfv‡e wbw®Œq| Ab¨w`‡K Ab¨vb¨ †gŠjmg~‡ni me©ewnt¯’
¯Í‡i G B‡jKUªb web¨vm bv _vKvq G me †gŠj wewfbœfv‡e G ai‡bi AwaKZi ¯’vqx B‡jKUªb web¨vm MV‡b
AvMÖnx| GRb¨ †gŠjmg~n cÖ‡qvRbxq msL¨K B‡jKUªb MÖnY A_ev eR©b K‡i|
5.6 AóK I `yB-Gi wbqg
†Zvgiv c~‡e© Li Ges Na -Gi B‡jKUªb web¨vm †`‡L‡Qv|
Kxfv‡e Li, He Gi B‡jKUªb web¨vm Ges Na, Ne -Gi B‡jKUªb web¨vm jvf Ki‡e e¨vL¨v Ki|
†Zvgiv Aw·‡Rb, †K¬vwib I K¨vjwmqv‡gi B‡jKUªb web¨vm Ki| w¯’wZkxjZv AR©‡bi Rb¨ G wZbwU †gŠj
†Kvb wbw®Œq †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb web¨vm jvf Ki‡Z PvB‡e Ges Kxfv‡e Ki‡e e¨vL¨v Ki|
nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i GKwU gvÎ B‡jKUªb i‡q‡Q| H cigvYy, †hŠ‡Mi AYy MV‡bi mgq GwU Gi wbKUZg
wbw®Œq M¨vm wnwjqv‡gi B‡jKUªb web¨vm jvf Ki‡Z PvB‡e| GRb¨ †hŠM MV‡bi mgq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy GKwU
B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i ev nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi B‡jKUªbwU Ab¨ cigvYyi GKwU B‡jKUª‡bi mv‡_ †kqvi K‡i|
He Ne Ar
wØZ c~Y© (duet) AóK c~Y© (octet) AóK c~Y© (octet)
myZivs Dc‡ii e¨vL¨v-we‡kølY †_‡K G wm×v‡šÍ DcbxZ nIqv hvq †hÑ

wewfbœ †gŠ‡ji cigvYymg~n wb‡R‡ì g‡a¨ B‡jKUªb Av`vb-cÖ`vb Ges †kqv‡ii gva¨‡g cigvYymg~‡ni †kl
kw³¯Í‡i 2 wU A_ev †ewki fvM †¶‡Î AvUwU B‡jKUª‡bi web¨vm jvf K‡i| Gfv‡e †hvR¨Zv¯Í‡i He -Gi
web¨vm jvf Kiv‡K `yB-Gi (duplet or duet) wbqg Ges †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i 8 wU B‡jKUªb web¨vm jvf Kiv‡K
AóK (octet) wbqg e‡j| cÖwZwU Dc¯Í‡i 2wU B‡jKUªb _vK‡Z cv‡i| GRb¨ GKwU cigvYyi †e‡Rvo
B‡jKUªb Ab¨ GKwU cigvYyi †e‡Rvo B‡jKUª‡bi mv‡_ †kqvi K‡i B‡jKUªb †Rvo MVb K‡i| Gfv‡e
B‡jKUªb †Rvo MV‡bi ci cigvYy AwaK w¯’wZkxj nq| B‡jKUªb †Rvo MVb K‡i cigvYyi w¯’wZkxj nIqvi
GB wbqg‡K `yB Gi wbqg e‡j|
5.7 ivmvqwbK eÜb I ivmvqwbK eÜb MV‡bi KviY
Li, Na Ges Ca -Gi †¶‡Î †`‡LQ B‡jKUªb eR©b K‡i †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i Giv `yB-Gi ev AóK bxwZ Abyhvqx
web¨vm jvf K‡i| O, F cigvYy B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i AóK web¨vm jvf K‡i|
H2 Aby MVbKv‡j `ywU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy 1wU K‡i B‡jKUªb †kqvi K‡i|
GB fv‡e wewfbœ †gŠj B‡jKUªb Av`vb-cÖ`vb A_ev †kqv‡ii gva¨‡g eÜb MVb K‡i|
Zvn‡j ivmvqwbK eÜb MV‡bi Rb¨ wKQz cÖ‡qvRbxq Z_¨ Avgv‡ì g‡b ivL‡Z n‡eÑ
1. †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji †kl kw³¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb A_©vr †hvR¨Zv B‡jKUªb eÜb MV‡b AskMÖnY K‡i|
imvqb 59
2. cÖwZwU cigvYyiB j¶¨ _v‡K B‡jKUªb MÖnY ev eR©‡bi gva¨‡g Zvi wbKUeZ©x wbw®Œq †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb
web¨vm jvf Kiv|
3. 1 †_‡K 17 cvigvYweK msL¨vwewkó †gŠjmg~n eÜb MVb Ki‡j Lye mn‡RB `yB-Gi (duplet) ev
AóK (octet) wbqg †g‡b P‡j| Z…Zxq ¯Í‡ii m‡e©v”P B‡jKUªb aviY¶gZv 18 nIqv m‡Ë¡I wKQz †gŠj
(†hgb K, Ca) 8wU B‡jKUªb Øviv 3q ¯Íi c~Y© _vKv Ae¯’vq 4_© ¯Í‡ii 1g Dc¯Íi (1s) c~Y© K‡i|
eÜb MV‡bi mgq GivI AóK wbqg AbymiY K‡i|
Dc‡ii Z‡_ï wfwË‡Z cigvYymg~n eÜb MVb K‡i Ges †m Kvi‡YB G‡Ki cÖwZ A‡bï AvKl©Y ev Avmw³i m„wó
nq| myZivs ejv hvq †hÑ
†h AvKl©Y e‡ji gva¨‡g GKwU cigvYyy Ab¨ cigvYyi mv‡_ hy³ nq Zv‡K ivmvqwbK eÜb e‡j|
5.8 K¨vUvqb I A¨vbvqb
cvkvcvwk †mvwWqvg I wbq‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi wPÎ AuvK|
Kxfv‡e †mvwWqvg, wbq‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨vm jvf Ki‡e? Na -Gi cvigvYweK msL¨v 11|
Zvi †kl kw³¯Í‡ii GKwU B‡jKUªb Z¨v‡Mi gva¨‡g ZvB bv?
Na+ Avq‡bi Avavb MVb
Na - e- Na+
2, 8, 1 2, 8 11 wU †cÖvU‡bi Avavb = +11
10 wU B‡jKUª‡bi Avavb = -10
†gvU Avavb = +1
†h mKj †gŠ‡ji †kl kw³¯Íi ev †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i Kg msL¨K (1, 2, 3) B‡jKUªb _v‡K †m mKj †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb
ch©vq miwYi GKB ch©v‡qi Ab¨vb¨ †gŠ‡ji Zzjbvq wbDwK¬qvm †_‡K `~‡i Ae¯’vb K‡i| B‡jKUªbmg~n
wbDwK¬qv‡mi mv‡_ `ye©jfv‡e AvKwl©Z _v‡K| GB †gŠjmg~n B‡jKUªb AcmviY K‡i `yB Gi ev AóK c~Y© Ae¯’vq
cwiYZ n‡Z Pvq| hvi d‡j Giv mn‡RB B‡jKUªb Z¨vM K‡i| ¯^vfvweK Ae¯’vq
wb‡R Ki :
cigvYyi B‡jKUªb I †cÖvUb msL¨v mgvb _v‡K| GKwU B‡jKUªb Z¨v‡Mi Kvi‡Y cvkvcvwk †K¬vwib I AvM©‡bi
wewfbœ K¶c‡_ B‡jKUª‡bi Zzjbvq wbDwK¬qv‡m abvZ¥K Avav‡bi cwigvY GK GKK B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi wPÎ
AuvK|
†e‡o hvq| ZLb GwU GKK abvZ¥K Avavbhy³ cigvYyy‡Z cwiYZ nq|
abvZ¥K Avavbhy³ cigvYy‡K K¨vUvqb e‡j |
†`Lv hv‡”Q †K¬vwi‡bi †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb msL¨v 7, †gvU B‡jKUªb msL¨v 17, Aci w`‡K wbw®Œq M¨vm
AvM©‡bi B‡jKUªb msL¨v 18, †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i B‡jKUªb msL¨v 8| AvM©‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨vm jvf Ki‡Z n‡j
†K¬vwi‡bi AviI GKwU B‡jKUªb cÖ‡qvRb|
Cl- Avq‡bi Avavb MVb
Cl + e- Cl- 17 wU †cÖvU‡bi Avavb = +17
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8 18 wU B‡jKUª‡bi Avavb = -18
†gvU Avavb = -1
60 imvqb
GKwU B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i †K¬vwib cigvYy GKK FYvZ¥K Avavbhy³ †K¬vivBW Avq‡b cwiYZ nq|
FYvZ¥K Avavbhy³ cigvYy‡K A¨vbvqb e‡j|
wb‡R Ki : g¨vM‡bwmqvg I Aw·‡R‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi wPÎ Gu‡K Kxfv‡e `ywU cigvYy G‡ì wbKUeZ©x
wbw®Œq M¨vm wbq‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨vm jvf K‡i K¨vUvqb I A¨vbvq‡b cwiYZ n‡e †`LvI|
27 3+ 16 2-
13Al , 8 O Avq‡b B‡jKUªb, †cÖvUb I wbDUªb msL¨v wbY©q Ki|
x
5.9 AvqwbK eÜb x x
Li He
x
x
x x x
x x
x x x x
x F x x Ne x
x x
x x x x
wPÎ 5.3: wewfbœ cigvYyi B‡jKUªb web¨vm

wjw_qvg Kxfv‡e wnwjqvg Ges †d¬vwib Kxfv‡e wbq‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨vm jvf Ki‡e? wjw_qvg cigvYy †hvR¨Zv
¯Í‡ii GKwU B‡jKUªb eR©b K‡i wnwjqv‡gi ¯’vqx `yB-Gi (duplet) Ges †d¬vwib cigvYy †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i GKwU
B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i wbq‡bi †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡ii ¯’vqx AóK (octet) web¨vm jvf Ki‡e|
`ywU cigvYy hLb KvQvKvwQ Av‡m ZLb wjw_qvg cigvYy Zvi †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªbwU †d¬vwib cigvYy‡K `vb
Ki‡e Ges †d¬vwib †mB `vbK…Z B‡jKUªbwU MÖnY K‡i h_vµ‡g Li+ Avqb I F- Avq‡b cwiYZ n‡e| `ywU Avqb
hy³ n‡q LiF †hŠ‡M cwiYZ n‡e| x
x
F
Li
x
x
x -
Li+ F
wPÎ 5.4: wjw_qvg †d¬vivBW †hŠM MVb cÖwµqv
wb‡R Ki :
†mvwWqvg I †d¬vwib cigvYy ms‡hv‡M †mvwWqvg †d¬vivBW (NaF) †hŠMwUi MVb cÖwµqv †`LvI|
[`jMZfv‡e Ki : g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW, K¨vjwmqvg †K¬vivBW Ges cUvwmqvg †K¬vivBW †hŠMmg~‡ni MVb
cÖwµqv Gu‡K †`LvI Ges wb‡Pi cÖkœ¸‡jvi DËi `vI|
1. g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW eÜb MV‡bi mgq g¨vM‡bwmqvg I Aw·‡Rb KZwU K‡i B‡jKUªb `vb Ges MÖnY K‡i?
2. Mg, Mg2+ Avq‡b Ges O, O2- Avq‡b cwiYZ n‡jv †Kb?
3. K¨vjwmqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi ms‡KZ Kx?
imvqb 61
Dc‡ii me¸‡jv D`vniY ch©v‡jvPbv Ki‡j †`Lv hvq avZzmg~n B‡jKUªb eR©b Ges AavZymg~n avZz KZ…©K eR©bK…Z
B‡jKUªb/B‡jKUªbmg~n MÖnY K‡i h_vµ‡g K¨vUvqb I A¨vbvq‡b cwiYZ nq| K¨vUvqb I A¨vbvqb KvQvKvwQ G‡m
AvqwbK eÜb MVb K‡i|
B‡jKUªb Av`vb-cÖ`v‡bi gva¨‡g MwVZ K¨vUvqb (abvZ¥K Avqb) Ges A¨vbvqbmg~n (&FYvZ¥K Avqb) †h w¯’i
ê`y¨wZK AvKl©Y ej Øviv †hŠ‡Mi AYy‡Z Ave× _v‡K Zv‡K AvqwbK eÜb e‡j|
`ywU wfbœag©x cigvYyi gva¨‡g MwVZ nq AvqwbK †hŠM|
wPÎ 5.5: NaCl Gi AvqwbK eÜb MVb
Rvbv cÖ‡qvRb, AvqwbK eÜb mvaviYZ ch©vq mviwYi MÖ“c 1 I 2 -Gi avZz Ges MÖ“c 16 I 17 -Gi AavZzi
g‡a¨ N‡U _v‡K| ch©vq mviwYi gvSvgvwS Ae¯’v‡b Aew¯’Z avZzmg~‡ni †kl kw³¯Í‡i AwaKmsL¨K B‡jKUªb
_vKvi Kvi‡Y, B‡jKUªb `vb ev MÖn‡Yi Rb¨ AwaK kw³i cÖ‡qvRb nq hvi d‡j mvaviYZ Giv wZb ev Pvi msL¨K
B‡jKUªb MÖnY ev eR©‡b Drmvnx nq bv| Gi g‡a¨ e¨wZµg n‡jv Al3+ Avqb| ZvI †`Lv hvq Al me mgq wZbwU
B‡jKUªb eR©b K‡i AvqwbK eÜb MVb K‡i bv|
D‡jøL¨ †h ch©vq mviwYi 1 †_‡K 20 ch©šÍ cvigvYweK msL¨vwewkó †gŠjmg~nB cÖK…Zfv‡e eÜb MVbKv‡j `yB Gi
(duplet) I AóK (octet) bxwZ AbymiY K‡i|
5.10 mg‡hvRx eÜb

nvB‡Wªv‡Rb, Kve©b, Aw·‡Rb, bvB‡Uªv‡Rb I †d¬vwi‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨v‡mi wPÎ AuvK| G mKj †gŠjB AavZz|
AavZz-AavZz eÜb MVb Kivi †¶‡Î Kx N‡U? hw` GKwU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy Aci GKwU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYyi
mv‡_ hy³ nq ZLb Kx N‡U? G †¶‡Î Dfq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy B‡jKUªb MÖnY Ki‡Z Pvq| wKšÍy †Kv‡bv cigvYy
B‡jKUªb eR©b Ki‡Z Pvq bv| wnwjqvg cigvYyi w¯’wZkxj (`yB Gi wbqg) web¨vm jvf Kivi Rb¨ nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi
B‡jKUªb MÖnY ev eR©b m¤¢e bq| †m‡¶‡Î cigvYyØq ci¯úi B‡jKUªb †kqvi K‡i wnwjqv‡gi w¯’wZkxj web¨vm
jvf Ki‡e|
H2 AYy
H H
Kve©b, bvB‡Uªv‡Rb I †d¬vwi‡bi †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡i KZwU B‡jKUªb Av‡Q?

62 imvqb
Kve©‡bi 4
wU, bvB‡Uªv‡R‡bi 5wU I †d¬vwi‡bi 7
wUÑ
6n 7n 10n 10n
6p 7p 9p 10p
Kve©b bvB‡Uªv‡Rb †d¬vwib wbqb

wPÎ 5.6: wewfbœ †gŠ‡ji B‡jKUªb web¨vm
AavZzi mv‡_ eÜb MV‡bi mgq wbq‡bi †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡ii ¯’vqx AóK MV‡bi Rb¨ A_ev wnwjqv‡gi ¯’vqx B‡jKUªb
web¨vm MV‡bi Rb¨ Kve©‡bi h_vµ‡g 4wU B‡jKUªb MÖnY ev eR©b cÖ‡qvRb| bvB‡Uªv‡R‡bi 3wU B‡jKUªb MÖnY ev
5wU B‡jKUªb eR©b cÖ‡qvRb| †d¬vwi‡bi 7wU B‡jKUªb eR©b ev 1wU B‡jKUªb MÖnY cÖ‡qvRb| AavZzmg~n B‡jKUªb
MÖnY K‡i †Kej avZzi mv‡_ eÜb MV‡bi mgq| AavZz-AavZzi eÜb MV‡bi †¶‡Î Kx NU‡e?
†Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji c‡¶ GZ AwaKmsL¨K B‡jKUªb MÖnY ev eR©b m¤¢e bq| KviY Gi Rb¨ AwaK cwigvY kw³ e¨q
Ki‡Z nq hv †h †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji ¶gZvi evB‡i|
†K¬vwib AYy MV‡bi †¶‡Î Kx NU‡e? x x
x x
x
xx 18n x 18n xx
xx 17p + xx 17p xx
x x
x x
x x x x x x
x x Ar x x x x
x x x
x
xx 18n xx
xx 17p xx 18n
17p xx
x
x
x x
x x
wPÎ 5.7: AvM©‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨vm wPÎ 5.8: C

l 2AYyi eÜb MVb
†`Lv hv‡”Q lC 2 AYyi eÜb MV‡bi †¶‡Î cÖwZwU cigvYyi †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡ii GKwU K‡i B‡jKUªb †kqvi K‡i Zvi
wbKUeZ©x wbw®Œq M¨vm AvM©‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨vm jvf K‡i| †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji †hvR¨Zv¯Í‡i 6wU B‡jKUªb _vK‡j Giv
wb‡R‡ì †hvR¨Zv¯Í‡ii 2wU B‡jKUªb †kqvi K‡i wØ-eÜb MVb K‡i Ges wbw®Œq M¨v‡mi B‡jKUªb web¨vm AR©b K‡i|
[wb‡R Ki : Aw·‡Rb I †d¬vwib AYyi eÜb MVbwPÎ AsKb Ki| †KvbwUi †¶‡Î GKK Ges †KvbwUi †¶‡Î
wØeÜb †`Lv hvq e¨vL¨v Ki|]
Dc‡i Av‡jvwPZ meB †gŠwjK AYy| AviI A‡bK †gŠwjK AYy i‡q‡Q| wfbœ wfbœ AavZy cigvYy wg‡j hLb †hŠM MVb
K‡i ZLb Kx N‡U j¶ Ki|
H2O
, cvwbi GKwU AYy hv `yBwU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I GKwU Aw·‡Rb cigvYy wb‡q MwVZ|
Aw·‡R‡bi cvigvYweK msL¨v 8 , Gi B‡jKUªb web¨vm: 2
,6| nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi cvigvYweK msL¨v 1
, Gi B‡jKUªb
web¨vm: 1
| wbq‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨vm jv‡fi Rb¨ Aw·‡R‡bi me©ewnt¯’ ¯Í‡i 2wU B‡jKUªb cÖ‡qvRb| †m
Kvi‡Y `yBwU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy GKwU K‡i B‡jKUªb Aw·‡R‡bi †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡ii `yBwU B‡jKUª‡bi mv‡_ †kqvi
K‡i mg‡hvRx eÜb MVb K‡i| G‡Z Aw·‡Rb AóK I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb `yB-Gi web¨vm jvf Ki‡e|
imvqb 63
H H
2H + O x x
O
wPÎ 5.9: H2O AYyi MVb
†hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb †kqv‡ii gva¨‡g mg‡hvRx AYyi MV‡bi wPÎ †`Lv‡bv hvq|
†Kv‡bv cigvYy i
†hvR¨Zv¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb
gy³-†Rvo B‡jKUªb †Rvo, hvnv eÜb MV‡b
x x x x AskMÖ n Y K‡i bv|
xx xx G‡ì‡K gy ³ ‡Rvo
x x
x x x x x B‡jKUªb e‡j| HCl
H + x
x Cl x x H x
x Cl x x AYyi CI cigvYy‡Z wZb
x x x
xx xx †Rvov gy³ B‡jKUªb
x x x x
eÜb-†Rvo B‡jKUªb Av‡Q|
wPÎ 5.10: †hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb †kqv‡ii gva¨‡g HCl AYyyi eÜb MVb
mg‡hvRx eÜ‡bi gva¨‡g MwVZ nq mg‡hvRx †hŠM Ges mg‡hvRx AYyy| wb‡Pi Q‡K (QK 5.5) wKQz AYyyi ms‡KZ
†Ìqv n‡jv| G‡ì eÜb MVbwPÎ AsKb Ki (†hvR¨Zv ¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb †kqv‡ii gva¨‡g)|
AYy cigvYy msL¨v eÜb MVb wPÎ
wg‡_b C+4H
CH4
A¨v‡gvwbqv N+3H
NH3
Kve©b -WvB-A·vBW
CO2 C+2O
QK 5.5: mg‡hvRx eÜb MV‡bi wPÎ

wPšÍv Ki : H2O, NH3, CO2 Ges CH4 eÜb MV‡bi ci cÖwZwU AYy‡Z KZwU gy³-†Rvo B‡jKUªb
i‡q‡Q Ges KZwU eÜb-†Rvo B‡jKUªb eÜb MV‡b AskMÖnY K‡i‡Q?
64 imvqb
Dc‡ii me¸‡jv D`vniY ch©v‡jvPbv Ki‡j †`Lv hvq mg‡hvRx AYy MVbKvix cÖwZwU cigvYyB AavZz| nvB‡Wªv‡Rb
Qvov me AavZz †gŠ‡jiB †kl kw³¯Í‡i wZ‡bi AwaK B‡jKUªb i‡q‡Q| `yB-Gi I AóK wbqg Abymv‡i †hŠM
MVb Kivi Rb¨ B‡jKUªb eR©b Ki‡Z hZUv kw³ cÖ‡qvRb Zv Zv‡ì †bB| d‡j wb‡R‡ì g‡a¨ Zviv B‡jKUªb
†kqvi K‡i|
me©‡kl kw³¯Í‡i wbKUZg wbw®Œq M¨v‡mi B‡jKU&ªb web¨vm jv‡fi Rb¨ B‡jKUªb †kqv‡ii gva¨‡g †h eÜb
MwVZ nq, Zv‡K mg‡hvRx eÜb e‡j|
j¶Yxq -
x mvaviYZ `ywU AavZe cigvYyi g‡a¨ mg‡hvRx eÜb MwVZ nq|
x eÜ‡b AskMÖnYKvix cigvYy mgmsL¨K B‡jKUªb †hvMvb w`‡q GK ev GKvwaK B‡jKUªb hyMj m„wó K‡i hv
Dfq cigvYy mgvbfv‡e †kqvi K‡i|
mg‡hvRx eÜ‡b MwVZ †gŠwjK AYyy‡K (†hgb O2) mg‡hvRx AYy Ges †hŠM‡K mg‡hvRx †hŠM (†hgb CO2 ) e‡j|
wKQz mg‡hvRx †hŠ‡Mi AYy Kg ZvcgvÎvq M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq _v‡K (CO2, CH4, NH3 BZ¨vw`) wKQz Zij Ae¯’vq
_v‡K {H2O, C2H5OH; (B_vbj) BZ¨vw`} Ges wKQz KwVb Ae¯’vq _v‡K {mvjdvi (S8), Av‡qvwWb (I2)
BZ¨vw`}| G‡ì AYymg~n `ye©j f¨vbWvi Iqvjm (van der Waals) kw³ Øviv Ave× _v‡K hv Kg ZvcgvÎvq
wew”Qbœ nq| CO2, CH4, NH3 BZ¨vwì AYymg~‡ni g‡a¨ f¨vbWvi Iqvjm kw³ †bB ej‡jB P‡j, hvi d‡j
Giv M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq GKK AYy wn‡m‡e Ny‡i †eovq|
wPÎ 5.11: me©‡kl kw³ ¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb †kqv‡ii gva¨‡g CO2 AYy MVb
5.11 AvqwbK I mg‡hvRx †hŠ‡Mi êwkó¨

MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK (`jMZ KvR) : cÖwZwU `j Lv`¨jeY (NaCl) I wPwb (C12H22O11) Avjv`v Avjv`v Zvcmn
KvPb‡j wb‡q Zvc w`‡Z _vK| ch©‡e¶‡Yi djvdj †bvU Ki| NaCl -Gi MjbvsK A‡bK †ewk e‡j
j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z Zvi MjbvsK wbY©q mnR bv-I n‡Z cv‡i| wPwbi MjbvsK A‡bK Kg e‡j Zv wbY©q mnR n‡e,
Z‡e ùzUbvsK wbY©q †ek KwVb KviY Mj‡bi ciB GwU ev`vwg †_‡K Kv‡jv iO aviY K‡i| hv‡K Avgiv
K¨viv‡gj e‡j _vwK| mnRcÖvß n‡j Lv`¨je‡Yi e`‡j †mvwWqvg bvB‡UªU wb‡q †Zvgiv G cix¶vwU Ki‡Z cvi,
wPwbi e`‡j cvwb wb‡q ùzUbvsK wbY©q Ki‡Z cvi, 2q Aa¨v‡q MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK wbY©‡qi Rb¨ †hfv‡e
DcKiY¸‡jv mvwR‡qwQ‡j †mfv‡e mvRv‡Z n‡e|
wk¶v_©xi KvR: cix¶Y †_‡K †`Lv hvq AvqwbK †hŠMmg~‡ni MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK D”P Ges mg‡hvRx
†hŠMmg~‡ni MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK wbgœÑ KviY e¨vL¨v Ki|
[Z_¨: AvqwbK †hŠ‡Mi AYy‡Z abvZ¥K I FYvZ¥K cÖvš— _vKvq G‡ì Avš—tAvYweK kw³ †ewk nq| Aciw`‡K
mg‡hvRx †hŠ‡Mi AYy wbi‡c¶ nIqvq G‡ì AYymg~‡ni g‡a¨ `ye©j f¨vbWvi Iqvjm AvKl©Ykw³ we`¨gvb
_v‡K|KwVb c`v‡_© AvšÍtAvYweK `~iZ¡ Kg _v‡K| Zij c`v‡_© GB `~iZ¡ KwVb c`v‡_©i Zzjbvq †ewk _v‡K|
M¨vmxq c`v‡_© AvšÍtAvYweK `~iZ¡ AZ¨šÍ †ewk nq| KwVb c`v_©‡K Zij c`v‡_© cwiYZ Kivi Rb¨ AvšÍtAvYweK
`~iZ¡ e„w× Ki‡Z nq| Zij c`v_©‡K M¨vmxq c`v‡_© cwiYZ Kivi Rb¨ GB `~iZ¡ AviI e„w× Ki‡Z nq|]
imvqb 65
`ªeYxqZv (`jMZ KvR): wbw`©ó cwigvY cvwb‡Z Avjv`v Avjv`v fv‡e KvcoKvPv †mvWv, †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW I Zzu‡Z
†hvM K‡i Zv bvo‡Z _vK, †KvbwU wgwkªZ n‡jv, †KvbwU n‡jv bv Zv wjwce× Ki| D‡jøL¨ G mKj †hŠMB
AvqwbK| Avevi Avjv`v Avjv`v cv‡Î wbw`©ó cwigvY cvwb‡Z mg‡hvRx †hŠM b¨vc_vwjb (¸uov), AvUv/gq`v, †Zj I
wPwb cvwb‡Z wgwkªZ Ki| ch©‡e¶‡Yi djvdj wjwce× Ki|
G †¶‡Î †Zvgv‡ì g‡b GKwU cÖkœ Avm‡Z cv‡i †ewkifvM AvqwbK †hŠM cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nq, Avevi †ewki fvM
mg‡hvRx †hŠM cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nq bv †Kb?
`ªeYxqZv cix¶v Ki‡Z wM‡q †`‡LQ, cvwb‡Z cÖvq mKj AvqwbK †hŠM `ªexf~Z nq, hwÌ cvwb GKwU mg‡hvRx
†hŠM| Aci w`‡K †ewki fvM mg‡hvRx †hŠM cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nq bv wKš‘ wPwb, A¨vj‡Kvnj mg‡hvRx †hŠM nIqv
m‡Ë¡I cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nq| Gi KviY Kx? eÜb MV‡bi ci cvwbi AYy‡Z Aw·‡Rb I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYyi
gaëZ©x †kqviK…Z B‡jKUªb‡K Dfq cigvYyi wbDwK¬qvm AvKl©Y K‡i| GB AvKl©Y Kivi ¶gZv nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi
Zzjbvq Aw·‡R‡bi †ewk _v‡K (mg‡hvRx eÜ‡b †kqviK…Z B‡jKUªb‡K AvKl©Y Kivi ¶gZv‡K Zwor FYvZ¥KZv
e‡j)| AvKl©‡Yi Kvi‡Y eÜ‡bi †kqviK…Z B‡jKUªbhyMj Aw·‡Rb cigvYyi wbDwK¬qv‡mi w`‡K †ewk AvK…ó nq|
hvi d‡j Aw·‡R‡b AvswkK FYvZ¥K cÖvšÍ Ges nvB‡Wªv‡R‡b AvswkK abvZ¥K cÖv‡šÍi m„wó nq| GB NUbv‡K
mg‡hvRx †hŠ‡Mi †cvjvwiwU ejv nq| †h mg‡hvRx †hŠ‡M †cvjvwiwUi m„wó nq Zv‡K †cvjvi mg‡hvRx †hŠM e‡j|
2
2
wPÎ 5.12: cvwbi AYy‡Z †cvjvwiwU

AvqwbK †hŠ‡M abvZ¥K I FYvZ¥K cÖvšÍ _v‡K| AvqwbK †hŠ‡Mi abvZ¥K cÖvšÍ cvwbi FYvZ¥K Aw·‡Rb cÖvšÍ Øviv
AvKwl©Z nq Ges AvqwbK †hŠ‡Mi FYvZ¥K cÖvšÍ cvwbi abvZ¥K nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cÖvšÍ Øviv AvKwl©Z nq| mg‡hvRx
†hŠMmg~‡ni g‡a¨ hv‡ì †cvjvwiwU i‡q‡Q †m¸‡jvI GKBfv‡e AvKwl©Z nq| AvKl©‡Yi Kvi‡Y †hŠ‡Mi abvZ¥K I
FYvZ¥K cÖvšÍ ci¯úi †_‡K wew”Qbœ n‡q cvwbi †cvjvi AYyi wecixZ cÖvšÍ w`‡q cwi‡ewóZ _v‡K Ges cvwb‡Z
`ªexf~Z nq| G
G G
G G
G
G G
G G G G
G
G
G G
G
G
G G G
G G G
G G
G
G G G
wPÎ 5.13: cvwb AYy ms‡hvwRZ Na+ I Cl- Avqb

we`y¨r cwievwnZv (`jMZ KvR): GKwU cv‡Î/weKv‡i Lv`¨je‡Yi `ªeY, Aci GKwU cv‡Î/weKv‡i wPwbi `ªeY wb‡q
B‡jK‡UªvW wn‡m‡e `ywU MÖvdvBU `Ê bvI| `ÊØq‡K Kcvi Zvi, e¨vUvwi I ev‡j¦i gva¨‡g hy³ K‡i eZ©bx c~Y© Ki|
66 imvqb
MÖvdvBU MÖvdvBU `Ê
`Ê
wPwbi
NaCl Gi `ªeY
`ªeY
wPÎ 5.14: `ªe‡Yi we`y¨r cwievwnZv wbY©q

ch©‡e¶Y Ki Ges AvqwbK I mg‡hvRx †hŠ‡Mi we`y¨r cwievwnZvi cv_©K¨ wbY©q Ki| MÖvdvBU `‡Êi cwie‡Z©
avZe `Ê eënvi Kiv hvq| `ªe‡Yi we`y¨r cwievnx I Acwievnx nIqvi KviY e¨vL¨v Ki|
(Z_¨ : we`y¨r cwien‡bi Rb¨ gy³ Avqb ev B‡jKUª‡bi Dcw¯’wZ Ges Zv‡ì PjvPj cÖ‡qvRb|)
†Kjvm MVb :
[evwoi KvR: cÖ‡Z¨‡K c„_K cv‡Î Lvevi jeY I wPwbi Avjv`v Avjv`v m¤ú„³ `ªeY ˆZwi K‡i Zv‡Z ax‡i
ax‡i Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki| `ªe‡Yi AvqZb cÖv_wgK AvqZ‡bi A‡a©K cwigvY n‡j bvwg‡q VvÊv n‡Z `vI| wKQz
mgq ci cv‡Îi Zjvq jeY I wPwbi `ªeY †_‡K Rgv nIqv KwVb c`v‡_©i AvK…wZ ch©‡e¶Y Ki Ges AvK…wZ
m¤ú‡K© †Zvgvi gZvgZ `vI|
[†kªwYi KvR : GKBfv‡e †divm mvj‡d‡Ui `ªeY ˆZwi K‡i †divm mvj‡dU ùwUK ˆZwi Ki]
Cl-
Na+
wPÎ 5.15: †mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi ùwUK †Kjvm

AviI wKQz AvqwbK †hŠ‡Mi ùwUK †Kjvm Av‡Q †hgb g¨vM‡bwmqv (MgO), A¨vjywgbv (Al2O3) hv‡ì MjbvsK
A‡bK †ewk, G‡ì †fŠZ Ae¯’v 15000C ZvcgvÎvq AcwieZ©xZ _v‡K| mvaviYZ Kg ZvcgvÎvq AvqwbK †hŠMmg~n
KwVb Ae¯’vq _v‡K| B‡jKUªb PjvPj Ki‡Z cv‡i bv e‡j G Ae¯’vq Giv we`y¨r cwienb Ki‡Z cv‡i bv|
wb‡P wKQz mg‡hvRx e„nr AYyi ùwUK †Kjv‡mi wPÎ †Ìqv n‡jv:
wPÎ 5.16: evwj (SiO2), nxiK I MÖvdvB‡Ui †Kjvm

†Kjvm Ae¯’vq mg‡hvRx c`v_©mg~nI D”P MjbvsK I ùzUbvsKwewkó|
wPšÍv Ki : Kve©‡bi `ywU i~c‡f`, nxiK I MÖvdvBU| nxiK we`y¨r Acwievnx wKš‘ MÖvdvBU we`y¨r cwievnx †Kb?
67
(Z_¨: nxi‡K cÖwZwU Kve©b cigvYy PviwU Kve©b cigvYyi mv‡_ Ges MÖvdvB‡U cÖwZwU Kve©b cigvYy wZbwU Kve©b
cigvYyi mv‡_ mg‡hvRx eÜb MVb K‡i|)
5.12 avZe eÜb
†Zvgiv Kcvi Zvi, A¨vjywgwbqvg d‡qj, A¨vjywgwbqv‡gi ˆZwi ìRv-Rvbvjv, †jvnv, wRsK avZzi cÖ‡jchy³
†XDwUb, wewfbœ ai‡bi †KŠUv †`‡L _vK| G‡ì cigvYy¸‡jv wKš‘ Ab¨ †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji mv‡_ mvaviYZ eÜb MVb
K‡i bv, Avevi wb‡R‡ì g‡a¨ wØcigvYyK ev wÎcigvYyyK Ae¯’vq _v‡K bv| ¯^ ¯^ †gŠ‡ji cigvYymg~n GK‡Î
cvkvcvwk Ae¯’vb K‡i| c~‡e©B j¶ K‡iQ mKj avZziB †kl kw³¯Í‡i Kg msL¨K B‡jKUªb _v‡K| ch©vq mviwYi
GKB ch©v‡qi Ab¨vb¨ †gŠ‡ji Zzjbvq GB †gŠjmg~‡ni B‡jKUªb wbDwK¬qvm †_‡K `~‡i _vKvi Kvi‡Y wbDwK¬qv‡mi
mv‡_ B‡jKUª‡bi AvKl©Yej Kg _v‡K| ZvB avZe †Kjv‡m GB B‡jKUªb¸‡jv cigvYyi K¶c_ †_‡K †ei n‡q mgMÖ
avZeL‡Ê gy³fv‡e PjvPj K‡i| wegy³ B‡jKUªb¸‡jv †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó cigvYyi Aax‡b _v‡K bv| eiÂ mgMÖ avZe
L‡Êi n‡q hvq| B‡jKUªb nvwi‡q avZzi cigvYyMy‡jv abvZ¥K Avq‡b cwiYZ n‡q GK wÎgvwÎK †Kjv‡m Ae¯’vb
K‡i| GK B‡jKUªb mvM‡i avZe Avqb¸‡jv wbgw¾Z Av‡Q e‡j g‡b Kiv nq| gy³ B‡jKUªbmg~n mg¯Í avZe
L‡Ê mÂiYkxj _v‡K| GB mÂiYkxj B‡jKUª‡bi Kvi‡Y avZeL‡Ê D”P Zvc I we`y¨r cwievwnZv, bgbxqZv,
NvZmnZv cÖf„wZ êwk‡óï m„wó nq|
wPÎ 5.17: avZe †Kjv‡m Avqb I B‡jKUªb
avZe cigvYymg~n †h AvKl©Y ej Øviv ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ Ave× _v‡K Zv‡K avZe eÜb e‡j |
avZzi we`y¨r cwievwnZvi KviY:
(-) K¨v‡_vW A¨v‡bvW (+)
+ + +
- - - -
+ + +
- - - -
-
wPÎ 5.18: avZe †Kjv‡m we`y¨r cwievwnZv

me avZzB we`y¨r mycwievnx| avZe †Kjv‡mi Af¨šÍixY B‡jKUªbmg~n ¯^vaxbfv‡e PjvPj K‡i| ê`y¨wZK †¶‡Îi
cÖfv‡e ev avZe LÊ‡K e¨vUvwii mv‡_ hy³ K‡i eZ©bx c~Y© Ki‡j avZe L‡Êi gy³ B‡jKUªbmg~n mn‡RB eZ©bxi
FYvZ¥K cÖvšÍ †_‡K abvZ¥K cÖv‡šÍi w`‡K PjvPj K‡i Ges Gfv‡eB we`y¨r cwienb K‡i| Dc‡ii wPÎwU
fv‡jvfv‡e j¶ Ki‡jB Zv †Zvgiv eyS‡Z cvi‡e|
cix¶v Ki: wKQz c`v_© †hgb †jvnv, A¨vjywgwbqvg, wRsK, avZe †KŠUvi †QvU XvKbv, `yB cÖvšÍ mvc© Kiv †cwÝj,
ivevi, Kv‡Vi UzKiv, ivevi e¨vÛ BZ¨vwì g‡a¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cwievwnZv cix¶v Ki| cieZ©x c„ôvi wPÎ (5.19)
Abymv‡i- B -Gi ¯’v‡b wewfbœ c`v_© eënvi Ki| G‡ì‡K cwievnx I Acwievnx wn‡m‡e c„_K Ki|
68 imvqb
e¨vUvwi
†µv‡KvWvBj wK¬c
B
wPÎ 5.19 : we`y¨r cwievwnZvi cix¶v|
Abykxjbx
1. †h AvKl©Y e‡ji gva¨‡g AYy‡Z cigvYymg~n hy³ _v‡K Zv‡K Kx e‡j?
K. B‡jKUªb Avmw³ L. Zwor FYvZ¥KZv
M. ivmvqwbK eÜb N. f¨vbWvi Iqvjm ej
2. wb‡Pi †Kvb †hŠMwU MVbKv‡j cÖwZwU cigvYyB wbq‡bi B‡jKUªb web¨vm AR©b K‡i?
K. KF L. CaS
M. MgO N. NaCl
wb‡Pi †gŠj¸‡jvi B‡jKUªwbK KvVv‡gvi Av‡jv‡K 3 I 4 bs cÖ‡kœi DËi `vI :
A
B D
[GLv‡b A, B Ges D cÖZxKx A‡_©; cÖPwjZ †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK bq]
imvqb 69
3. D wPwýZ †gŠ‡ji †Kvb †hvRbxwU Am¤¢e?

K. 2 L. 3
M. 4 N. 6
4. B †gŠjwUÑ
i. `yB ai‡bi eÜb MVb K‡i

ii. A †K B‡jKUªb `vb K‡i
iii. D Gi mv‡_ hy³ n‡q cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nq

K. iii L. ii I iii
m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1.
†gŠj ch©vq †kÖwY
A 2 15
B 3 15
[GLv‡b A I B cÖZxKx A‡_©; cÖPwjZ †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK bq]
K. †hvR¨Zv B‡jKUªb Kv‡K e‡j?

L. CaCl2 we`y¨r cwienb K‡i †Kb? e¨vL¨v Ki
M. A Gi †K¬vivBW-G KZwU eÜb-†Rvo B‡jKUªb we`¨gvb? e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. BCl5 †hŠ‡Mi w¯’wZkxjZv e¨vL¨vq AóK wbqg cÖ‡hvR¨ bq-hyw³ `vI|
70 imvqb
2.
wPÎ-X wPÎ- Y
[GLv‡b X Ges Y cÖZxKx A‡_©; cÖPwjZ †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK bq]
K. mg‡hvRx eÜb Kv‡K e‡j?

L. Na Ges Na+ Avq‡bi AvKv‡ii wfbœZv †`Lv hvq †Kb?
M. DÏxc‡Ki YX †hŠ‡M †Kvb ai‡bi eÜb we`¨gvb? e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. X AvqwbK I mg‡hvRx Dfq ai‡bi †hŠM MVb Ki‡jI Y KLbI mg‡hvRx eÜb MVb K‡i bvÑ hyw³mn
e¨vL¨v Ki|
lô Aa¨vq
†gv‡ji aviYv I ivmvqwbK MYbv
ivmvqwbK wewµqv m¤úbœ Kivi mgq Kx cwigvY ivmvqwbK c`v_© wewµqK wn‡m‡e eënvi K‡ib, Kx cwigvY
Drcv` I cvk¦© Drcv` Ges Kx cwigv‡Y AcÖ‡qvRbxq c`v_© Drcbœ nq Zv imvqbwe`M‡Yi wnmve Kiv cÖ‡qvRb nq|
we‡kl K‡i ivmvqwbK wk‡í Avw_©K we‡ePbvq GB wnmve AZ¨vek¨Kxq| GRb¨ ivmvqwbK wewµqvq eëüZ I
Drcbœ c`v‡_©i AYyi msL¨v, AYy‡Z cigvYy I Avq‡bi msL¨v MYbv Ki‡Z nq| AYy, cigvYy I Avqb GZ ¶z`ª KYv
†h G‡ì‡K †Rvov, nvwj, WRb, kZ, nvRv‡i GgbwK †KvwU‡ZI MYbv Kiv m¤¢e nq bv| imvqbwe`MY AYy,
cigvYy I Avqb MYbvi Rb¨ GKwU e„nr msL¨v eënvi K‡ib| GB msL¨vi gvb 6.02 × 1023 | BUvwjqvb
weÁvbx A¨v‡gwWI A¨v‡fv‡M‡Wªvi (Amedeo Avogadro) bvg Abymv‡i G‡K A¨v‡fv‡M‡Wªv msL¨v ev A¨v‡fv‡M‡Wªv
aª“eK e‡j| 6.02 × 1023 msL¨K AYy, cigvYy ev Avqb aviYKvix c`v‡_©i cwigvY‡K †gvj e‡j| imvq‡b AYy
cigvYy, wewµqK, Drcv` BZ¨vw` wnmve wbKvk Stoichiometry bv‡g cwiwPZ|
1 †gvj †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW=

1 nvwj Kjv = 4 wU 1 WRb wWg = 12 wU 6.02 u 1023 wU AYy
G Aa¨vq cvV †k‡l Avgiv

(1) †gv‡ji aviYv eënvi K‡i mij MvwYwZK wnmve Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) wbw`©ó NbgvÎvi `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Ki‡Z cvie|
(3) cÖ`Ë Z_¨ I DcvË eënvi K‡i †hŠ‡M Dcw¯’Z †gŠ‡ji kZKiv mshywZ wbY©q Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) kZKiv mshywZ eënvi K‡i ¯’~j ms‡KZ I AvYweK ms‡KZ wbY©q Ki‡Z cvie|
(5) †gŠj I †hŠMg~j‡Ki cÖZxK, ms‡KZ I †hvRbx eënvi K‡i ivmvqwbK mgxKiY wjL‡Z Ges mgZvweavb
Ki‡Z cvie|
(6) ivmvqwbK mgxKi‡Yi gvwÎK Zvrch© †_‡K wewµqK I Drcv‡ì fiwfwËK MvwYwZK mgm¨v mgvavb
Ki‡Z cvie|
(7) Zuz‡Zi †Kjvm cvwbi kZKiv cwigvY wbY©q Ki‡Z cvie|
(8) wbw³ eënvi K‡i ivmvqwbK `ªe¨ cwigvc Ki‡Z m¶g ne|
72 imvqb
6.1 †gvj (Mole)

†gvj kãwU RxeweÁvb I imvq‡b wfbœ A‡_© eëüZ nq| RxeweÁv‡b †gvj Øviv †jvgwewkó ¶z`ª cÖvY Ges imvq‡b
†gvj kã Øviv †Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i wbw`©ó cwigvY‡K eySv‡bv nq| †gvj n‡jv ivmvqwbK c`v_© cwigv‡ci
GKK| †hgb, wWg ev Kjv MYbvi Rb¨ nvwj I WRb GKK eënvi Kiv nq GKBfv‡e ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i KYv
MYbvi Rb¨ †gvj GKK eënvi Kiv nq| D`vniY¯îƒc GK †gvj cvwb ej‡Z 6.02 × 1023 msL¨K cvwbi
AYy‡K eySv‡bv nq| wWg ev Kjvi GK WRb MYbvi gva¨‡g wnmve Kiv m¤¢e n‡jI GK †gvj‡K MYbvi gva¨‡g
wnmve Kiv m¤¢e bq| ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i GB cwigvY‡K fi wn‡m‡e cwigvc Kiv nq| A_©vr †gv‡ji mv‡_ f‡ii
GKK MÖvg A_ev wgwjMÖvg -Gi m¤úK© i‡q‡Q| ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i cvigvYweK fi (cigvYyi †ÿ‡Î) A_ev AvYweK
fi‡K (AYyi †ÿ‡Î) MÖvg GK‡K cÖKvk Ki‡j †h cwigvY cvIqv hvq ZvB mswkøó c`v‡_©i GK †gvj|
†Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i †h cwigv‡Y A¨v‡fv‡M‡Wªv msL¨K (6.02 × 1023 ) AYy, cigvYy ev Avqb _v‡K Zv‡K
c`v‡_©i †gvj e‡j| msL¨vwU GZ eo †h c„w_exi mKj †jvK GKmv‡_ MYbv ïi“ Ki‡jI Zv‡ì mviv Rxe‡bi
MYbvi †hvMdj GB msL¨vi mgvb nq bv|
Kve©‡bi cvigvYweK fi 12| A_©vr GK †gvj Kve©‡b 6.02 × 1023 wU cigvYy _v‡K, hvi fi 12 MÖvg| cvwbi
AvYweK fi 18| A_©vr GK †gvj cvwb‡Z 6.02 × 1023 wU AYy _v‡K, hvi fi 18 MÖvg|
Abyiƒcfv‡e
1 †gvj nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy = 1.008 MÖvg = 6.02 × 1023 wU cigvYy|
1 †gvj Aw·‡Rb cigvYy = 16 MÖvg = 6.02 × 1023 wU cigvYy|
1 †gvj Aw·‡Rb AYy = 32 MÖvg = 6.02 × 1023 wU AYy|
1 †gvj Kve©b-WvB-A·vBW = 44 MÖvg = 6.02 × 1023 wU AYy|
6.2 †gvjvi AvqZb

GK †gvj cwigvY c`v‡_©i AvqZb‡K †gvjvi AvqZb e‡j| KwVb, Zij Ges M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i †gvjvi AvqZb
wewfbœ nq| KwVb I Zij c`v‡_©i †¶‡Î wewfbœ c`v‡_©i GK †gv‡ji AvqZb wewfbœ nq| wKš‘ cÖgvY Ae¯’vq
wewfbœ M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i GK †gv‡ji AvqZb mgvb nq| M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i AvqZb, Pvc I ZvcgvÎvi Dci wbf©ikxj|
ZvcgvÎv e„w× A_ev n«vm Ki‡j c`v‡_©i AvqZb h_vµ‡g e„w× A_ev n«vm cvq| Aciw`‡K Pvc e„w× Ki‡j M¨v‡mi
AvqZb n«vm cvq| ZvcgvÎv I Pvc cwieZ©‡b M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i AvqZb AZ¨waK cwigv‡Y cwiewZ©Z nq| ZvB
M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i AvqZb wnmve Kivi mgq Pvc I ZvcgvÎv D‡jøL Kiv cÖ‡qvRb| †Zvgiv GLv‡b ïaygvÎ cÖgvY
o
ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i †gvjvi AvqZb wkL‡e| ivmvqwbK wewµqvi †¶‡Î 25 C ZvcgvÎv Ges 1
o
evqygÊjxq Pvc‡K cÖgvY ZvcgvÎv I Pvc e‡j| Aciw`‡K M¨v‡mi Ae¯’v e¨vL¨vi Rb¨, 0 C I GK evqygÐjxq
Pvc‡K cÖgvY Ae¯’v e‡j| cÖgvY Ae¯’vq †h †Kv‡bv M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i †gvjvi AvqZb 22.4 wjUvi|
1 †gvj ev 44 MÖvg Kve©b WvBA·vB‡Wi AvqZb cÖgvY Ae¯’vq 22.4 wjUvi| GKBfv‡e 1 †gvj ev 32 MÖvg
Aw·‡R‡bi AvqZb cÖgvY Ae¯’vq 22.4 wjUvi Ges 1 †gvj ev 2 MÖvg nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi AvqZbI cÖgvY Ae¯’vq
22.4 wjUvi|
imvqb 73
18 MÖvg H2O
100 MÖvg CaCO3
56 MÖvg CaO 46 MÖvg CH3CH2OH 2 MÖvg H2 32 MÖvg O2
wPÎ 6.1 : GK †gvj cwigvY wewfbœ c`v‡_©i AvqZb
GKK KvR: GK MÖvg wb¤œwjwLZ c`v‡_©i GKK KvR: GK MÖvg wb¤œwjwLZ M¨vmxq
AYyi msL¨v wnmve Ki| c`v‡_©i AYyi msL¨v I cÖgvY Ae¯’vq AvqZb
CaCO3, NaCl, H2SO4 wnmve Ki| H2, O2, CO2 I H2O
GKK KvR: wb¤œwjwLZ c`v‡_©i cÖwZwU AYyi GKK KvR: wb¤œwjwLZ c`v_©¸‡jvi GK MÖv‡g
fi wnmve Ki| †gvU cigvYyi msL¨v wnmve Ki|
H2O, NaOH, HCl C, KOH, CH4, O2
6.3 †gvj Ges AvYweK ms‡KZ

AvYweK ms‡KZ †_‡K GKwU †gŠ‡ji wbw`©ó msL¨K cigvYy Aci †gŠ‡ji KZwU cigvYyi mv‡_ hy³ nq Zv Rvbv
hvq| †hgb, CO2 AYy Kve©b I Aw·‡Rb †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi mgš^‡q MwVZ| Kve©‡bi GKwU cigvYy Aw·‡R‡bi
`yBwU cigvYyi mv‡_ hy³ n‡q CO2 AYy MwVZ nq| †gv‡ji wn‡m‡e, GK †gvj Kve©b cigvYy `yB †gvj Aw·‡Rb
cigvYyi mv‡_ hy³ n‡q GK †gvj CO2 AYy MVb K‡i| †Kv‡bv c`v‡_© hy³ †gŠ‡ji fi †_‡K †gvjmsL¨v wnmve
K‡i AvYweK ms‡KZ wbY©q Kiv hvq|
cix¶v K‡i †`Lv †Mj, 3 MÖvg Kve©b 8 MÖvg Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ hy³ n‡q Kve©b WvBA·vBW MVb K‡i| MwVZ AYyi
AvYweK ms‡KZ wb¤œiƒ‡c wbY©q Kiv hvq (AvYweK ms‡KZ I ¯’~j ms‡KZ Awfbœ n‡j)|
wel‡qi bvg Kve©b Aw·‡Rb AvYweK ms‡KZ

†gŠ‡ji cigvYyi fi 3 MÖvg 8 MÖvg
†gvjmsL¨v = cigvYyi fi/ MÖvg 3/12 = 0.25 8/16 = 0.50
CO2
cvigvYweK fi
†gvjmsL¨vi AbycvZ (c~Y© msL¨vq) 1 2
QK 6.1: †gŠ‡ji cwigvY †_‡K AvYweK ms‡KZ wbY©q
74 imvqb
†gv‡ji aviYv eënvi K‡i ivmvqwbK ms‡KZ †_‡K †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji wbw`©ó cwigv‡Yi mv‡_ Aci †gŠ‡ji Kx
cwigvY hy³ nq Zv wbY©q Kiv hvq| nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivB‡Wi (HCl(g)) AYy‡Z GK †gvj nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy GK
†gvj †K¬vwib cigvYyi mv‡_ hy³ nq| A_©vr 1.008 ev 1 MÖvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb 35.5 MÖvg †K¬vwib cigvYyi mv‡_ hy³
nq| †Kv‡bv GKwU cv‡Î 1 MÖvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I 85 MÖvg †K¬vwib GK‡Î ivL‡jI Dchy³ cwi‡e‡k 1 MÖvg
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy m‡e©v”P 35.5 MÖvg †K¬vwi‡bi mv‡_ hy³ n‡e| AwZwi³ †K¬vwib cv‡Î †_‡K hv‡e|
KvR: †Kv‡bv GKwU cv‡Î 5 MÖvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I

KvR: cvwbi AYy‡Z hy³ nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I
10 MÖvg †K¬vwib ivLv n‡jv| Dchy³ cwi‡e‡k
Aw·‡R‡bi cwigvY h_vµ‡g 3 MÖvg I 24
cv‡Î HCI Drcbœ n‡j cv‡Î †Kvb Dcv`vb Kx
MÖvg| cvwbi AvYweK ms‡KZ wbY©q Ki|
cwigv‡Y Aewkó _vK‡e|
6.4 †gvjvi `ªeY

`ªe I `ªveK wgwkÖZ K‡i `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kivi mgq `ªveK wn‡m‡e wewfbœ Zij c`v_© (cvwb,
A¨vj‡Kvnj, GwmW) eënvi Kiv hvq| GB Aa¨v‡q `ªveK wn‡m‡e kyay cvwb eënvi K‡i `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv wkLe|
GB `ªeY‡K Rjxq `ªeY (Aqueous solution) e‡j| `ªve‡Ki g‡a¨ †h c`v_© `ªexf~Z K‡i `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv
nq Zv‡K `ªe e‡j| cÖwZ GKK AvqZb `ªe‡Y wewfbœ cwigvY `ªe `ªexf~Z _vK‡j `ªe‡Yi NbgvÎv wewfbœ nq|
`ªe‡Yi NbgvÎv cÖKv‡ki wewfbœ ixwZ i‡q‡Q| †gvjvwiwU `ªe‡Yi NbgvÎv cÖKv‡ki GKwU ixwZ|
`ª‡ei KYv
jNy `ªeY Mvp `ªeY
wPÎ 6.2 : wewfbœ NbgvÎvi `ªeY

GK †gvjvi `ªe‡Yi †¶‡Î, GK wjUvi `ªe‡Y ev GK †W.wg.3 `ªe‡Y GK †gvj cwigvY `ªe `ªexf~Z _v‡K| †mwg
†gvjvi (0.5 †gvjvi) `ªe‡Yi cÖwZ wjUv‡i 0.5 †gvj cwigvY `ªe `ªexf~Z _v‡K| GK wjUvi `ªe‡Y 2 †gvj cwigvY
`ªe `ªexf~Z _vK‡j 2 †gvjvi `ªeY e‡j| `ªe‡Yi AvqZb ZvcgvÎvi Dci wbf©ikxj, `ªe‡Yi †gvjvwiwU‡K wb¤œiƒ‡c
msÁvwqZ Kiv nq:
imvqb 75
wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq cÖwZ wjUvi `ªe‡Y `ªexf~Z `ª‡ei †gvjmsL¨v‡K `ªe‡Yi †gvjvwiwU e‡j| G‡K M Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
wbw`©ó NbgvÎvi `ªeY cÖ¯‘wZi Rb¨ wb‡¤œ ewY©Z avç‡jv AbymiY Kiv nq|
cÖ_‡g wba©vwiZ gv‡ci KvPcvÎ ev Ab¨ †Kv‡bv cvÎ (Avav wjUvi, GK wjUvi, 2.5 wjUvi cvwbi †evZj) bvI| †h
AvqZ‡bi `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Ki‡Z n‡e †m AvqZ‡bi cvÎ bvI| cÖwZ wjUv‡i GK †gvj wnmv‡e wba©vwiZ AvqZ‡b
wbw`©ó NbgvÎvi Rb¨ `ª‡ei cwigvY MÖvg-GK‡K wnmve Ki| wnmveK…Z `ª‡ei cwigvY‡K wbw³i mvnv‡h¨ †g‡c
dv‡b‡ji gva¨‡g wba©vwiZ cv‡Î bvI| dv‡b‡ji Mv‡q †j‡M _vKv `ªe‡K cvwZZ cvwb ev weï× cvwb w`‡q wba©vwiZ
cv‡Î ¯’vbvšÍi K‡i wKQz cwigvY cvwb w`‡q SuvwK‡q `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Ki| AZtci cvwb w`‡q `ªe‡Yi AvqZb
wba©vwiZ gvc ch©šÍ c~Y© Ki‡j wbw`©ó NbgvÎvi `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z n‡e| †hgb, Avav wjUvi 0.1 †gvjvi NbgvÎvi
Na2CO3 `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kivi Rb¨ Avav wjUvi AvqZ‡bi cv‡Î 0.1 u †gvj ev (0.1 u0.5 u106) MÖvg
Na2CO3 wbw³i mvnv‡h¨ †g‡c Avav wjUvi cv‡Î `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Ki‡j Avav wjUvi 0.1 †gvjvi Na2CO3 `ªeY
cÖ¯‘Z n‡e|
wnmve :
1 wjUvi AvqZ‡bi 1 †gvjvi `ªe‡Yi Rb¨ `ªe cÖ‡qvRb 1 †gvj
0.5 wjUvi AvqZ‡bi 0.1 †gvjvi `ªe‡Yi Rb¨ `ªe cÖ‡qvRb 0.1u0.5 †gvj
1 †gvj = 106 MÖvg Na2CO3
0.1u0.5 †gvj = 0.1u0.5u106 MÖvg Na2CO3 =5.3 MÖvg Na2CO3
KvR : 2 wjUvi 0.1 †gvjvi ev 0.1 (M) †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU; NaHCO3 -Gi `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Ki|
6.5 †hŠ‡M †gŠ‡ji kZKiv mshywZ

GKwU †hŠM GKvwaK †gŠj Øviv MwVZ| †hŠ‡Mi †gvU f‡ii g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó †gŠ‡ji kZKiv fi‡K Zvi mshywZ
e‡j| †hŠ‡M †gŠjmg~‡ni kZKiv mshywZi mgwó GKkZ (100) n‡e| †hŠ‡M †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji cwie‡Z© KL‡bv
KL‡bv GKwU wbw`©ó As‡ki kZKiv mshywZ wbY©q Kiv nq| †hgb, nvB‡Wª‡UW Kcvi mvj‡dU (Zuy‡Z;
CuSO4.5H2O) -Gi †Kjvm cvwbi kZKiv mshywZ wbY©q Kiv nq| wbw`©ó †hŠ‡M †gŠ‡ji kZKiv mshywZ
wbw`©ó nq| cvwb‡K we‡k¦i †h †Kv‡bv cÖvšÍ †_‡KB †bIqv †nvK-bv †Kb Zv‡Z nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I Aw·‡R‡bi kZKiv
mshywZ Awfbœ n‡e| †gŠ‡ji ev †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó As‡ki kZKiv mshywZ wbY©‡qi Rb¨ †hŠ‡Mi AvYweK ms‡KZ wj‡L
Av‡cw¶K AvYweK fi wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e| AZtci c„_Kfv‡e cÖ‡Z¨KwU †gŠ‡ji fi Ges cÖ‡qvR‡b wbw`©ó As‡ki
fi wbY©q K‡i †hŠ‡M †gŠ‡ji kZKiv fi wbY©q Kiv nq|
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW (HCl) M¨v‡m nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I †K¬vwi‡bi kZKiv mshywZ wbY©q:
(H = 1, Cl = 35.5)
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivB‡Wi AvYweK ms‡KZ: HCl -Gi Av‡cw¶K AvYweK fi = (1 + 35.5) = 36.5|
†hŠ‡M nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi = 1 Ges †K¬vwi‡bi
Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi = 35.5| †Kjvm cvwb: †Kjvm cvwb †Kjvm
nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi mshywZ = 1u100/36.5% = 2.74% MV‡bi Rb¨ Acwinvh© wKš‘ †hŠ‡Mi
ms‡K‡Zi Rb¨ Acwinvh© bq|
†K¬vwi‡bi mshywZ = 35.5u100/36.5% = 97.26%
76 imvqb
nvB‡Wª‡UW Kcvi mvj‡dU (Zuy‡Z; CuSO4.5H2O) -Gi Kcvi, mvjdvi, Aw·‡Rb, nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I †Kjvm cvwbi
kZKiv mshywZ wbY©q: (Cu = 63.5, S = 32, O = 16, H = 1)
nvB‡Wª‡UW Kcvi mvj‡dU ev Zuy‡Zi AvYweK ms‡KZ = CuSO4.5H2O
Gi Av‡cw¶K AvYweK fi = (63.5 + 32 + 16 u 9 + 1u10) = 249.5|
†hŠ‡M Kcvi, mvjdvi, Aw·‡Rb, nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I †Kjvm cvwbi Av‡cw¶K fi h_vµ‡g 63.5, 32, 144,
10, 90|
Kcv‡ii mshywZ = 63.5u100/249.5% = 25.45%
mvjdv‡ii mshywZ = 32u100/249.5% = 12.83%
Aw·‡R‡bi mshywZ = 144u100/249.5% = 57.72%
nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi mshywZ = 10u100249.5% = 4.00%
90u100
†Kjvm cvwbi mshywZ = % = 36.07%
249.5
wPšÍv Ki : Dc‡i wnmveK…Z HCl -Gi †gvU kZKiv mshywZ 100 n‡jI CuSO4.5H2O
Gi †gvU kZKiv mshywZ 100 †_‡K †ewk †Kb?
KvR: wb¤œwjwLZ †hŠ‡M †gŠjmg~‡ni KvR: wb¤œwjwLZ †hŠ‡M †hŠMg~j‡Ki

kZKiv mshywZ wbY©q Ki| kZKiv mshywZ wbY©q Ki|
H2O, H2SO4, Na2CO3, NaOH, H2SO4, Na2CO3, NaOH, NaNO3
6.6 kZKiv mshywZ †_‡K †hŠ‡Mi ¯’~j ms‡KZ wbY©q

†h ms‡KZ Øviv AYy‡Z we`¨gvb cigvYymg~‡ni AbycvZ cÖKvk K‡i Zv‡K ¯’~j ms‡KZ e‡j| †hgb, nvB‡Wªv‡Rb
cviA·vB‡Wi (H2O2) AYy‡Z nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I Aw·‡R‡bi cigvYy msL¨vi AbycvZ 2 t 2 ev 1t1| A_©vr nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cvi
A·vB‡Wi ¯’‚j ms‡KZ HO|
†Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi A Ges Av‡cw¶K AvYweK fi M n‡j,
†gŠ‡ji mshywZ = n u A u 100/M %, GLv‡b n = †hŠ‡Mi AvYweK ms‡KZ-G †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi msL¨v|
GKwU wbw`©ó AYyi Rb¨ M Ges 100/M -Gi GKwU wbw`©ó gvb _v‡K| AZGe wewfbœ †gŠ‡ji kZKiv
mshywZ‡K wbR wbR †gŠ‡ji Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi Øviv fvM Ki‡j AYy‡Z cigvYyi msL¨v Gi 100/M
¸wYZK msL¨v cvIqv hvq| A_©vr AYy‡Z cigvYymg~‡ni kZKiv mshywZ‡K wbR wbR Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi Øviv
fvM K‡i cÖvß fvMd‡ji AbycvZ †_‡K ¯’~j ms‡KZ wbY©q Kiv nq| †h‡nZz AvYweK ms‡KZ (H2O) Ges
AvYweK ms‡K‡Zi mij ¸wYZK ms‡KZ {(H2O)n} †_‡K cÖvß †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi kZKiv mshywZ Awfbœ nq, ZvB
Dc‡ii cÖwµqvq cÖvß AbycvZ †_‡K wbY©xZ ms‡KZ AYy‡Z we`¨gvb cigvYymg~‡ni AbycvZ cÖKvk cvq|
imvqb 77
†Kv‡bv †hŠ‡M Aw·‡R‡bi mshywZ 8.9%

Ges nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi mshywZ 1%
.| †hŠ‡Mi ¯’‚j ms‡KZ wbY©q :
welq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb; H Aw·‡Rb; O †hŠ‡Mi ¯’~j ms‡KZ

†gŠ‡ji kZKiv mshywZ 1. .9
8
†gŠ‡ji kZKiv mshywZ 1. .9
8 H2O
=1. =5.
Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi 1 6
1
†hŠ‡M H I O cigvYy 1.t 5
.=2t1(c~Y© msL¨vi Abycv‡Zi
msL¨vi AbycvZ Rb¨ †QvU msL¨v 5.Øviv fvM K‡i)
QK 6.2: †gŠ‡ji kZKiv mshywZ †_‡K ¯’~j ms‡KZ wbY©q
†Kv‡bv †hŠ‡M Kve©‡bi mshywZ 9

2.31
%Ges nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi mshywZ 7
%
9
.6
| †hŠ‡Mi ¯’~j ms‡KZ wbY©q:
welq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb; H Kve©b; C †hŠ‡Mi ¯’~j ms‡KZ
†gŠ‡ji kZKiv mshywZ 9
.6
7 2.31
9
†gŠ‡ji kZKiv mshywZ 7
9
.6 2.31
9 CH
=7
9
.6 =7
9
.6
Av‡cw¶K cvigvYweK fi 1 2
1
†hŠ‡M C I H cigvYy 9t .6
.6
7 97=t11(c~Y© msL¨vi Abycv‡Zi
msL¨vi AbycvZ Rb¨ 7 9Øviv fvM K‡i)
.6
QK 6.3: †gŠ‡ji kZKiv mshywZ †_‡K ¯’~j ms‡KZ wbY©q
6.7 kZKiv mshywZ †_‡K †hŠ‡Mi AvYweK ms‡KZ wbY©q

†hŠ‡Mi AvYweK ms‡KZ Zvi ¯’~j ms‡K‡Zi †h †Kv‡bv mij ¸wYZK| †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv †hŠ‡Mi †¶‡Î ¯’~j ms‡KZ
Ges AvYweK ms‡KZ Awfbœ nq| Dc‡ii †hŠ‡Mi ¯’~j ms‡KZ CH Ges Zvi AvYweK ms‡KZ (CH)n| †hŠ‡Mi
AvYweK fi Rvbv _vK‡j n -Gi gvb wbY©q K‡i AvYweK ms‡KZ wbY©q Kiv nq| Dc‡ii †hŠ‡Mi AvYweK fi 78
n‡j AvYweK ms‡KZ wbY©q:
†hŠ‡Mi ¯’~j ms‡KZ = CH
†hŠ‡Mi AvYweK ms‡KZ = (CH)n
†hŠ‡Mi AvYweK fi = (Kve©‡bi fi u 1+ nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi fi u1
)u n
=(1
2+1
) un
= 13 n
3 n =7
AZGe, 1 8
n =6
myZivs †hŠ‡Mi AvYweK ms‡KZ = (CH)6
=C 6H6
78 imvqb
6.8 ivmvqwbK wewµqv I ivmvqwbK mgxKiY

ivmvqwbK wewµqv‡K ms‡¶‡c Dc¯’vcb Kivi Rb¨ ivmvqwbK mgxKiY eënvi Kiv nq| A_©vr mgxKiY n‡jv,
cÖZxK, ms‡KZ I wPý Øviv ivmvqwbK cÖwµqv‡K ms‡ÿ‡c cÖKvk| ivmvqwbK mgxKiY †jLvi wbqgvewjÑ
1. ivmvqwbK wewµqv †h mKj c`v_© wb‡q ïi“ Kiv nq Zv‡ì‡K wewµqK (Reactant) Ges †h mKj c`v_©
Drcbœ nq Zv‡ì‡K Drcv` (Product) e‡j| ivmvqwbK mgxKi‡Y wewµqKmg~n‡K evgcv‡k Ges
Drcv`mg~n‡K Wvbcv‡k wj‡L gvSLv‡b mgvb (=) A_ev A¨v‡iv (o) wPý †Ìqv nq|
2. wewµqvq GKvwaK wewµqK Ges GKvwaK Drcv` _vK‡j Zv‡ì‡K †hvM (+) wPý w`‡q †jLv nq|
3. mgxKi‡Yi evgcv‡ki wewfbœ †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi msL¨v Ges Wvbcv‡ki GKB †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi msL¨v mgvb
Kiv nq| wewµqK Ges Drcv` wfbœ †hŠM n‡jI Zv Awfbœ †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi mgš^‡q MwVZ nq| ivmvqwbK
wewµqv f‡ii msi¶Y bxwZ AbymiY K‡i|
4. wewµqK Ges Drcv‡ì †fŠZ Ae¯’v †hŠ‡Mi Wvbcv‡k cÖ_g eÜbxi g‡a¨ †jLv nq| †hŠ‡Mi †fŠZ Ae¯’v
KwVb (Solid) n‡j (s), Zij (Liquid) n‡j (l) Ges M¨vmxq (Gaseous) n‡j (g) †jLv nq| wewµqK
Ges Drcv` wn‡m‡e †Kv‡bv †hŠ‡Mi Rjxq `ªeY (Aqueous solution) _vK‡j (aq) †jLv nq|
Kve©b ev Kqjv‡K evqyi Aw·‡R‡bi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z `nb Ki‡j Kve©b (IV) A·vBW ev Kve©b WvBA·vBW Drcbœ nq|
GLv‡b Kve©b I Aw·‡Rb wewµqK Ges Kve©b (IV) A·vBW Drcv`| wewµqK Kve©b KwVb, Aw·‡Rb M¨vmxq Ges
Drcv` Kve©b (IV) A·vBW M¨vmxq c`v_©| wewµqvi mgxKiY wb¤œiƒc :
C (s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
KwVb K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK Gwm‡Wi Rjxq `ªe‡Yi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i K¨vjwmqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi Rjxq
`ªeY, Kve©b (IV) A·vBW M¨vm Ges cvwb Drcbœ K‡i| wewµqvi mgxKiY wb¤œiƒc:
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
6.9 ivmvqwbK mgxKi‡Yi mgZvKiY

ivmvqwbK wewµqv‡K msw¶ßiƒ‡c ivmvqwbK mgxKi‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ cªKvk Kiv nq| ivmvqwbK wewµqvq wewµqK I
Drcv` f‡ii msi¶Ym~Î †g‡b P‡j| ZvB wewµqvi mgxKi‡Y wewµqK c`v‡_©i wewfbœ †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi msL¨v Ges
Drcbœ c`v‡_©i GKB †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi msL¨v ci¯úi mgvb _v‡K| wewfbœ †gŠ‡ji cigvYyi msL¨v mgvb Kivi Rb¨
wewµqK Ges Drcv‡ì ms‡K‡Zi mv‡_ cÖ‡qvRbxq msL¨v (2, 3, 4 BZ¨vw`) Øviv ¸Yb Ki‡Z nq| ivmvqwbK
mgxKiY‡K mgZv Kivi Rb¨ wbw`©ó †Kv‡bv wbqg bv _vK‡jI wKQz †KŠkj Aej¤^b Kiv nq|
1. wewµqK I Drcv‡ì mwVK ms‡KZ eënvi K‡i wewµqvi mgxKiY †jLv |
2. wewµqK Ges Drcv` †hŠwMK c`v_© n‡j A_©vr ms‡K‡Z GKvwaK †gŠ‡ji cigvYy _vK‡j wewµqK A_ev
Drcv` A_ev Df‡qi mv‡_ wewfbœ msL¨v ¸Yb K‡i mgZv Kiv|
3. AZtci †gŠwjK wewµqK Ges Drcv‡ì cigvYyi msL¨v mgvb Kiv|
imvqb 79
4. wewµqvi mgZvKi‡Y wewµqK Ges Drcv‡ì mv‡_ mvaviYZ c~Y© msL¨v ¸YK wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq|
g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i g¨vM‡bwmqvg †K¬vivBW I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Drcbœ K‡i|
Mg(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl2(s) + H2(g)
GB wewµqv mgZvKi‡Y cÖ_‡g †K¬vwib cigvYy msL¨v mgZvi Rb¨ wewµqK HCl -Gi mv‡_ 2 Øviv ¸Yb Kiv nq|
G‡Z Ab¨vb¨ †gŠ‡ji cigvYy mgvb nq| wewµqvi mgZvK…Z mgxKiY wb¤œiƒc:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(s) + H2(g)
A¨vjywgwbqvg A·vBW nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i A¨vjywgwbqvg †K¬vivBW I cvwb Drcbœ K‡i|
Al2O3(s) + HCl(aq) AlCl3(s) + H2O(l)

A¨vjywgwbqv‡gi cigvYy msL¨v mgvb Kivi Rb¨ Drcv` AlCl3 -Gi mv‡_ 2 Øviv, †K¬vwi‡bi cigvYy msL¨v mgvb
Kivi Rb¨ wewµqK HCl -Gi mv‡_ 6 Øviv Ges nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I Aw·‡R‡bi cigvYy msL¨v mgvb Kivi Rb¨
Drcv` H2O Gi mv‡_ 3 Øviv ¸Yb Kiv nq| wewµqvi mgZvK…Z mgxKiY wb¤œiƒc:
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l)
g¨vM‡bwmqvg bvB‡UªU‡K DËß Ki‡j g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW, bvB‡Uªv‡Rb WvBA·vBW I Aw·‡Rb M¨vm Drcbœ nq|
' MgO(s) + NO2(g) + O2(g)
Mg(NO3)2(s)
wewµqvi mgxKi‡Y bvB‡Uªv‡Rb cigvYy msL¨v mgvb Kivi Rb¨ Drcv` NO2 -Gi mv‡_ 2 Øviv Ges Aw·‡Rb
cigvYy msL¨v mgvb Kivi Rb¨ Drcv` O2 -Gi mv‡_ 1 Øviv ¸Yb Kiv nq| wewµqvi mgZvK…Z mgxKiY
2
wb¤œiƒc:
' 1
Mg(NO3)2(s) MgO(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2
' 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
A_ev 2Mg(NO3)2(s)
KvR : wb‡¤œi mgxKiY¸‡jv mgZv Ki |

'
AgNO3(s) Ag(s) + NO2(g) + O2(g)
Na2CO3(s) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2 O (l) + CO2(g)
6.10 †gvj I ivmvqwbK mgxKiY

wbw`©ó cwigvY GKwU wewµqK Aci GKwU wewµq‡Ki wbw`©ó cwigv‡Yi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i| GKBfv‡e wbw`©ó
cwigvY wewµqK †_‡K wbw`©ó cwigvY Drcv` cvIqv hvq| imvq‡bi †h kvLvq wewµqvK…Z wewµqK Ges Drcv‡ì
cwigv‡Yi wnmve Kiv nq Zv‡K Stoichiometry e‡j| ivmvqwbK wewµqvi mgZvK…Z mgxKiY †_‡K wewµqK
I Drcv‡ì AYyi msL¨v, †gvj msL¨v Ges f‡ii wnmve Kiv hvq|
80 imvqb
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)
2 AYy 1 AYy 2 AYy
2u 6.02 u1023 1u 6.02u 1023 2u 6.02 u1023

2 †gvj = 2 u24 MÖvg 1 †gvj = 1 u32 MÖvg 2 †gvj = 2 u40 MÖvg
Dc‡ii wewµqvq 2 AYy g¨vM‡bwmqvg GK AYy Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i 2 AYy g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW Drcbœ
K‡i| †gv‡ji wnmv‡e ejv hvq, 2 †gvj g¨vM‡bwmqvg GK †gvj Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i 2 †gvj
g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW Drcbœ K‡i|
GKwU wewµq‡Ki fi †_‡K wewµqvq AskMÖnYKvix Aci wewµq‡Ki fi wbY©q: (5 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz KZ MÖvg
Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i?)
Dc‡ii mgxKiY Abymv‡i,
48 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz wewµqv K‡i 32 MÖvg Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_
u
5 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz wewµqv K‡i 32 5 MÖvg Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_
48
= 3.33 MÖvg Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_|
GKwU wewµq‡Ki fi †_‡K wewµqvq Drcbœ Drcv‡ì fi wbY©q: (2 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz †_‡K KZ MÖvg
g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW Drcbœ nq?)
wewµqvi mgxKiY Abymv‡i,
48 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz †_‡K g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW Drcbœ nq 80 MÖvg
u
2 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz †_‡K g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW Drcbœ nq 80 2 MÖvg
48
= 3.33 MÖvg
Z‡e kZ© _v‡K †h, 2 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZzi mv‡_ wewµqv Kivi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq cwigvY Aw·‡Rb mieivn
Ki‡Z n‡e|
Drcbœ Drcv‡ì fi †_‡K GKwU wewµq‡Ki fi wbY©q: (10 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW Drcbœ Ki‡Z KZ MÖvg
Aw·‡Rb cÖ‡qvRb?)
wewµqvi mgxKiY Abymv‡i,
80 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW Drcbœ Ki‡Z Aw·‡Rb cÖ‡qvRb 32 MÖvg
u
10 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW Drcbœ Ki‡Z Aw·‡Rb cÖ‡qvRb 32 10 MÖvg
80
= 4 MÖvg
imvqb 81
Z‡e kZ© _v‡K †h, 4 MÖvg Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv Kivi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq cwigvY g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz mieivn
Ki‡Z n‡e|
6.11 wjwgwUs wewµqK (Limiting Reactant)

ivmvqwbK wewµqvq GKvwaK wewµqK _vK‡j, wewµqvq wewµqK †g‡c mieivn Kivi mgq Dfq/mKj wewµqK‡K
cÖ‡qvRb Abymv‡i mieivn Kiv m¤¢e nq bv| Dc‡ii wewµqvq 2 cigvYy g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZzi mv‡_ wewµqvi Rb¨ 1
AYy Aw·‡Rb M¨vm cÖ‡qvRb| GKBfv‡e 4 cigvYy g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZzi mv‡_ wewµqvi Rb¨ 2 AYy Aw·‡Rb M¨vm
cÖ‡qvRb| wKš‘ wewµqvq 4 cigvYy g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZzi mv‡_ wewµqvi Rb¨ 4 AYy Aw·‡Rb M¨vm mieivn Ki‡j
wewµqv †k‡l 2 AYy Aw·‡Rb M¨vm Aewkó _vK‡e| GB Ae¯’vq g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz‡K wjwgwUs wewµqK e‡j|
A_©vr wewµqvi mgq GKvwaK wewµq‡Ki g‡a¨ †h wewµqK Aewkó _v‡K bv Zv‡K wjwgwUs wewµqK e‡j| wewµqK
†_‡K Drcv‡ì cwigvY wnmve Kivi mgq wjwgwUs wewµq‡Ki cwigvY †_‡K wnmve Kiv nq|
= Aw·‡Rb AYy
= g¨vM‡bwmqvg cigvYy = g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW
(GLv‡b g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz wjwgwUs wewµqK)
wPÎ 6.3 : wjwgwUs wewµq‡Ki aviYv
6.12 Drcv‡ì kZKiv cwigvY (Percentage of Yield)

ivmvqwbK wewµqvi mgq †h mKj wewµqK eënvi Kiv nq Zvnv 100% weï× _v‡K bv| me‡P‡q weï×
ivmvqwbK c`v_©‡K A¨vbvjvi (Analar) ev A¨vbvjvi †MÖW c`v_© e‡j| A¨vbvjvi ivmvqwbK c`v_©mg~n cÖvq 99%
weï× nq, G‡ì‡K M‡elYvi mgq we‡kølYxq Kv‡R eënvi Kiv nq| ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i weï×Zv Zvi cÖ¯‘wZ
I weï×KiY c×wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i| wewµqKmg~n 100% weï× bv nIqvq Drcv‡ì cwigvY wjwgwUs
wewµqK †_‡K wnmveK…Z cwigvY †_‡K Kg nq| Kx cwigvY Drcv` Kg cvIqv hvq Zv Drcv‡ì kZKiv
cwigv‡Yi gva¨‡g cÖKvk Kiv nq|
wewµqvq cÖvß Drcv‡ì cwigvY u100
Drcv‡ì kZKiv cwigvY =
wewµqv †_‡K wnmveK…Z Drcv‡ì cwigvY
D`vniY t 2 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz ch©vß cwigvY Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i 3.25 MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg
A·vBW Drcbœ nq| Drcv‡ì kZKiv cwigvY wnmve Ki|
wewµqvq g¨vM‡bwmqvg A·vBW (MgO) Drcbœ nq 3.25 MÖvg| mgxKiY Abymv‡i MgO Drcbœ nIqvi K_v
3.33 MÖvg (80 c„ôv †`L)|
3.25
AZGe, Drcv‡ì kZKiv cwigvY = x 100% = 97.6%
3.33
82 imvqb
KvR : 80 MÖvg CaCO3 †K Zvc w`‡q 39 MÖvg CaO cvIqv hvq| Drcv‡ì kZKiv cwigvY wnmve Ki|
6.13 Zuy‡Zi †Kjvm cvwbi kZKiv cwigvY ev kZKiv mshywZ wbY©q

cÖ‡qvRbxq DcKiY: Zuy‡Z, †Wwm‡KUi, wbw³, wmivwgK (†cv‡m©wjb) evwU, ZviRvwj, wÎc`x ÷¨vÛ, µzwmej, UsR,
I evb©vi/ w¯úwiU j¨v¤ú|
g~jbxwZ: Zuy‡Z (eøy-wfwUªqj; CuSO4.5H2O), Kcvi mvj‡dU I cuvP AYy cvwbi mgš^‡q MwVZ| cvwbhy³
ùwUKvKvi (`vbv`vi) Kcvi mvj‡d‡Ui eY© bxj| cvwbwenxb (Anhydrous) Kcvi mvj‡d‡Ui (CuSO4) eY©
mv`v| bxj e‡Y©i Kcvi mvj‡dU‡K DËß Ki‡j cvwb ev®úxf~Z nq Ges mv`v e‡Y©i Kcvi mvj‡d‡U cwiYZ nq|
Zvc †Ìqvi c~‡e© I c‡i Kcvi mvj‡d‡Ui fi cwigvc K‡i DËv‡c nviv‡bv cvwbi fi wbY©q K‡i Zuy‡Zi †Kjvm
cvwbi kZKiv cwigvY wbY©q Kiv nq|
'
CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4
-5H2O
bxj eY© mv`v eY©
1 †gvj = 249.5 MÖvg 1 †gvj = 159.5 MÖvg
ZË¡xqfv‡e 1 †gvj (249.5 MÖvg) cvwbhy³ bxj

e‡Y©i Kcvi mvj‡dU‡K DËß Ki‡j 90 MÖvg
cvwb AcmvwiZ n‡q 159.5 MÖvg cvwbwenxb mv`v
e‡Y©i Kcvi mvj‡dU Drcbœ nq|
Kv‡Ri aviv: wbw³i mvnv‡h¨ AvbygvwbK 5 †_‡K

7 MÖvg CuSO4.5H2O †K †cv‡m©wjb evwU‡Z
†g‡c wb‡q wÎc`x ÷¨v‡Ûi Dc‡i †i‡L Zvc
`vI| Kcvi mvj‡dU mv`v bv nIqv ch©šÍ Zvc
`vI| Kcvi mvj‡d‡Ui eY© mv`v nIqvi ci Zvc
†Ìqv eÜ Ki| AZtci †cv‡m©wjb evwU‡K
†Wwm‡KU‡i kxZj K‡i `ª“Z Zvi fi wbY©q Ki|
fi `ª“Z wbY©q bv Ki‡j Zvc AcmviY Kivi ci wPÎ 6.4 : Zuz‡Z †_‡K †Kjvm cvwb AcmviY
cybivq cvwb †kvlY K‡i Kcvi mvj‡dU bxj e‡Y©
cwiYZ nq|
imvqb 83
wnmve: †cv‡m©wjb µzwme‡ji fi = a MÖvg

Kcvi mvj‡dU welv³ c`v_©|
CuSO4.5H2O mn †cv‡m©wjb µzwme‡ji fi = b MÖvg Bnv eënv‡ii ci mvevb w`‡q
fv‡jvfv‡e nvZ cwi®‹vi Ki‡e|
CuSO4.5H2O -Gi fi = (b-a) MÖvg
Zvc †Ìqvi ci CuSO4 mn †cv‡m©wjb µzwme‡ji fi = c MÖvg
CuSO4 -Gi fi = (c-a) MÖvg
DËv‡c AcmvwiZ cvwbi fi = (b-a) - (c-a) MÖvg
= (b-c) MÖvg
(b-a) MÖvg CuSO4.5H2O -Gi mv‡_ hy³ †Kjvm cvwbi fi = (b-c) MÖvg
(b-c) u100
100 MÖvg CuSO4.5H2O -Gi mv‡_ hy³ †Kjvm cvwbi fi = MÖvg
(b-a)
KvR: †Zvgiv cix¶vq Drcbœ cvwbwenxb Kcvi mvj‡d‡U K‡qK †duvUv cvwb †hvM K‡i cwieZ©b ch©‡e¶Y I
cwieZ©‡bi KviY e¨vL¨v Ki|
Abykxjbx
1. cÖgvY Ae¯’vq 2 MÖvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨v‡mi AvqZb KZ?
K. 2.24 L L. 11.2 L
M. 22.4 L N. 44.8 L
84 imvqb
2. wb‡Pi †KvbwU K¨vjwmqvg dm‡d‡Ui ms‡KZ?
K. CaPO4 L. Ca(PO4)2
M. Ca2(PO4)3 N. Ca3(PO4)2
wb‡Pi DÏxc‡Ki Av‡jv‡K 3 I 4 bs cÖ‡kœi DËi `vI :
5 MÖvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm‡K 75 MÖvg †K¬vwib M¨v‡mi g‡a¨ Pvjbv Kiv n‡jv|
3. DÏxc‡K eëüZ †K¬vwib cigvYyi msL¨v KZwU?
K. 1.27u 10 24 L. 2.54 u 10 24
M. 6.02 u 10 23 N. 6.36 u 10 23
4. DÏxc‡Ki wewµqvq Aewkó _v‡KÑ
K. 1.44 †gvj H2 L. 1.44 †gvj Cl2
M. 2.89 †gvj H2 N. 2.89 †gvj Cl2
m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1.
4g 100 mL 4g
HCl NaOH
K. †gvj Kv‡K e‡j?
L. bvB‡Uªv‡Rb cigvYyi †hvRbx I †hvR¨Zv B‡jKUªb wfbœ †Kb? e¨vL¨v Ki
M. DÏxc‡Ki `ªeYØq‡K GK‡Î wgwkÖZ Ki‡j †h jeY cvIqv hvq Zvi mshyw³ wbY©q K‡i †`LvI|
N. DÏxc‡Ki `ªeY `ywUi NbgvÎv mgvb n‡e wKbv Zvi MvwYwZK hyw³ `vI|
imvqb 85
2. 10 MÖvg CaCO3 cÖ¯‘Z Kivi j‡¶¨ 4.4 MÖvg Kve©b WvBA·vBW I 5 MÖvg K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW wgwkÖZ
Kiv n‡jv| wewµqvq cÖZ¨vwkZ Drcv` cvIqv †Mj bv|
K. ivmvqwbK mgxKiY Kv‡K e‡j?
L. Kve©b WvBA·vB‡Wi †gvjvi AvqZb e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. wewµqvq KZ †gvj Kve©b WvB A·vBW eënvi Kiv n‡qwQj Zv wbiƒcY K‡i †`LvI|
N. DÏxc‡Ki wewµqvq cÖZ¨vwkZ Drcv‡ì cwigvY Kg nIqvi †hŠw³K e¨vL¨v `vI|

mßg Aa¨vq
ivmvqwbK wewµqv
cwi‡e‡k †h mKj Dcv`vb i‡q‡Q Zv cÖwZwbqZ cwiewZ©Z n‡”Q| wewfbœ ai‡bi cwieZ©b Av‡Q| †Kv‡bvwU †fŠZ
cwieZ©b Ges †Kv‡bvwU ivmvqwbK cwieZ©b| mKj cwieZ©‡bi †Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bv cÖfve i‡q‡Q| we‡kl K‡i
ivmvqwbK cwieZ©‡bi DcKvix I ¶wZKi Dfq w`K i‡q‡Q| ZvB ivmvqwbK cwieZ©‡bi cÖfve m¤ú‡K© Avgv‡ì
mg¨K Ávb _vKv AZ¨vek¨Kxq| GB Aa¨vq cvV K‡i wewfbœ ai‡bi cwieZ©b Ges Zvi cÖfve m¤ú‡K© Rvb‡Z
cvi‡e|
KuvPv Avg cvKv Avg evb©v‡i R¡vjvwbi `nb `ya `wa
wewfbœ ivmvqwbK cwieZ©b

(1) †fŠZ cwieZ©b I ivmvqwbK wewµqvi cv_©K¨ Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) c`v‡_©i cwieZ©b‡K we‡kølY K‡i ivmvqwbK wewµqv kbv³ Ki‡Z cvie|
(3) ivmvqwbK wewµqvi †kÖwYwefvM †iW·/bb‡iW·, GKgyLx/DfgyLx, Zvc Drcv`x/Zvcnvix Ki‡Z cvie Ges
wewµqvi cÖKvi kbv³ Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) ivmvqwbK wewµqvq Drcbœ c`v‡_©i cwigvY‡K jv-kv‡Zwjqv‡ii bxwZi Av‡jv‡K e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(5) cwieZ©b we‡kølY K‡i RviY-weRviY wewµqvi cÖKvi kbv³ Ki‡Z cvie|
(6) ev¯Í‡e wewfbœ †¶‡Î msNwUZ wewµqv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(7) ev¯Íe †¶‡Î msNwUZ ¶wZKi wewµqvmg~n wbqš¿Y ev †iv‡ai Dcvq wba©viY Ki‡Z cvie (†jvnvi ˆZwi
wRwb‡mi gwiPvcov †iv‡ai h_vh_ Dcvq wba©viY Ki‡Z cvie)|
(8) ivmvqwbK wewµqvi nvi e¨vL¨v I mswkøó nv‡ii Zzjbv Ki‡Z cvie|
(9) wewfbœ c`v_© eënvi K‡i wewµqvi MwZ‡eM ev nvi cix¶v I Zzjbv Ki‡Z cvie|
(10) ˆ`bw›`b Kv‡R avZe e¯‘ eënv‡i m‡PZbZv cÖ`k©b Kie|
(11) cix¶vi mvnv‡h¨ wewµqvi nv‡ii wfbœZv cÖ`k©b Ki‡Z cvie|
(12) $~ÒYLF°NJEZHZTY*HV$DWgF<ZHZTYF°CNE.Lg=FYLH_
imvqb 87
7.1 c`v‡_©i cwieZ©b

cwi‡e‡k we`¨gvb c`v_©¸‡jv evwn¨K Zvc, Pvc I Ab¨ c`v‡_©i ms¯ú‡k© cwiewZ©Z nq| GKwU ivmvqwbK c`v_© GK
ev GKvwaK †gŠ‡ji mgš^‡q MwVZ| weï× c`v‡_© †gŠjmg~‡ni GKwU wbw`©ó kZKiv mshywZ _v‡K| KL‡bv
KL‡bv cwieZ©‡bi mgq †gŠjmg~‡ni kZKiv mshywZ AcwiewZ©Z †i‡L ïay c`v‡_©i †fŠZ Ae¯’vi cwieZ©b nq|
†hgb, eid‡K evqy‡Z gy³ Ae¯’vq †i‡L w`‡j cwi‡ek †_‡K Zvc †kvlY K‡i Zij cvwb‡Z cwiYZ nq Ges Zij
cvwb‡K 100oC ZvcgvÎvq DËß Ki‡j Rjxqev®ú Drcbœ nq| eid, Zij cvwb Ges Rjxqev‡®úi ivmvqwbK
ms‡KZ H2O| cÖ‡Z¨KwU Dcv`v‡b nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I Aw·‡R‡bi kZKiv mshywZ Awfbœ| c`v‡_©i GB cwieZ©b‡K
†fŠZ cwieZ©b e‡j|
+ Zvc + Zvc
H2O(s) H2O (l) H2O (g)
Zvc Zvc
GKBfv‡e †gvg I Mvjv‡K Zvc w`‡j GwU M‡j Zij Ae¯’vq cwiYZ nq Ges Zvc mwi‡q wb‡j `ª“Z KwVb c`v‡_©
iƒcvšÍwiZ nq|
KL‡bv KL‡bv GKwU c`v_© evwn¨K Zvc, Pvc I Ab¨ c`v‡_©i ms¯ú‡k© cwieZ©‡bi mgq c`v‡_© we`¨gvb
†gŠjmg~‡ni kZKiv mshywZi cwieZ©‡bi gva¨‡g bZzb c`v_© Drcbœ nq| bZzb c`v_©wU c~e© c`v‡_©i †gŠj Øviv
A_ev †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji we‡hvR‡bi gva¨‡g A_ev †Kv‡bv †gŠj ms‡hvR‡bi gva¨‡g MwVZ n‡Z cv‡i| cwiewZ©Z
c`v‡_©i †fŠZ Ae¯’v c~e©-c`v_© †_‡K wfbœ ev c~e©-c`v‡_©i Abyiƒc n‡Z cv‡i| bZzb †hŠ‡M Dcv`vb †gŠj wfbœ
nIqvq †gŠjmg~‡ni kZKiv mshywZi cwieZ©b nq| †hgb, †gv‡gi cÖavb Dcv`vb wewfbœ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi wgkÖY|
†gvg R¡vjv‡j Zvi wKQz Ask ïay †fŠZ cwieZ©‡bi gva¨‡g M‡j KwVb Ae¯’v †_‡K Zij Ae¯’vq iƒcvšÍwiZ nq
Ges VvÊv n‡q cybivq KwVb Ae¯’vq cwiYZ nq| GKBmv‡_ †gv‡gi wKQy Ask Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i
Kve©b WvBA·vBW I Rjxqev®ú Drcbœ K‡i| A_©vr †gvg R¡vjv‡bvi mgq †fŠZ cwieZ©b Ges ivmvqwbK wewµqv
Dfq cwieZ©b msNwUZ nq| †gvg‡K R¡vjv‡j nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi, Kve©b I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb evqyi Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ hy³
n‡q Kve©b WvBA·vBW I Rjxqev®ú Drcbœ K‡i| †gvg R¡vjv‡j †h‡nZz bZzb c`v‡_©i m„wó nq ZvB GB cwieZ©b
GKwU ivmvqwbK cwieZ©b ev ivmvqwbK wewµqv| ivmvqwbK cwieZ©‡b c`v‡_©i cigvYymg~‡ni gaëZ©x eÜb †f‡O
bZzb eÜb MwVZ nq| cigvYymg~‡ni gaëZ©x eÜb fvOv I bZzb eÜb MwVZ nIqvq Zvckw³i cwieZ©b nq|
ivmvqwbK wewµqvwU wb¤œiƒc:
y y
(
CxHy + x+ 4 ) O2 xCO2 + 2 H2O + kw³
cÖvK…wZK M¨vm ev wg‡_b‡K R¡vjv‡j Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i Kve©b WvBA·vBW I Rjxqev®ú Drcbœ K‡i|
GLv‡b ïay ivmvqwbK cwieZ©b msNwUZ nq|
'
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
Pzbvcv_i (K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU; CaCO3) Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i K¨vjwmqvg †K¬vivBW (CaCl2), Kve©b
WvBA·vBW I cvwb Drcbœ K‡i|
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
KvR : Dc‡ii cÖwµqv¸‡jv‡Z wewfbœ c`v‡_© †gŠjmg~‡ni kZKiv mshywZi Av‡jv‡K cwieZ©b m¤ú‡K© gZvgZ `vI|
88 imvqb
†fŠZ cwieZ©‡b cwiewZ©Z c`v_©‡K mn‡R c~‡e©i Ae¯’vq wdwi‡q †bIqv hvq wKš‘ ivmvqwbK cwieZ©‡b cwiewZ©Z
c`v_©‡K m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c c~‡e©i Ae¯’vq wdwi‡q †bIqv hvq bv|
7.2 ivmvqwbK cwieZ©b ev ivmvqwbK wewµqvi †kÖwYwefvM
ivmvqwbK wewµqvq †h c`v_© wb‡q Avi¤¢ Kiv nq Zv‡K wewµqK Ges †h c`v_© Drcbœ nq Zv‡K Drcv` e‡j|
wewµqK I Drcv‡ì †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK ag© wfbœ nq| GgbwK Zv‡ì †fŠZ Ae¯’vI wfbœ n‡Z cv‡i| wewµqK
c`v_© †_‡K B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvšÍwiZ n‡q A_ev wewµq‡Ki mv‡_ B‡jKUªb hy³ n‡q ivmvqwbK wewµqv m¤úbœ nq|
ivmvqwbK wewµqv m¤úbœ nIqvi mgq wewµqK c`v_© Drcv‡` cwiYZ nq, GKBmv‡_ Drcbœ c`v_© wewµq‡K
iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡Z cv‡i| c`v‡_© we`¨gvb cigvYymg~‡ni gaëZ©x eÜb fvOv Ges bZzb eÜb MV‡bi gva¨‡g
ivmvqwbK wewµqv m¤úbœ nq| ivmvqwbK eÜb g~jZ GK cÖKvi kw³| eÜb fvOv Ges bZzb eÜb MV‡b kw³i
cwieZ©b nq, hv Zvc wn‡m‡e Abyf~Z nq| ZvB ivmvqwbK wewµqvq Zv‡ci cwieZ©b nq| †Kv‡bv wewµqvq Zvc
Drcbœ nq Ges †Kv‡bv wewµqvq Zvc †kvwlZ nq| ivmvqwbK wewµqv‡K wb¤œwjwLZ wel‡qi Dci wfwË K‡i
†kÖwYwefvM Kiv hvq|
1. wewµqvi w`K (D
irectio
no
fR
eactio
n )
2. wewµqvq Zv‡ci cwieZ©b (HeatChagenofR
eactio
n )
3. B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvšÍi (E
lectro
nraTn
sito )
1. wewµqvi w`K (Direction of Reaction): wewµqvi w`‡Ki Dci wfwË K‡i ivmvqwbK wewµqv‡K `yB
fv‡M fvM Kiv hvqÑ
K. GKgyLx wewµqv (Irev
sibleR
eaction ): GKgyLx wewµqvq ïay wewµqK c`v_© ev c`v_©mg~n Drcbœ
c`v‡_© cwiYZ nq| wewµqvq Drcbœ GKvwaK Drcv‡ì g‡a¨ †h †Kv‡bv GKwU Drcv`‡K wewµqv gva¨g †_‡K
AcmviY Kiv n‡j Drcbœ c`v_©mg~n wewµqv K‡i wewµq‡K cwiYZ n‡Z cv‡i bv| GKgyLx wewµqvi †¶‡Î wewµqK
I Drcv‡ì g‡a¨ GKgyLx Zxi wPý (o ) eënvi K‡i wewµqvi mgxKiY Dc¯’vcb Kiv nq|
Pzbvcv_i (K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU; CaCO3) †K D”PZv‡c DËß Ki‡j Pzbvcv_i we‡hvwRZ n‡q Pzb (K¨vjwmqvg
A·vBW; CaO) I Kve©b WvBA·vBW Drcbœ K‡i| †Lvjv cv‡Î msNwUZ GB wewµqv GKgyLx nq|
'
CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(†Lvjv cv‡Î)
wewµqvq Drcbœ c`v_© KwVb K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW I M¨vmxq Kve©b WvBA·vBW| †Lvjv cv‡Î GB wewµqv m¤úbœ Kiv
n‡j M¨vmxq Drcv` Kve©b WvBA·vBW wewµqvcvÎ †_‡K AcmvwiZ nq| d‡j K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW (CaO) I Kve©b
WvBA·vBW wewµqv K‡i K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU (CaCO3) Drcbœ Ki‡Z cv‡i bv; A_©vr wecixZ wewµqv m¤úbœ
K‡i bv|
imvqb 89
L. DfgyLx wewµqv (Reversible Reaction): DfgyLx wewµqvq wewµqK c`v_©mg~n wewµqv K‡i Drcv‡`
cwiYZ nq, GKBmv‡_ Drcbœ c`v_©mg~n wewµqv K‡i cybivq wewµq‡K cwiYZ nq| DfgyLx wewµqvq GKBmv‡_
`ywU wewµqv Pjgvb _v‡K| GKwU wewµqvq wewµqKmg~n wewµqv K‡i Drcv‡` cwiYZ nq| G‡K m¤§yLgyLx wewµqv
e‡j| AciwU wewµqvq Drcbœ c`v_©mg~n wewµqv K‡i wewµq‡K cwiYZ nq| G‡K wecixZgyLx wewµqv e‡j|
wecixZgyLx wewµqvi †¶‡Î g~j wewµqvq Drcbœ c`v_© wewµqK wn‡m‡e wµqv K‡i| DfgyLx wewµqvi †¶‡Î
wewµqK I Drcv‡ì g‡a¨ DfgyLx Zxi wPý ( ) eënvi K‡i wewµqvi mgxKiY Dc¯’vcb Kiv nq|
A‰Re Gwm‡Wi (H+) Dcw¯’wZ‡Z B_vbj I ˆRe GwmW wewµqv K‡i G÷vi Drcbœ K‡i| GwU GKwU DfgyLx
wewµqv| GB wewµqvq Drcbœ G÷vi †f‡O B_vbj I ˆRe Gwm‡W cwiYZ nq|
H+ O
CH3CH2OH + CH3COOH CH3CH 2-O-C-CH3 + H2 O
Avevi, Pzbvcv_‡ii Zvcxq we‡hvRb wewµqvwU e× cv‡Î msNwUZ n‡j wewµqvwU DfgyLx nq|
'
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) (e× cv‡Î)
wewµqvq Drcbœ c`v_© KwVb K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW I M¨vmxq Kve©b WvBA·vBW| e× cv‡Î GB wewµqv m¤úbœ Kiv
n‡j K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW (CaO) I Kve©b WvBA·vBW wewµqv K‡i K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU (CaCO3) Drcbœ K‡i
wecixZ wewµqv m¤úbœ K‡i| cÖK…Zc‡¶ cÖvq mKj wewµqvB Dchy³ k‡Z© DfgyLx nq| Z‡e wKQz wewµqvi †¶‡Î
m¤§yLgyLx wewµqvi Zzjbvq wecixZ wewµqvi cwigvY GZB Kg _v‡K †hb wewµqv‡K GKgyLx g‡b nq|
2. wewµqvq Zv‡ci cwieZ©b (Heat Change of Reaction): Zv‡ci cwieZ©‡bi Dci wfwË K‡i
ivmvqwbK wewµqv‡K `yB fv‡M fvM Kiv nq| h_vÑ
K. Zvc Drcv`x wewµqv (Exothermic Reaction): wewµqK †_‡K Drcv` Drcbœ nIqvi mgq
Zvckw³ Drcbœ n‡j Zv‡K Zvc Drcv`x wewµqv e‡j| Zvc Drcv`x wewµqvq wewµqv m¤úbœ nIqvi mv‡_ wewµqv
cvÎ I wewµqv-`ªeY Mig n‡Z _v‡K| GB wewµqvq Drcbœ Zvc‡K Drcv‡ì mv‡_ †hvM w`‡q A_ev 'H wn‡m‡e
cÖKvk Kiv nq| Zvc Drcv`x wewµqvq 'H -Gi gvb FYvZ¥K nq| †hgb- Zvc, Pvc I cÖfve‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z
bvB‡Uªv‡Rb I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb wewµqv K‡i `yB †gvj A¨v‡gvwbqv Drcbœ nIqvi mgq 92 wK‡jvRyj Zvc Drcbœ nq|
Fe
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + 92 kJ
200-250 atm
450-550 oC
cÖfveK t cÖfveK
A_ev,
wewµqvi MwZ‡K
Fe e„w× ev n«vm K‡i|
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) ; ' H = -92 kJ
200-250 atm
450-550 oC
90 imvqb
L. Zvcnvix wewµqv (Endothermic Reaction): wewµqK †_‡K Drcv` Drcbœ nIqvi mgq Zvckw³ †kvwlZ
n‡j Zv‡K Zvcnvix wewµqv e‡j| Zvcnvix wewµqvq, wewµqv m¤úbœ nIqvi mv‡_ wewµqvcvÎ I wewµqv-`ªeY kxZj
ev VvÊv n‡Z _v‡K| GB wewµqvq, †kvwlZ Zvc‡K Drcv‡ì mv‡_ we‡qvM w`‡q ev wewµq‡Ki mv‡_ †hvM w`‡q
A_ev 'H wn‡m‡e cÖKvk Kiv nq| Zvcnvix wewµqvq 'H Gi gvb abvZ¥K nq| †hgb- Zvc, Pvc I cÖfve‡Ki
Dcw¯’wZ‡Z bvB‡Uªv‡Rb I Aw·‡Rb wewµqv K‡i `yB †gvj bvBwUªK A·vBW Drcbœ nIqvi mgq 180 wK‡jvRyj
Zvc †kvwlZ nq|
N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g) - 180 kJ
A_ev,
N2(g) + O2(g) + 180 kJ 2NO(g)
A_ev,
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) ; ' H = 180 kJ
{Zvc Drcv`x Ges Zvcnvix wewµqv m¤ú‡K© †Zvgiv cieZ©x Aa¨v‡q (Aóg Aa¨vq; imvqb I kw³) we¯ÍvwiZ
Rvb‡Z cvi‡e}|
3. B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvšÍi (Electron Transition): B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvšÍ‡ii Dci wfwË K‡i ivmvqwbK
wewµqv‡K cÖavbZ `yB fv‡M fvM Kiv nq| h_vÑ
K. †iW· (Redox) wewµqv: †iW· (Redox) kãwU weRviY; Reduction -Gi Red Ges RviY;
Oxidation -Gi Ox wb‡q MwVZ| A_©vr †iW· (Redox) A_© RviY-weRviY| RviY-weRviY wewµqv B‡jKUªb
¯’vbvšÍ‡ii gva¨‡g msNwUZ nq| GKwU wewµqK †_‡K RviY-weRviY wewµqv m¤úbœ n‡j wewµq‡Ki GKvwaK
†gŠ‡ji g‡a¨ B‡jKUªb Av`vb-cÖ`vb nq| `ywU wewµq‡Ki g‡a¨ RviY-weRviY wewµqv m¤úbœ n‡j wewµqK `yBwUi
g‡a¨ B‡jKUªb Av`vb-cÖ`vb nq| G‡Z wewµq‡Ki GK ev GKvwaK cigvYyi RviY msL¨vi cwieZ©b nq|
RviY msL¨v (Oxidation Number): †hŠM MV‡bi mgq †Kv‡bv †gŠj hZ msL¨K B‡jKUªb eR©b K‡i
abvZ¥K Avqb Drcbœ K‡i A_ev hZ msL¨K B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i FYvZ¥K Avqb Drcbœ K‡i Zv‡K †gŠ‡ji RviY
msL¨v e‡j| wbi‡c¶ ev gy³ Ae¯’vq †gŠ‡ji RviY msL¨v k~b¨ (0) aiv nq| B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i FYvZ¥K Avq‡b
cwiYZ n‡j †gŠ‡ji RviY msL¨v‡K FYvZ¥K RviY msL¨v Ges B‡jKUªb eR©b K‡i abvZ¥K Avq‡b cwiYZ n‡j
†gŠ‡ji RviY msL¨v‡K abvZ¥K RviY msL¨v e‡j| avZzmg~‡ni RviY msL¨v mvaviYZ abvZ¥K, AavZzmg~‡ni RviY
msL¨v FYvZ¥K Ges †hŠMg~j‡Ki RviY msL¨v Zv‡ì Avavb Abymv‡i nq| wewfbœ †hŠ‡M GKB †gŠ‡ji RviY msL¨v
wewfbœ n‡Z cv‡i| †hgb, HCl AYy‡Z H -Gi RviY msL¨v +1 Ges H2 AYy‡Z H -Gi RviY msL¨v k~b¨ (0)|
FeSO4 AYy‡Z Fe -Gi RviY msL¨v +2 Ges gy³ Fe avZz -G Fe Gi RviY msL¨v 0| GKBfv‡e HCl AYy‡Z
Cl Gi RviY msL¨v -1 Ges Cl2 AYy‡Z Cl -Gi RviY msL¨v 0|
`jMZ KvR: RviY msL¨v I †hvRbxi g‡a¨ Zzjbv Ki|
imvqb 91
RviY msL¨v wbY©q (Determination of oxidation number): †gŠ‡ji RviY msL¨v g~jZ Zvi B‡jKUªb
web¨v‡mi mv‡_ m¤úwK©Z| GKwU †hŠ‡M †Kv‡bv †gŠ‡ji RviY msL¨v, †hŠ‡M we`¨gvb Ab¨vb¨ †gŠ‡ji RviY msL¨vi
Dci wbf©ikxj| †hŠ‡M †Kv‡bv GKwU †gŠ‡ji RviY msL¨v wbY©q Kivi Rb¨ †hŠ‡M we`¨gvb Ab¨vb¨ †gŠ‡ji cÖgvY
RviY msL¨v (Standard oxidation number) eënvi Kiv nq| wb‡¤œi †Uwe‡j wKQz †gŠ‡ji, Avq‡bi Ges
†hŠ‡Mi cÖgvY RviY msL¨v †Ìqv n‡jv:
RviY msL¨vi wbqg †hŠ‡Mi ms‡KZ †gŠj I RviY msL¨v

avZzmg~‡ni RviY msL¨v abvZ¥K Ges AavZzmg~‡ni RviY NaCl Na = +1
msL¨v FYvZ¥K nq| Cl = 1
wbi‡c¶ cigvYy ev gy³ †gŠ‡ji RviY msL¨v k~b¨ nq| Fe, H2 Fe = 0
H=0
wbi‡c¶ †hŠ‡M cigvYymg~‡ni †gvU RviY msL¨v k~b¨ nq| H2O H = +1, O = 2
†gvU = 0
Avavbwewkó Avq‡b cigvYymg~‡ni †gvU RviY msL¨v Avavb SO42- SO42- = 2
msL¨vi mgvb nq| NH4+ NH4+ = +1
¶vi avZzmg~‡ni RviY msL¨v +1 nq| KCl, K2CO3 K = +1
g„r¶vi avZzmg~‡ni RviY msL¨v +2 nq| CaO, MgSO4 Ca = +2
Mg = +2
avZe n¨vjvB‡W n¨v‡jv‡R‡bi RviY msL¨v -1 nq| MgCl2, LiCl Cl = 1
AwaKvsk †hŠ‡M nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi RviY msL¨v +1 wKš‘ avZe NH3 H = +1

nvBWªvB‡W nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi RviY msL¨v -1| LiAlH4 H = 1
AwaKvsk †hŠ‡M (A·vB‡W) Aw·‡R‡bi RviY msL¨v -2 K2O, CaO O = 2
wKš‘ cviA·vB‡W Aw·‡R‡bi RviY msL¨v -1 Ges K2O2, H2O2 O = 1
1 NaO2, KO2 1
mycviA·vB‡W Aw·‡R‡bi RviY msL¨v - O =
2 2
QK 7.1: wewfbœ †hŠ‡M cigvYyi RviY msL¨v
* †d¬vwib e¨ZxZ Ab¨vb¨ n¨v‡jv‡R‡bi RviY msL¨v cwieZ©bkxj nq|

KMnO4 G Mn -Gi RviY msL¨v wbY©q:
Mn -Gi RviY msL¨v = x (a‡i), K -Gi RviY msL¨v = +1 Ges O -Gi RviY msL¨v = -2|
†h‡nZz KMnO4 wbi‡c¶ AYy, AZGe cigvYymg~‡ni †gvU RviY msL¨v k~b¨ nq|
myZivs (+1) + x + (-2) x 4 = 0
+1 + x - 8 = 0
x–7=0
x = 7, A_©vr KMnO4 G Mn -Gi RviY msL¨v = +7
KvR : †hŠM ev Avqbmg~‡ni wb¤œ `vMvw¼Z †gŠ‡ji RviY msL¨v wbY©q Ki:
MnO2, K2Cr2O7, NO3-, H2SO4, MnO4- , CuSO4, NaOH
92 imvqb
RviY-weRviY wewµqvi mgq mvaviYZ GKwU wewµqK B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i Ges Aci wewµqK B‡jKUªb eR©b
K‡i| †h wewµqK B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i Zv‡K RviK (Oxidant) Ges †h wewµqK B‡jKUªb eR©b K‡i Zv‡K
weRviK (Reductant) e‡j| avZe wRsK (`¯Ív) Kcvi mvj‡d‡Ui mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i wRsK mvj‡dU I Kcvi avZz
Drcbœ nq| GwU GKwU RviY-weRviY weµqv| RviY-weRviY wewµqvi `ywU AskÑ RviY I weRviY _v‡K|
Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
wewµqvi AvqwbK iƒc :
Zn + Cu2+ Zn2+ + Cu
1. RviY (Oxidation): AvaywbK ev B‡jKUªbxq aviYvq, RviY-weRviY wewµqvi mgq wewµqK †_‡K B‡jKUªb
eR©b ev AcmviY cÖwµqv‡K RviY e‡j| Dc‡ii wewµqvq wewµq‡K Zn -Gi RviY msL¨v k~b¨ (0) Ges Drcv`
ZnSO4 G Zn -Gi RviY msL¨v +2| A_©vr wewµqvq Zn `ywU B‡jKUªb AcmviY K‡i RvwiZ nq Ges
ZnSO4 -G cwiYZ nq| wewµqvi RviY Ask‡K wb‡¤œi mgxKi‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ Dc¯’vcb Kiv nq|
Zn Zn2+ + 2e-
mbvZb aviYvq, †Kv‡bv wewµqvi Aw·‡Rb A_ev Zwor FYvZ¥K †gŠj ev g~jK hy³ nIqv‡K ev nvB‡Wªv‡Rb A_ev
Zwor abvZ¥K †gŠj ev g~j‡Ki AcmvwiZ nIqv‡K RviY e‡j|
2. weRviY (Reduction): AvaywbK ev B‡jKUªbxq aviYvq, RviY-weRviY wewµqvi mgq wewµqK KZ…©K
B‡jKUªb MÖnY cÖwµqv‡K weRviY e‡j| Dc‡ii wewµqvq wewµqK CuSO4 G Cu -Gi RviY msL¨v +2 Ges
Drcv‡` Cu -Gi RviY msL¨v k~b¨ (0)| A_©vr wewµqvq CuSO4 `ywU B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i weRvwiZ nq Ges
Cu -G cwiYZ nq| wewµqvi weRviY Ask‡K wb‡¤œi mgxKi‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ Dc¯’vcb Kiv nq|
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
mbvZb aviYvq, †Kv‡bv wewµqvq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb A_ev Zwor abvZ¥K †gŠj ev g~jK hy³ nIqv‡K ev Aw·‡Rb A_ev
Zwor FYvZ¥K †gŠj ev g~j‡Ki AcmvwiZ nIqv‡K weRviY e‡j|
wewµqvq CuSO4 `ywU B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i weRvwiZ nq Ges Zn †K RvwiZ K‡i; A_©vr CuSO4 GB wewµqvq
RviK c`v_©| Ab¨fv‡e Zn `ywU B‡jKUªb cÖ`vb K‡i RvwiZ nq Ges CuSO4 †K weRvwiZ K‡i; A_©vr Zn
GB wewµqvq weRviK c`v_©| RviY-weRviY wewµqvq, RviK c`v_© hLb weRviK †_‡K B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i
weRvwiZ nq, GKBmv‡_ weRviK c`v_© RviK‡K B‡jKUªb cÖ`vb K‡i RvwiZ nq| A_©vr RviY I weRviY
GKBmv‡_ N‡U|
RviY wewµqv
Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
weRviK RviK
weRviY wewµqv
Dc‡ii eY©bvq RviY I weRviY wewµqv ejv n‡jI †h‡nZz RviY ev weRviY GKwU c~Y©v½ wewµqvi Aa©vsk| ZvB
RviY wewµqv‡K RviY Aa© Ges weRviY wewµqv‡K weRviY Aa© wewµqv ejv †kªq|
imvqb 93
B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvšÍ‡ii gva¨‡g msNwUZ mKj wewµqvB RviY-weRviY wewµqvi AšÍfy©³| B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvšÍ‡ii
gva¨‡g msNwUZ wewµqvmg~n:
1. ms‡hvRb wewµqv (Addition Reaction)
2. we‡hvRb wewµqv (Decomposition Reaction)
3. cÖwZ¯’vcb wewµqv (Substitution Reaction)
4. `nb wewµqv (Combustion Reaction)
1. ms‡hvRb wewµqv (Addition Reaction): `yB ev Z‡ZvwaK †hŠM ev †gŠj hy³ n‡q bZzb †hŠM Drcbœ
nIqvi cÖwµqvi bvg ms‡hvRb wewµqv| Avqib (II) †K¬vivBW †K¬vwi‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i Avqib (III) †K¬vivBW
Drcbœ K‡i (mbvZb c×wZ‡Z †Kv‡bv †hŠ‡Mi mv‡_ †K¬vwi‡bi ev FYvZ¥K As‡ki ms‡hvM‡K RviY ejv nq)|
2FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(aq)
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm †K¬vwib M¨v‡mi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i nvB‡Wªv‡Rb‡K¬vivBW M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i|
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
ms‡hvRb wewµqvq `yB ev Z‡ZvwaK †gŠwjK c`v_© hy³ n‡q bZzb †hŠM Drcbœ n‡j, G‡K ms‡kølY (Synthesis)
wewµqv e‡j|
2. we‡hvRb wewµqv (Decomposition Reaction): †Kv‡bv †hŠM‡K †f‡O GKvwaK †hŠM ev †gŠ‡j cwiYZ
Kivi cÖwµqvi bvg we‡hvRb wewµqv| dmdivm †c›Uv‡K¬vivBW‡K Zv‡c DËß Ki‡j dmdivm UªvB‡K¬vivBW I
†K¬vwib Drcbœ nq| GwU GKwU DfgyLx wewµqv (mbvZb c×wZ‡Z †Kv‡bv †hŠM †_‡K †K¬vwib ev FYvZ¥K As‡ki
AcmviY‡K weRviY ejv nq)|
'
PCl5(l) PCl3(l) + Cl2(g)
cvwb‡Z Zwor Pvjbv Ki‡j cvwb we‡hvwRZ n‡q nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I Aw·‡Rb Drcbœ K‡i| G‡K Zwor we‡kølY e‡j|
Zwor we‡kølY
2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)
3. cÖwZ¯’vcb wewµqv (Substitution or Displacement Reaction): †Kv‡bv †hŠ‡Mi GKwU †gŠj ev
†hŠMg~jK‡K Aci †Kv‡bv †gŠj ev †hŠMg~jK Øviv cÖwZ¯’vcb K‡i bZzb †hŠM Drcbœ Kivi cÖwµqvi bvg
cÖwZ¯’vcb wewµqv| mvaviYZ AwaK mwµq †gŠj ev g~jK Øviv Kg mwµq †gŠj ev g~jK cÖwZ¯’vwcZ nq| wRsK
mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i wRsK mvj‡dU I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i| wewµqvq AwaK-mwµq
wRsK avZz Kg-mwµq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb‡K cÖwZ¯’vcb K‡i (mwµqZvi Zzjbvi Rb¨ LwbRm¤ú` (avZz-AavZz) Aa¨vq
†`L, mbvZb c×wZ‡Z †Kv‡bv †hŠM †_‡K nvB‡Wªv‡Rb ev abvZ¥K As‡ki AcmviY‡K RviY ejv nq)|
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
†mvwWqvg avZz Kcvi mvj‡d‡Ui mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i †mvwWqvg mvj‡dU I avZe Kcvi Drcbœ K‡i| wewµqvq
†mvwWqvg avZz Kcvi mvj‡dU †_‡K Kcvi avZz‡K cÖwZ¯’vcb K‡i|
2Na(s) + CuSO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(s)

94 imvqb
4. `nb wewµqv (Combustion Reaction): †Kv‡bv †gŠj‡K ev †hŠM‡K evqyi Aw·‡R‡bi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z cywo‡q
Zvi Dcv`vb †gŠ‡ji A·vB‡W cwiYZ Kivi cÖwµqv‡K `nb wewµqv e‡j| `nb wewµqvq mvaviYZ Zvc Drcbœ
nq| wg‡_b M¨vm ev cÖvK…wZK M¨vm‡K cywo‡q ev `nb K‡i †h Zvc cvIqv hvq Zv ivbœvmn Ab¨vb¨ Kv‡R eënvi
Kiv nq (mbvZb c×wZ‡Z †Kv‡bv †hŠ‡Mi mv‡_ Aw·‡Rb ev FYvZ¥K As‡ki ms‡hvM‡K RviY ejv nq)|
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
GKBfv‡e Kve©b, mvjdvi, nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I g¨vM‡bwmqvg‡K `nb Ki‡j Zv‡ì A·vBW Drcbœ nq|
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
2S(s) + 3O2(g) 2SO3(g)
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

wPÎ 7.1 : R¡vjvwbi `nb
KvR : B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvš—‡ii gva¨‡g Dc‡ii wewµqv¸‡jvi
RviY-weRviY e¨vL¨v Ki|
L. bb-†iW· (Non-Redox) wewµqv: GK ev GKvwaK wewµqK †_‡K bZzb †hŠM Drcbœ nIqvi mgq wewµq‡K
we`¨gvb †gŠjmg~‡ni g‡a¨ B‡jKUªb Av`vb-cÖ`vb bv n‡j wewµqv‡K bb-†iW· weµqv e‡j| GB wewµqvq †Kv‡bv
wewµqK cigvYyi RviY msL¨vi n«vm-e„w× N‡U bv| B‡jKUªb Av`vb-cÖ`vb ev ¯’vbvš—iwenxb msNwUZ
wewµqvmg~n:
1. cÖkgb wewµqv (Nutralisation Reaction)
2. Aat‡¶cY wewµqv (Precipitation Reaction)
1. cÖkgb wewµqv (Nutralisation Reaction): GB wewµqv‡K GwmW-¶vi wewµqv ejv nq| Gwm‡Wi
Rjxq `ªe‡Yi K‡qKwU we‡kl êwkó¨ _v‡K| †hgb, GB `ªe‡Y †fRv bxj wjUgvm KvMR cÖ‡ek Kiv‡j jvj e‡Y©
cwiYZ nq| `ªe‡Yi pH gvb 7-Gi Kg _v‡K| Abyiƒcfv‡e ¶v‡ii Rjxq `ªe‡Yi K‡qKwU we‡kl êwkó¨
_v‡K| †hgb, GB `ªe‡Y †fRv jvj wjUgvm KvMR cÖ‡ek Kiv‡j bxje‡Y© cwiYZ nq| `ªe‡Yi pH gvb 7-Gi
†ewk _v‡K| GwmW I ¶v‡ii Rjxq `ªeY‡K GK‡Î wgwkªZ Ki‡j jeY I cvwb Drcbœ nq|
GwmW + ¶vi jeY + cvwb
Rjxq `ªe‡Y GwmW I ¶vi wewµqv K‡i jeY I cvwb Drcbœ nIqvi mgq `ªe‡Yi pH gvb 7-Gi wbKUeZ©x nq|
cÖkgb wewµqv m¤ú~Y© n‡j pH -Gi gvb 7 nq| wewµqvi mgq GwmW `ªeY Zvi GwmW ag© Ges ¶vixq `ªeY Zvi
¶viag© nvwi‡q cÖkwgZ n‡Z _v‡K| Rjxq `ªe‡Y GwmW I ¶vi wewµqv K‡i jeY I cvwb Drcbœ Kivi wewµqv‡K
cÖkgb wewµqv e‡j| mKj cÖkgb wewµqv Zvc Drcv`x nq| nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW (HCl) I †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW
(NaOH) Rjxq `ªe‡Y wewµqv K‡i †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW (NaCl) I cvwb Drcbœ K‡i| wewµqvcv‡Î †mvwWqvg
†K¬vivBW `ªexf~Z Ae¯’vq _v‡K|
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
imvqb 95
cÖK…Zc‡¶ wewµqvq Gwm‡Wi nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb (H+) I ¶v‡ii nvB‡Wªvw·j Avqb (OH-) hy³ n‡q cvwb Drcbœ
K‡i| †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW Rjxq `ªe‡Y †mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I †K¬vivBW Avqb (Cl-) wn‡m‡e _v‡K| Rjxq `ªe‡Y
†mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I †K¬vivBW Avqb (Cl-) wewµqvq AskMÖnY K‡i bv| G‡ì‡K `k©K (Spectator) Avqb
e‡j| G wewµqvq †Kv‡bv B‡jKUª‡bi ¯’vbvšÍi N‡U bv|
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

A_ev,
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
'ITFÙfBg.CN.$YTEHYCZCgTZHZTYg.ZE~xLcgFfC/YgEYKYT
-
H+(aq) + OH (aq) H2O(l)
2. Aat‡¶cY wewµqv (Precipitation Reaction): GKwU wbw`©ó `ªve‡K `ªeYxq `ywU †hŠM‡K wgwkÖZ
Kivi ci H `ªve‡K A`ªeYxq ev ¯^í `ªeYxq bZzb †hŠM Drcbœ n‡j †hŠMwU wewµqvcv‡Îi Zj‡`‡k KwVb c`v_©
wn‡m‡e Rgv nq| Drcbœ bZzb †hŠM `ªve‡K `ªexf~Z bv n‡q KwVb c`v_© wn‡m‡e Rgv n‡j Zv‡K Aat‡¶c e‡j|
†h wewµqvq Drcbœ †hŠM Aat‡¶c wn‡m‡e cv‡Îi Zj‡`‡k Rgv nq Zv‡K Aat‡¶cY wewµqv e‡j| Aat‡¶cY
wewµqvq AskMÖnYKvix wewµqK `ywU mvaviYZ AvqwbK †hŠM nq| GKwU wewµqvq Drcbœ †hŠM Aat‡¶c wn‡m‡e
Rgv n‡e wK bv Zvnv wewµqvq eëüZ `ªve‡Ki Dci wbf©i K‡i| †Kv‡bv wewµqvq Drcbœ †hŠM cvwb `ªve‡K
Aatw¶ß n‡jI Ab¨ †Kv‡bv `ªve‡K Aatw¶ß bv-I n‡Z cv‡i| AwaKvsk ivmvqwbK wewµqv cvwb `ªve‡K m¤úbœ
Kiv nq| ZvB Drcbœ †hŠ‡Mi g‡a¨ †h †Kv‡bv GKwU †hŠM cvwb‡Z A`ªeYxq n‡j wewµqvwU‡K Aat‡¶cY wewµqv
e‡j| G Aa¨v‡q ïay cvwb `ªve‡K m¤úbœ ivmvqwbK wewµqv Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡e| ivmvqwbK mgxKi‡Y Aat‡¶c
wn‡m‡e Rgv nIqv Drcv‡ì mvg‡b cÖ_g eÜbxi g‡a¨ s †jLv nq| A‡bK mgq Aat‡¶c‡K cÖKvk Kivi Rb¨
ivmvqwbK mgxKi‡Y Drcv‡ì mvg‡b wPý eënvi Kiv nq| †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW I wmjfvi bvB‡UªU Rjxq `ªe‡Y
wewµqv K‡i †mvwWqvg bvB‡Uª‡Ui Rjxq `ªeY I wmjfvi †K¬vivB‡Wi Aat‡¶c Drcbœ K‡i|
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
A_ev,
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl
cÖK…Zc‡¶ wewµqvq wmjfvi bvB‡Uª‡Ui wmjfvi Avqb (Ag+) I †mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi †K¬vivBW Avqb (Cl-) hy³
n‡q wmjfvi †K¬vivB‡Wi Aat‡¶c Drcbœ K‡i| †mvwWqvg bvB‡UªU Rjxq `ªe‡Y †mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I bvB‡UªU
Avqb (NO3-) wn‡m‡e _v‡K| Rjxq `ªe‡Y †mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I bvB‡UªU Avqb (NO3-) wewµqvq AskMÖnY
K‡i bv| G‡ì‡K `k©K (Spectator) Avqb e‡j| G wewµqvq †Kv‡bv B‡jKUª‡bi ¯’vbvšÍi N‡U bv|
A_ev,
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) Na+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + AgCl (s)
A_ev,
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + AgCl(s)
96 imvqb
Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) AgCl (s)
AwaKvsk †¶‡Î Aat‡¶cY wewµqv g~jZ wØ-cÖwZ¯’vcb (Double displacement) wewµqv| GB wewµqvq
†mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi †mvwWqvg Avqb Øviv wmjfvi bvB‡Uª‡Ui wmjfvi Avqb‡K cÖwZ¯’vcb K‡i, GKBmv‡_
wmjfvi bvB‡Uª‡Ui wmjfvi Avqb Øviv †mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi †mvwWqvg Avqb cÖwZ¯’vwcZ nq|
wØ-cÖwZ¯’vcb wewµqvq Drcbœ Dfq †hŠM cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq n‡j, Aat‡¶cY bv nIqvq †Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK wewµqv
m¤úbœ nq bv| †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW I cUvwmqvg bvB‡UªU Rjxq `ªe‡Y wØ-cÖwZ¯’vcb wewµqv K‡i Drcbœ †mvwWqvg
bvB‡Uª‡Ui I cUvwmqvg †K¬vivBW DfqB Rjxq `ªe‡Y `ªexf~Z Ae¯’vq _v‡K| d‡j `ªe‡Y mKj Avqb `k©K-Avqb
wn‡m‡e _v‡K| A_©vr †Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK wewµqv m¤úbœ nq bv|
NaCl (aq) + KNO3 (aq) NaNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq)
A_ev,
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq) Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
cvwb‡Z A`ªeYxq K‡qKwU †hŠ‡Mi AvYweK ms‡KZ:

BaSO4, PbSO4, AgI, CaSO4, BaCl2, CuS, PbS, PbI2
AwaKvsk Aat‡¶cY wewµqv bb-†iW·| Z‡e KL‡bv KL‡bv B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvšÍ‡ii gva¨‡g msNwUZ
RviY-weRviY (†iW·) wewµqvq Drcbœ GKvwaK Drcv‡ì g‡a¨ †h †Kv‡bv GKwU Drcv`‡K Aat‡¶c wn‡m‡e
cvIqv hvq| GB cÖK…wZi wewµqv Aat‡¶c‡Yi Zzjbvq RviY-weRviY wewµqv bv‡g AwaK cwiwPZ| †hgb, ¶vixq
wmjfvi bvB‡UªU `ªeY‡K U‡jb weKviK (Tollens reagent) e‡j| U‡jb weKviK Rjxq `ªe‡Y A¨vjwWnvBW †kªwYi
ˆRe †hŠ‡Mi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i KwVb avZe wmjfvi Aat‡¶c wn‡m‡e wewµqvcv‡Îi Zj‡`‡k Rgv nq| GB
wewµqvq wmjfvi bvB‡Uª‡Ui wmjfvi Avqb (Ag+) GKwU B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i weRvwiZ nq Ges avZe wmjfvi wn‡m‡e
Aatw¶ß nq|
Rjxq `ªe‡Y wmjfvi bvB‡UªU †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW ev A¨v‡gvwbqvg nvBWª·vB‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i wmjfvi
nvBWª·vBW Drcbœ K‡i| Drcbœ wmjfvi nvBWª·vBW we‡hvwRZ n‡q wmjfvi A·vBW wn‡m‡e Aatw¶ß nq|
AgNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) AgOH(s) + NaNO3(aq)
2AgOH(s) Ag2O(s) + H2O(l)

wmjfvi A·vB‡W A¨v‡gvwbqvi Rjxq `ªeY †duvUvq †duvUvq †hvM Ki‡j mKj Aat‡¶c `ªexf~Z n‡q A¨v‡gvwbqvhy³
wmjfvi nvBWª·vB‡Wi `ªeY ev U‡jb weKviK Drcbœ K‡i|
Ag2O(s) + 4NH3 + H2O(l) 2[Ag(NH3)2]+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
U‡jb weKvi‡Ki wmjfvi Avqb (Ag+) A¨vjwWnvB‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i weRvwiZ nq Ges avZe wmjfvi wn‡m‡e
Aatw¶ß nq| GKBmv‡_ A¨vjwWnvBW RvwiZ n‡q ˆRe Gwm‡W cwiYZ nq|
imvqb 97
CH3CHO (l) + 2Ag+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) CH3COOH (l) + 2Ag(s) + H2O(l)
K‡qKwU we‡kl wewµqv: wKQz ivmvqwbK wewµqv Av‡Q hv ewY©Z †kÖwYwefv‡Mi AšÍM©Z bq|
1. Av`©ªwe‡kølY ev cvwb we‡kølY (Hydrolysis) wewµqv: cvwbi AYy‡Z abvZ¥K nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb (H+) I
FYvZ¥K nvBWªw·j Avqb (OH-) _v‡K| †Kv‡bv †hŠ‡Mi `yB Ask cvwbi wecixZ Avavbwewkó `yB As‡ki mv‡_ hy³
n‡q bZzb †hŠM Drcbœ K‡i| GB wewµqv‡K Av`©ªwe‡kølY wewµqv e‡j| Av`©ªwe‡kølY wewµqv, wØ-cÖwZ¯’vcb
wewµqvi Abyiƒc (Aat‡¶cY wewµqvq Av‡jvwPZ)| Z‡e GB wewµqvq cvwb AskMÖnY Kivq G‡K cvwb we‡kølY
wewµqv e‡j Ges wewµqvq †Kv‡bv B‡jKUª‡bi ¯’vbvšÍi N‡U bv| A¨vjywgwbqvg †K¬vivBW cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i
A¨vjywgwbqvg nvBWª·vBW I nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW Drcbœ K‡i| GLv‡b A¨vjywgwbqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi A¨vjywgwbqvg
Avqb (Al3+) cvwbi nvBWªw·j Avq‡bi (OH-) mv‡_ Ges †K¬vivBW Avqb (Cl-) cvwbi nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avq‡bi (H+)
mv‡_ hy³ nq| wewµqvq Drcbœ A¨vjywgwbqvg nvBWª·vBW cvwb‡Z A`ªeYxq, ZvB Drcv`wU Aat‡¶c wn‡m‡e
wewµqvcv‡Îi Zj‡`‡k Rgv nq|
AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq)
GKBfv‡e wmwjKb †UUªv‡K¬vivBW cvwbi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z Av`©ªwe‡køwlZ n‡q wmwjKb nvBWª·vBW I nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK
GwmW Drcbœ K‡i|
SiCl4 + 4H2O Si(OH)4 + 4HCl
2. cvwb‡hvRb (Hydration) wewµqv: AvqwbK †hŠM †Kjvm (crystal lattice) MV‡bi mgq GK ev
GKvwaKmsL¨K cvwbi AYyi mv‡_ hy³ nq| GB wewµqv‡K cvwb‡hvRb (hydration) wewµqv e‡j| AvqwbK
†hŠ‡Mi mv‡_ hy³ cvwb‡K †Kjvm cvwb ev nvB‡Wª‡UW (hydrated) cvwb e‡j| wewµqvq cvwbi AYy hy³ nIqvi
Rb¨ we‡kl bvgKiY Kiv n‡q‡Q| GB wewµqv ms‡hvRb wewµqvi Abyiƒc, Z‡e ms‡hvRb wewµqvi b¨vq GB
wewµqvq B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvšÍi N‡U bv|
CaCl2 + 6H2O CaCl2.6H2O
MgCl2 + 7H2O MgCl2.7H2O
CuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO4.5H2O

3. mgvbyKiY (Isomerisation) wewµqv: GKB AvYweK ms‡KZwewkó `ywU †hŠ‡Mi ag© wfbœ n‡j
Zv‡ì‡K ci¯ú‡ii mgvby (Isomer) e‡j| †hgb, C2H6O AvYweK ms‡KZwewkó `ywU †hŠMÑ
CH3-CH2-OH CH3-O-CH3
bvg : B_vbj bvg : WvB wg_vBj B_vi
†fŠZ Ae¯’v : Zij †fŠZ Ae¯’v : M¨vmxq
ùzUbvsK : 78 °C ùzUbvsK : -24 °C
`ªve¨Zv : cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq `ªve¨Zv : cvwb‡Z ¯^í `ªeYxq
98 imvqb
B_vbj I WvBwg_vBj B_v‡ii AvYweK ms‡KZ Awfbœ wKš‘ Zv‡ì ag© wfbœ| B_vbj I WvBwg_vBj B_vi ci¯ú‡ii
mgvby| †Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK wewµqvq †hŠ‡Mi cigvYymg~‡ni cybwe©b¨v‡mi gva¨‡g GKwU mgvby †_‡K Aci mgvby
Drcbœ n‡j Zv‡K mgvbyKiY wewµqv e‡j| GB wewµqvq GKB AYyi g‡a¨ cigvYymg~n cybwe©b¨¯Í nq, ZvB GLv‡b
B‡jKUª‡bi ¯’vbv¯Íi m¤¢e bq|
A¨v‡gvwbqvg mvqv‡bU (NH4CNO) I BDwiqv (NH2-CO-NH2) ci¯ú‡ii mgvby| A¨v‡gvwbqvg mvqv‡bU‡K
DËß Ki‡j Zvi mgvby BDwiqv Drcbœ nq| GB wewµqv mgvbyKiY wewµqvi D`vniY|
'
NH4CNO NH2-CO-NH2
4. cwjgviKiY (Polymerisation) wewµqv: D”P Zvc I Pv‡ci cÖfv‡e GKB †hŠ‡Mi AmsL¨ AYy ci¯ú‡ii
mv‡_ hy³ n‡q e„nr AvYweK fiwewkó bZzb †hŠ‡Mi AYy MVb K‡i| †h mKj ¶z`ª AYy hy³ nq Zv‡ì cÖ‡Z¨K‡K
g‡bvgvi Ges †h e„nr bZzb AYy Drcbœ nq Zv‡K cwjgvi e‡j| †h wewµqvq AmsL¨ g‡bvgvi †_‡K cwjgvi Drcbœ
nq Zv‡K cwjgviKiY wewµqv e‡j| D”P Zvc I Pv‡ci cÖfv‡e wfbvBj †K¬vivBW (CH2=CHCl) AmsL¨ AYy
ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ hy³ n‡q e„nr AvYweK fiwewkó bZzb †hŠM cwjwfbvBj †K¬vivBW (PVC) MVb K‡i|
D”P Zvc I Pvc
n H2C CHCl(g) CH2-CHCl (s)
n
cwjgviKiY wewµqvq B‡jKUª‡bi ¯’vbvš—i N‡U bv|
7.3 ev¯Íe †¶‡Î msNwUZ K‡qKwU ivmvqwbK wewµqv
ˆ`bw›`b Kv‡R Avgiv †h mKj `ªe¨ eënvi Kwi cÖK…wZi wewfbœ Dcv`vb Zv‡ì mv‡_ ivmvqwbK wewµqv m¤úbœ
K‡i|
1. Avqi‡bi (†jvnv) ˆZwi `ªe¨‡K evqy‡Z gy³
wPšÍv Ki :
Ae¯’vq †i‡L w`‡j Aw·‡Rb I Rjxqev‡®úi mv‡_ Avqib
1. el©vKv‡j cvKv evwoi Qv` wcw”Qj n‡j evjy †Ìqv
wewµqvq AskMÖnY K‡i| Avqib evqyi Rjxqev‡®úi mv‡_ nq †Kb?
wewµqv K‡i Avqi‡bi (III) A·vBW (gwiPv) Drcbœ K‡i| 2. bvbx-`v`xiv †mjvB-myB‡K bvi‡Kj †Zj-Gi
g‡a¨ ivL‡Zb †Kb?
d‡j avZe Avqib ¶qcÖvß nq| Lwb‡Z cÖvß GB mmxg
3. KPz LvIqvi ci Mjv PzjKv‡j †ZuZzj Lvq †Kb?
m¤ú‡ì ¶q †iva Kiv cÖ‡qvRb| †jvnvi A·vBW avZe
Avqib †_‡K c„_K n‡q cybivq avZzi c„ô evqyi ms¯ú‡k© wb‡q Av‡m Ges wewµqv K‡i Avqib A·vBW (gwiPv)
Drcbœ K‡i| gwiPvi ivmvqwbK ms‡KZ Fe2O3.nH2O| gwiPvi cÖwZ AYy‡Z hy³ cvwbi AYyi msL¨v AÁvZ|
ZvB hy³ cvwbi AYyi msL¨v‡K n Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
4 Fe (s) + 6 H2O (l) + 3 O2 (g) 4 Fe(OH)3 (s)
-H2O
2 Fe(OH)3 (s) Fe2O3.nH2O (s)
wWnvB‡Wªkb
imvqb 99
2. Avqi‡bi b¨vq A¨vjywgwbqvg avZz evqyi Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i A¨vjywgwbqvg A·vBW Drcbœ K‡i
hv avZe LÊ †_‡K AcmvwiZ nq bv| A¨vjywgwbqvg A·vBW wb‡Pi ¯Í‡ii avZe A¨vjywgwbqvg‡K evqyi ms¯ú‡k©
Avmv †_‡K †iva K‡i|
3. †gŠgvwQ †cvKvi Kvg‡oi ¶Z¯’v‡b †cvKvi kixi †_‡K †h wel cÖ‡ek K‡i Zv‡Z $~Ò[T Dcv`vb _v‡K|
gvbyl †cvKvi Kvg‡oi R¡vjvhš¿Yv wbeviY Kivi Rb¨ ¶Z¯’v‡b Pzb eënvi K‡i| Pzb ¶viag©x c`v_©, GUv $~Ò[T
Dcv`v‡bi mv‡_ cÖkgb wewµqv K‡i|
4. ivmvqwbK wewµqvi gva¨‡g Avgv‡ì kix‡i Lv`¨ †_‡K kw³ Drcbœ nq| kK©ivRvZxq Lv`¨; ÷vP© (fvZ,
i“wU), wPwb, Møy‡KvR BZ¨vw` evqy †_‡K MÖnY Kiv kix‡ii Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i Kve©b WvBA·vBW, cvwb I
kw³ Drcbœ K‡i| gvby‡li kix‡ii msNwUZ GB cÖwµqv‡K k¦mb (Respiration) e‡j| Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqvi
c~‡e© ÷vP© we‡køwlZ n‡q Møy‡KvR Ges wPwb we‡køwlZ n‡q Møy‡KvR I d«z‡±v‡R cwiYZ nq|
kK©iv RvZxq Lv`¨ + Aw·‡Rb Kve©b WvBA·vBW + cvwb + kw³

C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) + kw³
Møy‡KvR
5. gvbe‡`‡ni wecvK wµqvq †h mKj e¨w³i cvK¯’wj‡Z AwZwi³ nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW (HCl) M¨vm Drcbœ
nq Zviv Wv³v‡ii mv‡Rkb Abymv‡i G›UvwmW-RvZxq Jla †meb K‡ib| G›UvwmW-RvZxq Jl‡a avZe
nvBWª·vBW _v‡K hv ¶viag©x Ges nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW (HCl) M¨vm GwmWag©x| ¶viag©x G›UvwmW GwmWag©x
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW (HCl) M¨vm‡K cÖkgb wewµqvi gva¨‡g cÖkwgZ K‡i|
3HCl + Al(OH)3 AlCl3 + 3H2O
2HCl + Mg(OH)2 MgCl2 + 2H2O

6. R¡vjvwbi `n‡b Kve©b WvBA·vBW, cvwb I Zvckw³ Drcbœ nq| Z‡e Aw·‡R‡bi mieivn Kg n‡j
R¡vjvwbi AvswkK `n‡b Kve©b WvBA·vBW Gi cwie‡Z© Kve©b g‡bvA·vBW ev Kve©b Drcbœ nq hv Kv‡jv †auvqv m„wó
K‡i Ges Kg Zvc Drcbœ nq|
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + kw³

R¡vjvwb
CH4(g) + 1.5O2(g) CO(g) + 2H2O(g) + kw³

R¡vjvwb
CH4(g) + O2(g) C(s) + 2H2O(g) + kw³

R¡vjvwb
100 imvqb
7.4 ¶wZKi wewµqv †iva Kivi Dcvq

cÖ‡qvRbxq Drcv` I kw³ Drcv`‡bi Rb¨ ivmvqwbK wewµqv m¤úbœ Kiv nq| wewµqvq †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv Drcv‡ì
Kvi‡Y ¯^v¯’¨, cwi‡ek I Avw_©K ¶wZ mvwaZ nq| GB ¶wZ †iva Kivi Rb¨ cÖwZKvig~jK eë¯’v †bIqv
cÖ‡qvRb| c„_K c„_K wewµqvi Rb¨ cÖwZKvig~jK eë¯’v wewfbœ nq|
†hgb, evqy I cvwbi ms¯ú‡k© Avqib wewµqv K‡i Avqib (III) A·vBW (gwiPv) Drcbœ K‡i| G‡Z avZe Avqib
¶qcÖvß nq hv Avw_©K ¶wZ mvab K‡i| Avqib GKwU mxwgZ m¤ú`| GB m¤ú‡ì ¶wZ †iva Kivi cÖavb Dcvq
n‡jv, avZe cigvYy‡K evqy I cvwbi ms¯úk© †_‡K `~‡i ivLv| GRb¨ avZe Avqi‡bi Dci is-Gi cÖ‡jc A_ev
Avqi‡bi Dci Ab¨ avZzi cÖ‡jc †Ìqv nq| GKwU avZzi Dci wRsK avZzi cÖ‡jc †Ìqv‡K M¨vjfvbvBwRs
(galvanizing), wU‡bi cª‡jc †Ìqv‡K wUb fFÒZ8V (tin-plating) Ges Zwor ZHgNÒO< c×wZ‡Z Ab¨ avZzi
cÖ‡jc †Ìqv‡K Zwor cÖ‡jcb (electroplating) e‡j| †jvnvi ˆZwi `ª‡eï Dci FÒYw÷‡Ki AveiY w`‡q
†jvnvi ¶q †iva Kiv nq| msKi avZz ˆZwii gva¨‡g avZz eënvi K‡iI avZzi ¶q †iva Kiv hvq|
1. wcw”QjKviK c`v_© ¶viag©x Ges evjy (SiO2) $~Òag©x -G‡ì g‡a¨ cÖkgb wewµqv N‡U|
2. †mjvB-myB‡q evqy Ges Rjxq ev‡®úi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z gwiPv a‡i|
3. KPz‡Z ¶viag©x c`v_© _v‡K Ges †ZuZz‡j ˆRe GwmW _v‡K hv ¶viag©x c`v_©‡K cÖkwgZ K‡i|
7.5 wewµqvi MwZ‡eM ev wewµqvi nvi (Rate of Reaction)
†jvnvi gwiPv
(axi MwZm¤úbœ wewµqv) g¨vM‡bwmqv‡gi cÖR¡jb we‡ùviY
(ga¨g MwZm¤úbœ wewµqv) (`ª“Z MwZ m¤úbœ wewµqv)
wPÎ 7.2 : wewfbœ MwZm¤úbœ wewµqv
wewµqvi nvi cix¶v:
PviwU †U÷wUDe ev ¯^”Q Kv‡Pi 0ÒYP bvI Ges Zv‡ì‡K 1, 2, 3 I 4 b¤î w`‡q wPwýZ Ki| cÖwZwU †U÷wUD‡e
mgcwigvY AvbygvwbK 0.5 wg.MÖv. †mvwWqvg Kv‡e©v‡bU (Na2CO3) A_ev KvcoKvPv †mvWv bvI| AZtci 1 I 2
b¤î †U÷wUD‡e ¯^vfvweK cvwb Ges 3 I 4 b¤î †U÷wUD‡e Mig cvwb †hvM K‡i 2 I 4 b¤î †U÷wUD‡e 1
wg.wj. †jeyi im (Citric acid) A_ev wf‡bMvi (6-10% Acetic acid) wgwkÖZ K‡i wb¤œwjwLZ
cwieZ©bmg~n ch©‡e¶Y Ki|
imvqb 101
1 2 3 4
VvÊv cvwb wf‡bMvi Mig cvwb wf‡bMvi
wPÎ 7.3 : †mvwWqvg Kve©‡bU `ªe‡Yi mv‡_ wf‡bMvi ev GwmwUK Gwm‡Wi wewµqv
1. †Kvb †Kvb †U÷wUD‡e eyèy` K‡i M¨vm wbM©Z nq ?

2. †Kvb †U÷wUD‡e AwaK cwigv‡Y eyèy` K‡i M¨vm wbM©Z nq ?
3. †Kvb †U÷wUD‡e me‡P‡q Kg cwigv‡Y eyèy` K‡i M¨vm wbM©Z nq ?
4. 2 I 4 b¤î †U÷wUD‡ei †KvbwU‡Z †ewk cwigv‡Y M¨vm wbM©Z nq ?
wPšÍv Ki: 2 I 4 b¤î †U÷wUD‡ei GKwU‡Z †ewk cwigv‡Y M¨vm wbM©Z nq †Kb ?
Dc‡ii cix¶v †_‡K my¯úó †h GKwU wbw`©ó mg‡q (1 wgwb‡U/5 wgwb‡U/10 wgwb‡U) mKj †U÷wUD‡e
mgcwigvY M¨vm wbM©Z nq bv| A_©vr GKwU wbw`©ó mg‡q mKj †U÷wUD‡e mgcwigvY Drcv` Drcbœ nq bv A_ev
mgcwigvY wewµqK wewµqvq AskMÖnY K‡i bv|
Na2CO3 (s) + 2 CH3COOH 2 CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O

GwmwUK GwmW
cÖwZ GKK mg‡q (cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û/ cÖwZ wgwb‡U/cÖwZ NÈvq) †Kv‡bv GKwU wewµqvcv‡Î †h cwigv‡Y Drcv‡ì
NbgvÎv e„w× cvq A_ev wewµq‡Ki NbgvÎv †h cwigv‡Y n&ªvm cvq Zv‡K wewµqvi nvi ev MwZ‡eM e‡j| wewµqK
Ges Drcv‡ì NbgvÎv‡K †gvj-wjUvi -1 GK‡K cÖKvk Kiv nq (lô Aa¨vq)| AZGe wewµqvi nv‡ii GKK n‡e
†gvj-wjUvi -1mgq -1|
wewµqvi nvi ev MwZ‡eM wewµqvi ZvcgvÎv, wewµq‡Ki NbgvÎv, wewµq‡Ki c„ôZ‡ji †¶Îdj I wewµqvq eëüZ
cÖfve‡Ki Dci wbf©ikxj| wewµqvi ZvcgvÎv, wewµq‡Ki NbgvÎv I wewµq‡Ki c„ôZ‡ji †¶Îdj e„w×i mv‡_
wewµqvi nvi e„w× cvq| cÖfveK eënv‡i wewµqvi nvi e„w× Ges n&ªvm DfqB n‡Z cv‡i| wewµqvq eëüZ
cÖfve‡Ki cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i nvi ev MwZ‡eM e„w× A_ev n«vm cvq| GgbwK cÖfve‡Ki cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i
K‡i DrcvÌ wfbœ nq|
jv kv‡Zwjqv‡ii bxwZ (Le-Chatelier’s Principle) : †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv wewµqvq Drcbœ c`v_©mg~n wewµqv K‡i
cybivq wewµq‡K cwiYZ nq| GB wewµqv¸‡jv‡K DfgyLx wewµqv ejv nq| DfgyLx wewµqvi cÖv_wgK Ae¯’vq
wewµqKmg~n Drcv‡` cwiYZ nq| wKQz mgq ci hLb Drcv‡ì cwigvY ev NbgvÎv e„w× cvq ZLb, Drcv`mg~n
wewµq‡K cwiYZ nIqv ïi“ K‡i| cÖv_wgK Ae¯’vq wewµq‡Ki NbgvÎv †ewk _v‡K ZvB, m¤§yLgyLx wewµqvi nvi ev
102 imvqb
MwZ‡eM †ewk nq| mg‡qi mv‡_ wewµq‡Ki cwigvY n«vm

m¤§yL wewµqvi nvi
wewµqvi nvi
cvq, d‡j m¤§yLgyLx wewµqvi nvi n«vm †c‡Z _v‡K Ges
Drcv‡ì cwigvY e„w× †c‡j wecixZ wewµqvi nvi e„w× Dfq wewµqvi nvi mgvb
cvq| cwieZ©‡bi GK mg‡q Dfq wewµqvi nvi mgvb nq|
wecixZ wewµqvi nvi
GB Ae¯’vq wewµqK Ges Drcv‡ì cwigvY ev NbgvÎvi
mgq
†Kv‡bv cwieZ©b nq bv| wewµqvi GB Ae¯’v‡K DfgyLx
wewµqK
wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’v e‡j| wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq m¤§yLgyLx I
mvg¨ve¯’vq wewµqK
NbgvÎv
wecixZgyLx Dfq wewµqv Pjgvb _v‡K| ivmvqwbK wewµqvi Ges Drcv‡ì NbgvÎv
GB Ae¯’vq Drcv‡ì cwigvY wewµqvi wbqvgK (ZvcgvÎv, AcwiewZ©Z
Pvc I wewµq‡Ki NbgvÎv) cwieZ©b Øviv cÖfvweZ nq| Drcv`
Dfgy L x wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq Drcv‡ì cwigvY mgq
jv-kv‡Zwjqv‡ii bxwZ Øviv wbqwš

¿Z nq| wPÎ : wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’v
DfgyLx wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq wewµqvi †h †Kv‡bv GKwU wbqvgK (ZvcgvÎv/Pvc/wewµq‡Ki NbgvÎv) cwieZ©b
(n«vm/e„w×) Ki‡j wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’v Ggbfv‡e cwieZ©b nq †hb wbqvgK cwieZ©‡bi djvdj cÖkwgZ nq|
jv kv‡Zwjqv‡ii bxwZi e¨vL¨v:
Zv‡ci cÖfve: †h mKj DfgyLx wewµqvq Zv‡ci cwieZ©b nq †m mKj wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vi Dci Zv‡ci cÖfve
_v‡K| †hgb,
A(g) + B(g) C(g) + D(g), ' H = -X wK‡jvRyj
DfgyLx wewµqvwUi m¤§yLgyLx AskwU Zvc Drcv`x Ges wecixZ wewµqvwU Zvcnvix| GB wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq
ZvcgvÎv e„w× Ki‡j wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’v evg w`‡K AMÖmi n‡q wewµq‡Ki cwigvY e„w× Ki‡e| A_©vr Zvcnvix
wewµqv e„w×i gva¨‡g Zvc e„w×RwbZ djvdj cÖkwgZ Ki‡e| GKBfv‡e wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq ZvcgvÎv n«vm
Ki‡j mvg¨ve¯’v Wvb w`‡K AMÖmi n‡e| A_©vr Zvc Drcv`x wewµqv e„w× cv‡e| †h mKj wewµqvq Zv‡ci cwieZ©b
nq bv †m mKj wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vi Dci ZvcgvÎvi †Kv‡bv cÖfve †bB|
Pv‡ci cÖfve: M¨vmxq wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq Pvc cwieZ©b Ki‡j wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vi cwieZ©b nq| †h mKj wewµqvq
M¨vmxq AYyi msL¨v cwieZ©b (n«vm/e„w×) nq †m mKj wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vi Dci Pv‡ci cÖfve i‡q‡Q| †hgb,
A (g) + B (g) C (g)
wewµqvwU m¤§yLgyLx n‡j AYyi msL¨v n«vm cvq| d‡j GKB AvqZ‡b Pvc n«vm cvq| wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq Pvc e„w×
Ki‡j mvg¨ve¯’v Wvb w`‡K AMÖmi nq| A_©vr m¤§yLgyLx wewµqv e„w×i gva¨‡g Pvc n«vm Ki‡e Ges Pvc e„w×RwbZ
djvdj cÖkwgZ Ki‡e| wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq Pvc n«vm Ki‡j mvg¨ve¯’v evg w`‡K AMÖmi n‡q wewµq‡Ki cwigvY
e„w× Ki‡e| †h mKj wewµqvq M¨vmxq AYyi msL¨vi cwieZ©b nq bv †m mKj wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vi Dci Pv‡ci
†Kv‡bv cÖfve †bB|
NbgvÎvi cÖfve: mKj wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vi Dci wewµq‡Ki NbgvÎvi cÖfve i‡q‡Q| wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq †h
†Kv‡bv GKwU wewµq‡Ki NbgvÎv e„w× Ki‡j wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’v Wvb w`‡K AMÖmi n‡q wewµq‡Ki NbgvÎv n«vm
K‡i cwieZ©‡bi djvdj‡K cÖkwgZ K‡i Ges Drcv‡ì cwigvY e„w× K‡i| GKBfv‡e wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq †h
†Kv‡bv GKwU Drcv‡ì NbgvÎv e„w× Ki‡j mvg¨ve¯’v evg w`‡K AMÖmi n‡q Drcv‡ì cwigvY n«vm K‡i|
wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq Drcv` ev Drcv`mg~n‡K mwi‡q wb‡j (Drcv‡ì NbgvÎv n«vm) wewµqvi mvg¨vev¯’v mvg‡bi
w`‡K AMÖmi nq|
imvqb 103
7.6 cÖkgb wewµqv cix¶vi gva¨‡g cÖ`k©b

cÖ‡qvRbxq DcKiY : 0.1 †gvjvi HCl `ªeY, 0.1 †gvjvi Na2CO3 `ªeY, 0.2 †gvjvi Na2CO3 `ªeY, wjUgvm
†ccvi, pH †ccvi, weKvi, gvcb wmwjÛvi I Wªcvi ev ey¨‡iU|
`ywU †QvU weKv‡i 5 wg.wj. K‡i 0.1 †gvjvi HCl `ªeY bvI| Dfq `ªe‡Y GK UzKiv K‡i jvj wjUgvm †ccvi †hvM
Ki| GwmW `ªe‡Y jvj wjUgvm †ccvi jvj _v‡K| pH †ccvi eënvi K‡i `ªe‡Yi pH cwigvc Ki Ges LvZvq
wjwce× Ki|
GKwU gvcb wmwjÛv‡i 5 wg.wj. 0.1 †gvjvi Na2CO3 `ªeY Ges Ab¨ GKwU gvcb wmwjÛv‡i 5 wg.wj. 0.2
†gvjvi Na2CO3 `ªeY bvI| Wªcvi ev ey¨‡iU eënvi K‡i †duvUvq †duvUvq 0.1 †gvjvi Na2CO3 `ªeY‡K GKwU
weKv‡i Ges Aci GKwU Wªcvi ev ey¨‡iU eënvi K‡i †duvUvq †duvUvq 0.2 †gvjvi Na2CO3 `ªeY Aci weKv‡i
†hvM Ki| `ªeY †hvM Kivi mv‡_ mv‡_ weKviwU‡K SuvKvI Ges wjUgvm †ccv‡ii e‡Y©i cwieZ©b ch©‡e¶Y Ki|
¶vixq `ªe‡Y jvj wjUgvm †ccv‡ii eY© bxj nq| wKQy¶Y ci ci pH †ccvi eënvi K‡i `ªe‡Yi pH cwigvc
Ki| wjUgvm †ccv‡ii eY© bxj nIqvi mv‡_ mv‡_ `ªe‡Yi pH cwigvc Ki|
2HCl + Na2CO3 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
cÖ_‡g weKv‡i HCl `ªeY _v‡K| GB `ªe‡Yi pH gvb 7 -Gi Zzjbvq Kg nq Ges `ªe‡Y wjUgvm †ccv‡ii eY© jvj
_v‡K| `ªe‡Y †duvUvq †duvUvq Na2CO3 `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j HCl -Gi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i NaCl, CO2 I H2O
Drcbœ nq| weKv‡ii `ªe‡Y HCl -Gi cwigvY Kg‡Z _v‡K Ges pH -Gi gvb e„w× †c‡q 7 -Gi wbKUeZ©x
nq| hLb `ªe‡Yi m¤ú~Y© HCl wewµqvi gva¨‡g cÖkwgZ nq ZLb pH -Gi gvb 7 nq| AZtci weKv‡i mvgvb¨
cwigvY (GK †duvUv) Na2CO3 `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j weKv‡ii wjUgvm †ccv‡ii eY© jvj †_‡K bxj e‡Y© cwiYZ nq|
ch©‡e¶Y : †duvUvq †duvUvq Na2CO3 `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j pH -Gi gvb Kxfv‡e cwiewZ©Z nq ?
cÖwZ †¶‡Î HCl `ªeY cÖkwgZ Ki‡Z KZ AvqZb Na2CO3 `ªeY cÖ‡qvRb ?
evwoi KvR: Na2CO3 `ªeY †hvM Kivi c~‡e© cÖwZ weKv‡i KZ MÖvg HCl `ªexf~Z wQj ?
cÖwZ weKv‡ii HCl †K cÖkwgZ Ki‡Z KZ MÖvg Na2CO3 †hvM Kiv n‡q‡Q ?
wPšÍv Ki: weKv‡i cÖ_‡g wbw`©ó cwigvY Na2CO3 `ªeY wb‡q †duvUvq †duvUvq HCl `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j pH Gi
gvb Kxfv‡e cwiewZ©Z nq ?
7.7 Aat‡¶cY wewµqv cix¶vi gva¨‡g cÖ`k©b

cÖ‡qvRbxq DcKiY : †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY, †divm mvj‡dU,
weï× cvwb, †U÷wUDe|
GKwU cwi®‹vi †U÷wUDe bvI| †U÷wUD‡e 1 wg.wj. †divm mvj‡dU
`ªeY wb‡q Zv‡Z †duvUvq †duvUvq †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY †hvM Ki Ges
cwieZ©b ch©‡e¶Y Ki|
FeSO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Fe(OH)2 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)
†divm mvj‡dU `ªe‡Yi mv‡_ †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY wewµqv K‡i
cvwb‡Z A`ªeYxq †divm nvBWª·vBW I `ªeYxq †mvwWqvg mvj‡dU Drcbœ †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW
†divm mvj‡dU `ªeY
Øviv Fe(OH)2-Gi Aat‡¶cY
nq| A`ªeYxq nvjKv meyR e‡Y©i †divm nvBWª·vBW †U÷wUD‡ei
wPÎ 7.4 : Aat‡¶cY wewµqv
Zj‡`‡k Aat‡¶c wn‡m‡e Rgv nq|
104 imvqb
Abykxjbx
1. wf‡bMv‡i wb‡Pi †Kvb GwmWwU Dcw¯’Z _v‡K?
K. mvBwUªK GwmW L. GwmwUK GwmW
M. UviUvwiK GwmW N. GmKiweK GwmW
2. †gŠgvwQ Kvgo w`‡j ¶Z¯’v‡b †KvbwU eënvi Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i?
K. KwjPzb L. wf‡bMvi
M. Lvevi jeY N. cvwb
3. G›UvwmW RvZxq Jla †me‡b †Kvb ai‡bi wewµqv m¤úbœ nq?
K. cÖkgb L. `nb
M. ms‡hvRb N. cÖwZ¯’vcb
4. H2SO4 + MgO
wewµqvq-
i. Zvc Drcbœ nq
ii. B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvšÍi N‡U
iii. Aat‡¶c c‡o
K. i L. ii I iii
m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1. Acy I †mZz Df‡qi evmvq ivbœvi Kv‡R cÖvK…wZK M¨vm eënvi Kiv nq| Acyi evmvi cv‡Îi wb‡P Kv‡jv `vM
co‡jI †mZzi evmvi cv‡Îi wb‡P †Kv‡bv `vM †bB|
K. GKgyLx wewµqv Kv‡K e‡j?
L. ivmvqwbK mvg¨ve¯’v ej‡Z Kx †evSvq?
M. ivbœvi mgq Zv‡ì evmvq m¤úbœ wewµqvwU †Kvb ai‡bi? e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. DÏxc‡Ki †Kvb evmvq ivbœvi Kv‡R M¨v‡mi AcPq nq e‡j Zzwg g‡b Ki? †Zvgvi DË‡ii ¯^c‡¶ hyw³ `vI|
imvqb 105
2. Pb (NO3)2 + 2KI
Dc‡ii wewµqvi Av‡jv‡K wb‡Pi QKwU c~iY Kiv n‡jv [K = 39, I = 127]:
Dcv`vb 1g cvÎ 2q cvÎ 3q cvÎ 4_© cvÎ eëüZ †gvU Aat‡¶c

AvqZb (mL)
0.2 M Pb (NO3)2 Gi AvqZb (mL) 1 2 3 4 10
cvwbi AvqZb (mL) 4 3 2 1 10 njy`
0.5 M KI Gi AvqZb (mL) 1 1 1 1 4
cÖwZwU cv‡Îi `ªe‡Yi †gvU AvqZb (mL) 6 6 6 6 -
K. Zvc Drcv`x wewµqv Kv‡K e‡j?

L. †hvRbx I RviY msL¨v GK bq †Kb? e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. mviwY‡Z eëüZ †gvU KI Gi cwigvY KZ MÖvg? wbY©q K‡i †`LvI|
N. †Kvb cv‡Îi `ªeYwU AwaK njy` n‡e e‡j Zzwg g‡b Ki? hyw³mn e¨vL¨v Ki|
Aóg Aa¨vq
imvqb I kw³
ivmvqwbK eÜb g~jZ kw³i Avavi| ivmvqwbK eÜb fvOv-Movi mv‡_ kw³ wbwnZ| c„w_ex‡Z hZ ivmvqwbK
cwieZ©b N‡U mKj †¶‡ÎB kw³i iƒcvšÍi nq| GB cwieZ©b¸‡jvi g‡a¨ †h¸‡jv ¯^Ztù~Z©fv‡e N‡U †m
cwieZ©‡bi kw³‡K eënvi K‡i Avgiv ˆ`bw›`b KvR Kwi| c„w_ex‡Z ivmvqwbK kw³i cwigvY mxwgZ hv w`b w`b
K‡g Avm‡Q| ZvB Avgv‡ì weKí kw³i K_v wPš—v Kiv cÖ‡qvRb| B‡Zvg‡a¨ m~h©‡K Kv‡R jvwM‡q †mvjvi c¨v‡bj
ˆZwi K‡i evwZ R¡vjv‡bvi cwigvY e„w× Kivi †Póv Pj‡Q| Ab¨ w`‡K DbœZ †`‡ki b¨vq cvigvYweK kw³‡K
eënvi Kivi cÖ‡Póv Avgv‡ì †`‡k ïi“ n‡q‡Q|
GB Aa¨vq cvV †k‡l Avgiv:

(1) ivmvqwbK cwieZ©‡bi mv‡_ kw³ Drcv`‡bi m¤úK© e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) kw³ Drcv`‡b R¡vjvwbi weï×Zvi ¸i“Z¡ Abyaveb, cwi‡ek myi¶vq G¸‡jvi eënvi mxwgZ ivL‡Z I
Dchy³ R¡vjvwb wbe©vP‡b m‡PZbZvi cwiPq w`‡Z cvie|
(3) wbivcËvi welqwU we‡ePbvq †i‡L ivmvqwbK wewµqv-mswkøó mgm¨v wPwýZ K‡i Zv AbymÜv‡bi
cwiKíbv, ev¯Íevqb Ges Gi Kvh©KvwiZv g~j¨vqb Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) ivmvqwbK wewµqv msMV‡b Ges kw³ Drcv`‡b ¯^Ztù~Z©fv‡e I AvZ¥wek¦v‡mi mv‡_ `vwqZ¡kxj wm×všÍ
MÖn‡Y m¶g ne|
(5) RviY-weRviY wewµqvi B‡jKUªbxq gZev` eënvi K‡i Pj we`y¨‡Zi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(6) ivmvqwbK wewµqvi gva¨‡g we`y¨r Drcv`b cÖwµqv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(7) we`y¨r eënvi K‡i wewµqv msMVb Ki‡Z cvie|
(8) wewfbœ c`v‡_©i Zwor we‡køl‡Y Drcvw`Z c`v_© Ges Gi evwYwR¨K eënvi m¤ú‡K© gZvgZ w`‡Z cvie|
(9) M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡li ZworØvi MVb Ki‡Z cvie|
(10) Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kvl I M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡li g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Ki‡Z cvie|
(11) ZworivmvqwbK †Kv‡li cÖ‡qvM e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(12) Zzjbvg~jK we‡kølY K‡i cvigvYweK we`y¨r Drcv`b m¤ú‡K© gZvgZ w`‡Z cvie|
(13) Zvcnvix I Zvc Drcv`x wewµqvi cix¶v Ki‡Z cvie|
(14) ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï ¶wZKi w`Kmg~n m¤ú‡K© m‡PZbZv cÖ`k©b Ki‡Z cvie|
(15) weï× R¡vjvwb eënv‡i AvMÖn cÖ`k©b Ki‡Z cvie|
(16) jeY `ªexf~Z I ivmvqwbK cwieZ©b nIqvi mgq Zv‡ci cwieZ©b cix¶vi mvnv‡h¨ †`Lv‡Z cvie|
imvqb 107
1.1 ivmvqwbK kw³

K. eÜbkw³ I ivmvqwbK wewµqvq kw³i cwieZ©b
Avgiv †R‡bwQ †h, †Kv‡bv †hŠ‡M †gŠjmg~n Zv‡ì g‡a¨ cvi¯úwiK (mutual) kw³ Øviv hy³ _v‡K| †gŠjmg~‡ni G‡K
Ac‡ii mv‡_ hy³ nIqvi Avmw³B n‡jv ivmvqwbK eÜb| ZvQvovI †Kv‡bv c`v‡_©i AYy ev Avqbmg~n G‡K Ac‡ii mv‡_
bvbv kw³i mgš^‡q MwVZ ÔAvšÍtAvYweK kw³Õ (intermolecular force) bvgK kw³i gva¨‡g KvQvKvwQ †_‡K
GKwU wbw`©ó Ae¯’v, †hgbÑ KwVb, Zij ev evqexq Ae¯’vi m„wó K‡i| †Kv‡bv `ª‡ei AYy ev Avqbmg~‡ni g‡a¨
AvšÍtAvYweK kw³ †ewk n‡jÑ KwVb, Kg n‡jÑ Zij Ges AviI Kg n‡j- evqexq Ae¯’vi m„wó nq| Zvn‡j GKB
`ª‡ei Ae¯’v‡f‡` AvšÍtAvYweK kw³ wfbœZi nq| †hgbÑ eid, cvwb I Rjxqev®ú n‡jvÑ cvwbi KwVb, Zij I evqexq
Ae¯’v| cvwb‡K Zvc (kw³) w`‡j Rjxqev‡®úi m„wó nq, A_©vr cvwb Zvc †kvlY K‡i Zij †_‡K evqexq c`v‡_© cwiYZ
nq| Avevi cvwb‡K VvÊv Ki‡j, A_©vr cvwb †_‡K Zvc †ei K‡i wb‡j cvwb KwVb (eid) `ª‡e cwiYZ nq|
Ab¨w`‡K, ivmvqwbK eÜb ˆZwii mv‡_I kw³ RwoZ| wfbœ †hŠ‡M AYymg~n wfbœ eÜbkw³ Øviv hy³ _v‡K| hw` wewµqvq
Drcbœ †hŠ‡Mi †gvU kw³ wewµqKmg~‡ni †gvU kw³i †P‡q Kg nq A_ev †ewk nq Zvn‡j Kx n‡Z cv‡i Pj †f‡e †`Lv
hvK| Drcbœ †hŠ‡M †gvU kw³i cwigvY Kg n‡j wewµqvi d‡j kw³i D™¢e n‡e, Ges †ewk n‡j kw³i †kvlY NU‡e|
†gvUK_v, †h †Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK cwieZ©‡b Kg‡ewk kw³i D™¢e ev †kvlY n‡q _v‡K, hwÌ Zv memgqB Avgiv Abyfe
Ki‡Z cvwi bv| Zvn‡j GUv ¯úó †h, `ª‡ei Ae¯’vi cwieZ©‡bi mv‡_ †hgb kw³ RwoZ, ivmvqwbK wewµqvq gva¨‡g
bZzb c`v‡_© cwiYZ nIqvi cÖwµqvi mv‡_ †Zgb kw³ RwoZ|
L. Zvc Drcv`x wewµqv I Zvcnvix wewµqv
Gevi Dc‡ii Av‡jvwPZ welqe¯‘ †_‡K wewµqv‡K Zv‡ci wfwË‡Z fvM Kwi| Zv‡ci cwieZ©‡bi wfwË‡Z ivmvqwbK
wewµqv `yB cÖKvi, h_v : (1) Zvc Drcv`x I (2) Zvcnvix wewµqv |
Zvc Drcv`x wewµqv: †h ivmvqwbK wewµqvq Zvc Drcbœ nq Zv‡K Zvc Drcv`x wewµqv e‡j| †hgb: KvV, Kqjv ev M¨vm
†cvov‡j Zvc Drcbœ nq| KvV ev Kqjv g~jZ Kve©b Ges Kve©‡bi wewfbœ †hŠM, hv `n‡bi gva¨‡g evqyi Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_
wewµqv K‡i Kve©b WvBA·vBW (CO2) I Zvc Drcbœ K‡i| Pzb cvwb‡Z w`‡j Zvc Drcbœ nq| Pzb n‡jv K¨vjwmqvg
A·vBW (CaO), hv cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i K¨vjwmqvg nvBWª·vBW; Ca(OH)2 I Zvc Drcbœ K‡i|
C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + Zvc
CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Zvc

Gevi Zvckw³ wbM©Z nIqvi welqmg~n e¨vL¨v Kiv hvK| cÖ_g †¶‡Î, wewµqK Kve©b I Aw·‡R‡bi g‡a¨ †gvU
w¯’Z ivmvqwbK kw³ Drcvw`Z †hŠM Kve©b WvBA·vBW Gi g‡a¨w¯’Z ivmvqwbK kw³i †P‡q †ewk| Abyiƒcfv‡e,
Drcv` K¨vjwmqvg nvBWª·vBW-Gi g‡a¨ w¯’Z ivmvqwbK kw³ wewµqK K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW I cvwbi g‡a¨ †gvU
w¯’Z ivmvqwbK kw³i †P‡q Kg| mn‡R ejv hvq, wewµq‡Ki g‡a¨ w¯’Z †gvU ivmvqwbK kw³ bZzb †hŠM MV‡b
e¨q nIqvi ci AwZwi³ Ask Zvc wn‡m‡e †ei nq, A_©vr wbM©Z Zvckw³ = Drcv` †hŠMmg~‡ni †gvU kw³ (E2)
wewµqK †hŠMmg~‡ni †gvU kw³ (E1)|
108 imvqb
wewµqv Zvc: †Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK wewµqvq cwiewZ©Z Zvc‡K wewµqv Zvc e‡j|
`nb Zvc: GK †gvj cwigvY c`v_©‡K `nb Ki‡j †h Zv‡ci Drcbœ nq Zv‡K `nb Zvc e‡j|
Zvc Zvc
ivmvqwbK c`v_©
ivmvqwbK c`v_©
wPÎ-8.1: Zvc Drcv`x wewµqv| wPÎ-8.2:Zvcnvix wewµqv|
Zvcnvix wewµqv: †h ivmvqwbK wewµqv msNwUZ nIqvi Rb¨ Zv‡ci †kvlY N‡U, Zv‡K Zvcnvix wewµqv e‡j| Zvc
Drcv`x wewµqvi †¶‡Î Avgiv mPivPi Zv‡ci D™¢e cÖZ¨¶fv‡e Abyfe Kwi, wKš‘ Zvcnvix wewµqv †¶‡Î Lye
KgB Zvc †kvl‡Yi NUbv eyS‡Z cvwi| Gevi Pj, Zvc †kvlY n‡q‡Q Ggb NUbv eySevi †Póv Kwi| 60qC
ZvcgvÎvq A‡a©K Møvm Mig cvwb Av‡Q| Gi g‡a¨ GKUyKiv eid †hvM Ki| wbðqB Avgiv eyS‡Z cvwi †h,
wKQy¶‡Yi g‡a¨B eid UzKivwU Mj‡e, Avi mv‡_ mv‡_ cvwbi ZvcgvÎvI K‡g hv‡e| Gfv‡e mPivPi Avgiv
cvbxq‡K VvÊv Ki‡Z eid UzKiv eënvi K‡i _vwK| Avgiv Dc‡i †R‡bwQ †h, cvwb †_‡K Zvckw³ †ei Ki‡j
cvwb Zij †_‡K KwV‡b (ei‡d) cwiYZ nq| Zvn‡j GUv ¯úó †h, M„nxZ kw³ (Zvc) eid‡K †diZ w`‡j KwVb
eid Zij cvwb‡Z cwiYZ n‡e| cÖK…Zc‡¶, Møv‡m ivLv eid UyKivwU Mig cvwb †_‡K Zvckw³ MÖnY K‡i cvwb‡Z
cwiYZ nq| Zvi d‡j Mig cvwbi ZvcgvÎv K‡g hvq| Zvn‡j eid UzKiv Zvi Pvicvk (cwi‡ek) †_‡K Zvc
†kvlY K‡i cvwb‡Z cwiYZ nq| Abyiƒcfv‡e ivmvqwbK wewµqv msNwUZ nIqvi Rb¨ Zv‡ci †kvlY n‡Z cv‡i|
G‡¶‡Î KL‡bv KL‡bv ivmvqwbK wewµqv msNwUZ Kivi Rb¨ eëüZ cv‡Îi Mv‡q nvZ w`‡j VvÊv Abyf~Z nq|
Avevi KL‡bv evwni †_‡K Zvc †Ìqv Qvov wewµqvB nq bv| †hgb: Lvevi †mvWv I †jeyi im ev wf‡bMv‡ii
wewµqvi mgq Zv‡ci †kvlY N‡U| Lvevi †mvWv n‡jvÑ †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU (NaHCO3)| Aciw`‡K
†jeyi i‡m mvBwUªK GwmW I wf‡bMv‡i GwmwUK GwmW _v‡K| †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU Gwm‡Wi mv‡_
wewµqvq Kve©b WvBA·vBW, jeY I cvwb Drcbœ K‡i| wewµqvwU msNwUZ nIqvi mgq `ªeY †_‡K Zvc †kvlY
K‡i, d‡j Avgiv `ªeYwU VvÊv n‡Z †`wL|
NaHCO3(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) + Zvc (`ªeY †_‡K †kvwlZ)
CH3COO¯Na+ (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
imvqb 109
M. ivmvqwbK wewµqvq Zv‡ci cwieZ©‡bi wnmve

ivmvqwbK wewµqv m¤úbœ nIqvi mgq wewµq‡K we`¨gvb eÜ‡bi fvOb Ges Drcbœ c`v‡_© bZzb eÜb MwVZ nq|
ivmvqwbK †hŠ‡M we`¨gvb c„_K c„_K eÜ‡bi kw³ wfbœ wfbœ nq| eÜb fvOvi Rb¨ kw³i cÖ‡qvRb nq Ges eÜb
MV‡bi Rb¨ kw³ wbM©Z nq| ivmvqwbK wewµqvq Kx Kx eÜb fv‡O I Zvi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq †gvU kw³ Ges Kx Kx
bZzb eÜb MwVZ nq I Zvi Rb¨ wbM©Z †gvU kw³ wnmve Kiv nq| AZtci wb‡Pi mgxKiY eënvi K‡i wewµqvq
Zv‡ci cwieZ©b wnmve Kiv nq|
wewµqvq Zv‡ci cwieZ©b = cyivZb eÜb fvOvi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq †gvU kw³ Ñ bZzb eÜb MwVZ nIqvq wbM©Z †gvU kw³
Zv‡ci cwieZ©b FYvZ¥K n‡j wewµqv Zvc Drcv`x Ges abvZ¥K n‡j wewµqv Zvcnvix|
†Uwe‡j cÖ`Ë eÜbkw³i mvnv‡h¨ wb‡Pi wewµqvq Zv‡ci cwieZ©b wnmve Ki:
CH3CH3 (g) + Cl2 (g) CH3CH2Cl (g) + HCl (g)
GB wewµqvq GK †gvj C-H I GK †gvj Cl-Cl eÜb fv‡O Ges GK †gvj C-Cl I GK †gvj H-Cl bZzb
eÜb MwVZ nq| GK †gvj C-H I GK †gvj Cl-Cl eÜb fvOvi eÜb eÜbkw³ ( kJ/ †gvj)
Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq †gvU kw³ = (414+ 244) wK‡jvRyj = 658 C-H 414
wK‡jvRyj| GK †gvj C-Cl I GK †gvj H-Cl bZzb eÜb MwVZ H-H 435
C-Cl 326
nIqvq wbM©Z †gvU kw³ = (326 + 431) wK‡jvRyj = 757 O-H 464
wK‡jvRyj| Cl-Cl 244
O=O 498
AZGe wewµqvq Zv‡ci cwieZ©b ('H) =
H-Cl 431
cyivZb eÜb fvOvi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq †gvU kw³ Ñ bZzb eÜb
MwVZ nIqvq wbM©Z †gvU kw³
= (658- 757) wK‡jvRyj
= - 99 wK‡jvRyj
A_©vr wewµqvq 99 wK‡jvRyj Zvc wbM©Z nq|
KvR: wb‡Pi wewµqv¸‡jvi wewµqv Zvc wnmve Ki|

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) H2O(g)
CH4(g) + 2Cl2(g) CH2Cl2(g) + 2HCl(g)
N. wewµqvi kw³ wPÎ

ivmvqwbK wewµqvq Zv‡ci Drcv`b I †kvlY wewµqvi kw³wP‡Îi gva¨‡g mn‡RB eySv hvq| wPÎ-8.3 I
wPÎ-8.4 G Zvc Drcv`x I Zvcnvix wewµqvi kw³wPÎ ch©‡e¶Y Ki| Zvc Drcv`x wewµqvi †¶‡Î wewµq‡Ki †gvU
kw³ (E1) Drcv‡ì †gvU kw³ (E2) A‡c¶v †ewk nq, A_©vr E1 > E2| wewµqv msNwUZ nIqvi mgq wewµq‡Ki kw³
110 imvqb
†_‡K Drcv` MV‡bi Rb¨ cª‡qvRbxq kw³ e¨q nIqvi ci AwZwi³ kw³ Zvckw³iƒ‡c †ei nq| Ab¨w`‡K,
Zvcnvix wewµqvi kw³wPÎ Zvc Drcv`x wewµqvi D‡ëv| Zvcnvix wewµqvi †¶‡Î wewµq‡Ki †gvU kw³ (E1)
Drcv‡ì †gvU kw³ (E2) A‡c¶v Kg nq, A_©vr E1 < E2| G‡¶‡Î wewµq‡Ki †gvU kw³ Drcv‡ì kw³i
Zzjbvq Kg _vKvq wewµqv msNwUZ nIqvi Rb¨ cª‡qvRbxq kw³ cwi‡ek †_‡K †kvlY K‡i| †m Kvi‡Y Zvcnvix
wewµqv NU‡j wewµqv wgkª‡Yi ZvcgvÎv Kg‡Z †`Lv hvq A_ev wewµqv msNwUZ Kivi Rb¨ Zvc w`‡Z nq|
Drcv`
E2
E1 wewµqK
wewµqK
E1
kw³
kw³
E2 Drcv`
wewµqvi AMÖMwZ wewµqvi AMÖMwZ

wPÎ-8.3: Zvc Drcv`x wewµqvi kw³wPÎ wPÎ-8.4: Zvcnvix wewµqvi kw³wPÎ
GLv‡b, E1 > E2| GLv‡b, E2 > E1|
8.2 ivmvqwbK kw³‡K Zvc, we`y¨r I Av‡jvKkw³‡Z cwieZ©b

Avgiv †`wL †h, †Kv‡bv R¡vjvwb †cvov‡j Zvc Drcbœ nq| Zv‡ci mv‡_ mv‡_ Av‡jvI m„wó nq| Zvc I Av‡jv
DfqB kw³, hvnv Zwor-Pz¤^Kxq iwk¥ (electromagnetic radiation) wn‡m‡e Pviw`‡K Qovq| KvV, Kqjv,
MvQcvjv, KvMR, cÖvK…wZK M¨vm, †K‡ivwmb, †c‡Uªvwjqvg cÖf„wZi
`n‡b Zvckw³ I Av‡jvKkw³ m„wó nq| w`qvkjvB I †gvgevwZ
R¡vwj‡qI Dfq kw³i m„wó Kiv hvq (wPÎ-8.5)| Zvn‡j Gme
c`v‡_©i kw³i Drm Kx? Avi †Kv‡bv R¡vjvwb †cvov‡bv ev `n‡bi
A_©B-ev Kx?
Avgiv Rvwb, c`v_© gvÎB ivmvqwbK eÜbØviv hy³ KZ¸‡jv
cigvYyi ¸”Q| Ab¨w`‡K, `nb n‡jvÑ †Kv‡bv c`v‡_©i AYy‡K
Aw·‡Rb Øviv RvwiZ Kiv| Zvn‡j †Kv‡bv c`v‡_©i AYy‡K RvwiZ
Kivi A_© Aw·‡Rbhy³ bZzb c`v‡_©i m„wó, Gevi wb‡P cÖ`Ë
wewµqv¸‡jv we‡ePbv Kiv hvK| Kqjv (Kve©b) Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_
wewµqv K‡i Kve©b WvBA·vBW, nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_
wewµqv K‡i cvwb Ges cÖvK…wZK M¨v‡mi wg‡_b Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_
wewµqv K‡i Kve©b WvBA·vBW I cvwb Drcbœ K‡i| Kve©b Zv‡ì wPÎ-8.5: R¡jšÍ †gvgevwZ|
wb‡R‡ì ga¨Kvi eÜb †f‡O Kve©b-Aw·‡Rb (Kve©b WvBA·vBW) eÜb MVb K‡i| Abyiƒcfv‡e, `n‡bi d‡j
wg‡_‡bi Kve©b-nvB‡Wªv‡Rb eÜb †f‡O Kve©b-Aw·‡Rb (Kve©b WvBA·vBW) Ges nvB‡Wªv‡Rb-Aw·‡Rb (cvwb)
eÜb MwVZ nq| Avgiv Rvwb †h, me eÜb ev AYy MV‡b GKB cwigvY kw³i cwieZ©b nq bv| Avm‡j, R¡vjvwbi
imvqb 111
`n‡bi d‡j Drcbœ c`v‡_©i Af¨šÍixY kw³ R¡vjvwbi AYyi g‡a¨ w¯’Z kw³i Zzjbvq Kg| d‡j AwZwi³ kw³
Zwor-Pz¤^Kxq iwk¥ wn‡m‡e Pviw`‡K Qovq, hv Avgiv Av‡jv I Zvc wn‡m‡e †`wL I Abyfe Kwi|
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + Zvc
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + Zvc
2 H2(g) + O2 (g) 2 H2O (l) + Zvc
R¡vjvwb †cvov‡bvi d‡j D™¢~Z Zvckw³‡K eënvi K‡i Zvc BwÄ‡bi UvievBb (PvKv) Nywi‡q we`y¨rkw³‡ZI iƒcvšÍi
Kiv nq| Avgv‡ì †`‡k Drcvw`Z we`y¨rkw³i cªvq cy‡ivUvB Gfv‡e R¡vjvwb cywo‡q Drcbœ Kiv nq| wewfbœ ai‡bi
M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡l †hgbÑ W¨vwbqvj †Kvl, WªvB †mj I †jW †÷v‡iR e¨vUvwi ivmvqwbK kw³‡K we`y¨rkw³‡Z
iƒcvšÍi K‡i| Avevi M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡l cªvß we`y¨rkw³‡K Av‡jvKkw³‡Z cwiYZ Kiv hvq, †hgb- WªvB †m‡ji
mvnv‡h¨ UP© R¡vjv‡bv| Gfv‡eB ivmvqwbK kw³‡K wewfbœ kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ K‡i gvby‡li eënvi-Dc‡hvMx Kiv
nq|
8.3 ivmvqwbK kw³ †_‡K cvIqv wewfbœ kw³ Kv‡R jvMv‡bv
KvR Kivi ¶gZv n‡jvÑ kw³| R¡vjvwb †cvov‡j Zvc Drcbœ nq| Avi Zvc GK cÖKvi kw³| KvV I cÖvK…wZK M¨vm
cywo‡q ivbœvevbœv Kiv nq| Zvckw³‡K mivmwi eënvi K‡i BU I gvwUi ˆZwi wewfbœ ˆZRmcÎ †cvov‡bv nq|
bvbv mvgMªx ˆZwi‡Z KjKviLvbvq KuvPvgvj Mjv‡Z ev Mig Ki‡Z Zvckw³
eënvi Kiv nq| †jŠn I B¯úvZ, wmivwgKm RvZxq KviLvbvq wecyj cwigv‡Y
Zv‡ci eënvi nq| wewfbœ LwbR R¡vjvwb (fossil fuel) †hgbÑ Kqjv,
†c‡Uªvwjqvg I cÖvK…wZK M¨vm‡K
R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e Zvc BwÄ‡b (heat
engine) cy w o‡q †gvUiMvwo,
RvnvR, wegvb, †ijMvwo I Ab¨vb¨
BwÄbPvwjZ hvbevnb Pvjv‡bv nq|
†c‡Uªvwjqvg cywo‡q, m¨v‡jv BwÄ‡bi
PvK Nyiv‡bv nq| Gfv‡e PvKv Nywi‡q
Mfxi †_‡K cvwb D‡Ëvjb Kiv nq|
wPÎ-8.6: †K‡ivwmb cywo‡q Avgiv evmv-evwo‡Z †K‡ivwmb ev wPÎ-8.7: K…lK Uªv±‡ii Zvc BwÄ‡b
nvwi‡Kb Av‡jv w`‡”Q wW‡Rj cywo‡q Rwg Pvl Ki‡Q
†gvgevwZ cywo‡q Av‡jv R¡vjvB|
Ab¨w`‡K, AvaywbKKv‡ji me‡P‡q Rbwcªq kw³ n‡jvÑ we`y¨r| Avgiv me©‡¶‡Î we`y¨‡Zi eënvi †`wL| hwÌ
wewfbœfv‡e we`y¨‡Zi Drcv`b Kiv hvq| Z‡e wmsnfvM we`y¨r Zvc BwÄ‡b LwbR R¡vjvwb cywo‡q UvievBb Nywi‡q
ˆZwi Kiv nq| Avgiv Zwor ivmvqwbK †Kvl I e¨vUvwii gva¨‡g ivmvqwbK kw³‡K we`y¨rkw³‡Z iƒcvšÍi K‡i
Av‡jv R¡vjv‡bv, †iwWI-wUwf Pvjv‡bv, cvLv Nyiv‡bv cÖf„wZ Kv‡R eënvi K‡i _vwK|
112 imvqb
8.4 ivmvqwbK kw³i h_vh_ eënvi

me kw³i Drm n‡jvÑ m~h©| Zvn‡j c‡iv¶fv‡e ivmvqwbK kw³i DrmI m~h© bq wK? RxeP‡µ †R‡bQ †h, Dw™¢`
mv‡jvKms‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g m~h© †_‡K kw³ Zvi †`‡n mwÂZ K‡i| Av‡jvKkw³ I evqyi Kve©b WvBA·vBW wg‡j
Dw™¢‡ì †`‡n wewfbœ ˆRe ivmvqwbK †hŠ‡Mi m„wó nq| Dw™¢` †_‡K cÖvwYKyj kw³ cvq| Dw™¢` I cÖvYx g„Zzï ci
gvwU‡Z wg‡k hvq| cieZ©x‡Z Gme c`v_© nvRvi eQi a‡i wewfbœ cÖwµqvi gva¨‡g cwiewZ©Z n‡q †c‡Uªvwjqvg,
Kqjv I cªvK…wZK M¨vmiƒ‡c f~M‡f© gRy` nq| G‡ì‡K Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwb (fossil fuel) e‡j| Avgiv Gai‡bi
R¡vjvwb‡K Lwb‡Z cvB| Avgv‡ì †`‡ki wZZvm, nwicyi, mvs¸ cÖf„wZ cÖvK…wZK M¨vm‡¶Î I eocyKzwiqv KqjvLwb
cÖwm×| †Zvgv‡ì Kx aviYv, Gme Lwb †_‡K M¨vm ev Kqjv †c‡ZB _vKe? Avm‡j Zv bq| GK mgq G¸‡jv †kl
n‡q hv‡e| cÖkœ n‡Z cv‡i, †h‡nZz cÖvYx I Dw™¢` †Zv cÖwZwbqZB Rš§ wb‡”Q I gvivI hv‡”Q, Zvn‡j Gme LwbR
R¡vjvwb †kl n‡q hv‡e †Kb? DËiUv LyeB mnR| KviY Avgiv †h nv‡i R¡vjvwb eënvi KiwQ Z_v Lwb †_‡K
R¡vjvwb D‡Ëvjb KiwQ, †m nv‡i f~M‡f© R¡vjvwb gRy` n‡”Q bv| Zvn‡j mn‡RB Abygvb Kiv hvq †h, wKQyw`b ci
Gme R¡vjvwbi gRy` †kl n‡q hv‡e| welqwU h_v_©B Ges ejv nq †h, Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwbi gRy` AvMvgx GKk eQ‡iB
†kl n‡q hv‡e|
Dc‡i †R‡bwQ †h, LwbR R¡vjvwbB g~jZ Avgv‡ì †gvU kw³i Pvwn`vi wmsnfvM †hvMvb w`‡q _v‡K| ZvQvov LwbR
R¡vjvwbi kw³‡K Ab¨ kw³‡Z iƒcvš—i Kiv (†hgbÑ we`y¨rkw³) e¨qeûjI e‡U| DcišÍ ivmvqwbK kw³ we‡kl K‡i
LwbR R¡vjvwb eënv‡i cwi‡e‡ki bvbv iK‡gi ¶wZ nq| Zvn‡j ivmvqwbK kw³ eënv‡i Avgv‡ì KiYxq Kx?
AvaywbK hy‡M ivmvqwbK kw³i eënvi Qvov Pjv Am¤¢e | wKš‘ ivmvqwbK kw³i cwiwgZ e¨q wbwðZ Ki‡Z cvi‡j
gRy‡ì Dci wbtm‡›`‡n Pvc Kg‡e| G‡Z K‡i Avgiv `xN©w`b R¡vjvwbi gRy`‡K Kv‡R jvMv‡Z cvie|
`yf©vM¨RbKfv‡e Avgiv kw³i AcPq KiwQ| Acª‡qvR‡b Pzjv R¡vwj‡q ivLwQ, Av‡jv R¡vjvw”Q, cvLv Nyivw”Q,
we‡bv`‡bi Rb¨ iKgvix Av‡jvKm¾v KiwQ, ÎwUhy³ hš¿cvwZ eënvi KiwQ, ¯^í cÖ‡qvR‡b BwÄbPvwjZ
hvbevnb eënvi KiwQ cÖf„wZ| Gme AcPq †iva K‡i GKw`‡K †hgb R¡vjvwbi `xN©mgq eënvi wbwðZ Ki‡Z
cvwi, Ab¨w`‡K †Zgwb ivmvqwbK kw³ eënv‡ii d‡j m„ó cwi‡e‡ki Dci weiƒc cÖfve †iva Ki‡Z cvwi|
ivmvqwbK kw³ eënv‡ii m‡PZbZvB cv‡i Avgv‡ì c„w_ex‡K `xN©mgq wUwK‡q ivL‡Z|
8.5 R¡vjvwb weï×Zvi ¸i“Z¡

R¡vjvwb we‡kl K‡i KvV, cÖvK…wZK M¨vm I †c‡Uªvwjqvg †cvov‡j mvaviYZ Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm, cvwb I Zvc
Drcbœ nq| Aek¨ ¯^í evqyi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z Gme R¡vjvwb †cvov‡j Kve©b WvBA·vB‡Wi mv‡_ welv³ Kve©b
g‡bvA·vBWI Drcbœ nq, hv ¯^v‡¯’ï Rb¨ gvivZ¥K SuzwKc~Y©| Ab¨w`‡K, hw` R¡vjvwbi mv‡_ we‡kl K‡i
imvqb 113
mvjdvi I bvB‡Uªv‡Rb †gŠjhy³ †hŠM _v‡K, Zvn‡j R¡vjvwb †cvov‡bvi mgq cwi‡ek I ¯^v‡¯’ï Rb¨ SuzwKc~Y©
mvjdvi I bvB‡Uªv‡R‡bi wewfbœ A·vBW Drcbœ nq| mvjdvi WvBA·vBW evqyi Rjxqev‡®úi mv‡_ hy³ n‡q
mvjwdDwiK GwmW ˆZwi K‡i, hv GwmWe„wói (acid rain) m„wó K‡i| Avgiv wbðqB eyS‡Z cvwi †h,
GwmWe„wó cwi‡e‡ki MvQcvjv I RxeRš‘i wU‡K _vKvi Rb¨ AšÍivq| GQvovI hvbevnb †_‡K wbM©Z †auvqvq
Kve©b g‡bvA·vBW, bvBUªvm A·vBW I AeëüZ M¨vmxq R¡vjvwb (wg‡_b) evqy‡Z wg‡k _v‡K| G¸‡jv m~‡h©i
Av‡jvi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z bvbv ivmvqwbK wewµqvi gva¨‡g wewfbœ welv³ M¨v‡mi †auvqvi m„wó K‡i| G‡K
Ôd‡UvK¨vwgK¨vj †auvqvÕ (photochemical smog) e‡j| d‡UvK¨vwgK¨vj †auvqvi Dcv`vb M¨vmmg~n
evqygÊ‡ji I‡Rvb (O3) ¯Í‡ii gvivZ¥K ¶qmvab K‡i| AZGe ¯^v¯’¨ I cwi‡ek i¶vq weï× R¡vjvwbi
eënvi wbwðZ Kiv AZ¨šÍ Ri“wi|
8.6 ivmvqwbK kw³ eënv‡ii †bwZevPK cÖfve
Avgiv Dc‡i †`Ljvg †h, ivmvqwbK kw³ eënvi Kivi g~jbxwZ g~jZ, R¡vjvwb‡K evqyi mv‡_ cywo‡q (RviY
wewµqv) Zvc Drcbœ Kiv| hwÌ dz‡qj †mj I Ab¨vb¨ †¶‡Î we‡kl K‡i wewfbœ Zwor ivmvqwbK †Kvl I
wbDwK¬qvi wewµqvq ivmvqwbK kw³ †_‡K eënvi‡hvM¨ kw³ Drcv`‡bi g~jbxwZ wfbœ| cÖK…Zc‡¶, wmsnfvM kw³
R¡vjvwb‡K cywo‡qB Drcv`b Kiv nq| GLb cÖkœ n‡”Q nvRvi nvRvi Ub R¡vjvwb †cvov‡bvi d‡j D™¢~Z mgZyj¨
cwigvY CO2 M¨vm I Ab¨vb¨ M¨vmmg~n we‡kl K‡i CO, SO2, NO I †auvqvi mv‡_ †ei nIqv A`nbxq R¡vjvwb
†Kv_vq hv‡”Q? wbðqB Giv evZv‡mi mv‡_ wg‡k hv‡”Q| D‡jøL¨ †h, mv‡jvKms‡kølY wewµqvq evqy‡Z wg‡k hvIqv
CO2 M¨vm eëüZ nq e‡U| wKš‘ `yf©vM¨RbKfv‡e GKw`‡K †hgb Avgiv Dw™¢`Ky‡ji wbab KiwQ, Ab¨w`‡K
Avgv‡ì AZ¨vaywbK Rxebeë¯’vi Pvwn`v †gUv‡bvi Rb¨ R¡vjvwbi eënvi e„w× KiwQ| G‡Z K‡i w`‡b w`‡b
evqygÊj CO2 -Gi cwigvY A¯^vfvweKfv‡e †e‡o hv‡”Q| hwÌ CO2 evqyi Ab¨ Dcv`v‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i
bv| Z‡e CO2 M¨v‡mi Zvc aviY¶gZv †ewk, A_©vr CO2 Zvc †kvlY K‡i Zv a‡i ivL‡Z cv‡i (trapping of
heat) | Avevi CO2 M¨vm IR‡b fvix nIqvq c„w_exc„‡ôi KvQvKvwQ Ae¯’vb K‡i| G‡Z K‡i w`‡b w`‡b
c„w_exi ZvcgvÎv †e‡o hv‡”Q, hv‡K êwk¦K Dòvqb (global warming) ejv nq| CO2 M¨v‡mi G ai‡bi
ZvcgvÎv e„w×i NUbv ÔwMÖb nvDR cÖfveÕ (greenhouse effect) e‡j cwiwPZ Ges CO2 -†K wMÖbnvDR M¨vm
ejv nq| êwk¦K Dòvq‡bi d‡j †gi“AÂ‡ji eid M‡j cvwb‡Z cwiYZ n‡q AbvKvw•¶Z eb¨vi m„wó Ki‡Q
(wPÎ-8.8)| Ab¨w`‡K, R¡vjvwb †cvov‡bvi d‡j D™¢~Z Ab¨vb¨ M¨vmmg~n bvbviKg ivmvqwbK wewµqv NwU‡q evqy‡K
`~wlZ Ki‡Q| evqy‡Z wewfbœ Dcv`v‡bi fvimvg¨ bó K‡i GwmWe„wó I d‡UvK¨vwgK¨vj †auvqvi m„wó Ki‡Q|
ZvQvovI Gme M¨vm I‡Rvb¯Í‡ii mv‡_ mivmwi wewµqv K‡i Gi cyi“Z¡ Kwg‡q w`‡”Q ev I‡Rvb¯Í‡i ¶‡Zi
(hole) m„wó Ki‡Q| Avm‡j evqygÊ‡ji I‡Rvb¯Íi m~‡h©i Av‡jvi QuvKwb wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i| m~‡h©i Av‡jv‡Z
Dcw¯’Z AwZ‡e¸wb iwk¥ (ultraviolet ray) c„w_ex‡Z Avm‡Z evav cÖ`vb K‡i| cieZ©x †kÖwY‡Z Avgiv G‡ì
cÖfv‡e Kx Kx n‡Z cv‡i Zvi we¯ÍvwiZ Rvbe|
114 imvqb
wPÎ-8.8: KviLvbv †_‡K Kve©b WvBA·vB‡Wi wbtmiY (ev‡g) I evqygÊ‡ji ZvcgvÎv e„w×i d‡j †gi“ AÂ‡ji
eid M‡j cvwb n‡”Q (Wv‡b)|
8.7 B_vbj‡K R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi

B_vbj, hvi Aci bvg B_vBj A¨vj‡Kvnj| GwU GKwU `vn¨ Zij ivmvqwbK c`v_©| LwbR R¡vjvwb †hgbÑ
†K‡ivwmb, †c‡Uªvj, wW‡Rj cÖf„wZi g‡Zv B_vbj‡K †cvov‡j Zvc Drcbœ nq| Zvn‡j LwbR R¡vjvwbi g‡Zv
B_vbj‡K Zvc BwÄ‡bi R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi K‡i KjKviLvbv, Mvwo, wegvb, RvnvR cÖf„wZ Pvjv‡bv †h‡Z
cv‡i| eªvwRj, DËi Av‡gwiKvmn DbœZ †`kmg~‡n B_vbj‡K †c‡Uªvwjqvg (LwbR R¡vjvwb) -Gi mv‡_ wgwkªZ K‡i
Zvc BwÄ‡b eënvi Kiv nq| Av‡gwiKvi †gvUvgywU me Mvwo †c‡Uªv‡ji mv‡_ kZKiv 1
0fvM B_vbjwgwkªZ R¡vjvwb
eënvi K‡i iv¯Ívq PjvPj Ki‡Q| eªvwR‡ji miKvi LwbR R¡vjvwbi mv‡_ kZKiv 25fvM B_vbj wgwkªZ K‡i
eënvi Kiv eva¨Zvg~jK K‡i‡Q| GQvovI AvaywbKKv‡ji I cieZ©x cÖR‡b¥i eënvi‡hvM¨ kw³ Drcv`‡bi cÖhyw³
e‡j L¨vZ Ôdy‡qj †mjÕ (fuel cell) -Gi R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e A¨vj‡Kvnj (wg_vbj I B_vbj) eëüZ n‡”Q| wbðqB
GB cÖkœUv g‡b RvM‡Z cv‡i, GZ me R¡vjvwb _vK‡Z B_vb‡ji eënvi ìKvi †Kb? ejv n‡”Q †h, LwbR R¡vjvwbi
gRy` GKmgq †kl n‡q hv‡e| Zvn‡j wPšÍv Kiv cÖ‡qvRb Avgiv Kxfv‡e kw³i Drcv`b Kie, Kxfv‡e hvbevnb
ev KjKviLvbv Pvjve? GgZve¯’vq hw` B_vbj‡K R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv hvq, Zvn‡j Aek¨B LwbR R¡vjvwbi
gRy‡ì Dci Pvc Kg co‡e|
gRvi e¨vcvi n‡jvÑ B_vbj n‡jv GKwU ˆRe ivmvqwbK †hŠM, hv †k¦Zmvi RvZxq km¨ `vbv †hgbÑ Avjy, fyÆv,
B¶y cÖf„wZ †_‡K MvRb cÖwµqvi (ferm
entation reactio
n) gva¨‡g Drcbœ Kiv hvq| GRb¨ B_vbj‡K ˆRe
R¡vjvwb (b
io
-fuel) ejv nq| Aaybv bZzb cÖhyw³i gva¨‡g †mjy‡jvR (Dw™¢‡ì †`‡ni Dcv`vb) †_‡K B_vbj
Drcv`b KivI m¤¢e n‡q‡Q| Ab¨w`‡K, K…wlKv‡Ri gva¨‡g km¨ I Dw™¢` Z_v B_vb‡ji wbqwgZfv‡e Drcv`b
wbwðZ Kiv m¤¢e| AZGe LwbR R¡vjvwbi g‡Zv B_vbj dzivevi fq †bB| Avevi Dw™¢` memgq evqygÐj †_‡K
CO2 MÖnY K‡i cwi‡ek‡K ¯^vfvweK ivL‡Z mvnvh¨ K‡i| Zvn‡j, B_vb‡ji evwYwR¨K Drcv`b I weKí R¡vjvwb
wn‡m‡e eënv‡ii cÖhyw³ D™¢veb GKwU AZxe ¸i“Z¡c~Y© e¨vcvi|
8.8 ZworivmvqwbK †Kvl (Electrochemical Cell)
Dc‡i Avgiv Rvbjvg †h, R¡vjvwb‡K cywo‡q ivmvqwbK kw³‡K Zvckw³‡Z cwiYZ K‡i wewfbœfv‡e Kv‡R jvMv‡bv
hvq| GLv‡b Avgiv wkLe Kxfv‡e ivmvqwbK kw³‡K Zvckw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ bv K‡i mivmwi we`y¨rkw³‡Z cwiYZ
Kiv hvq I cvkvcvwk Kxfv‡e we`y¨rkw³‡K eënvi K‡i ivmvqwbK wewµqv m¤úbœ Kiv hvq| M¨vjfvwb (L
uigi
imvqb 115
alv
G ani) I †fvjUv (AlessandroolV
ta) cÖ_g ivmvqwbK kw³‡K we`y¨r kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ Ki‡Z m¶g
n‡qwQ‡jb| M¨vjfvwb 1780 wLªóv‡ã I †fvjUv 180 wLªóv‡ã Avjv`vfv‡e cix¶vi gva¨‡g eyS‡Z cv‡ib †h,
¯^Ztù~Z©fv‡e NUv RviY-weRviY wewµqvi (redoxreaction) gva¨‡g we`y¨r Drcbœ Kiv m¤¢e| g~jZ Zv‡ì
Avwe®‹v‡ii d‡jB AvR Avgiv e¨vUvwi †c‡qwQ| Zvn‡j, M¨vjfvwbK †Kvl (G
alv
anic Cell) (hv †fvjUvwqK †Kvl
(V
ltaic Cell)
o e‡jI cwiwPZ) n‡jv GK ai‡bi ZworivmvqwbK †Kvl (electrocehm
ical cell) hvi gva¨‡g
ivmvqwbK kw³ †_‡K we`y¨rkw³ ˆZwi Kiv hvq| Aciw`‡K we`y¨rkw³ eënvi K‡i ZworivmvqwbK †Kv‡li
gva¨‡g ivmvqwbK wewµqv msNwUZ Kiv hvq| G‡K Zworwe‡kølY (electrolysis) ejv nq| †h †Kv‡l
Zworwe‡kølY Kiv nq Zv‡K Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kvl (electroltiyc cell) e‡j| ZworivmvqwbK †Kvl wewfbœ ¶z`ªvsk,
†hgb ZworØvi (electrode) , jeY-†mZz (saltribge) I Zworwe‡køl¨ `ªeY wb‡q MwVZ| wb‡¤œ ZworivmvqwbK
†Kv‡li wewfbœ wel‡qi Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|
8.9 we`y¨r cwievnx I ZworØvi
cwievnx: †h mKj c`v‡_©i ga¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡Z cv‡i, Zv‡ì‡K we`y¨r cwievnx (conductor) e‡j| Avi
hv‡ì ga¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevwnZ n‡Z cv‡i bv, Zv‡ì‡K Acwievnx (insulator) e‡j| avZz, Kve©b (MªvdvBU),
MwjZ jeY, GwmW, ¶vi, je‡Yi `ªeY cÖf„wZ we`y¨r cwievnx wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i| we`y¨r cwien‡bi †KŠk‡ji
(m
ech
anism) Dci wfwË K‡i cwievnx‡K `yBfv‡M fvM Kiv hvq| h_v:- (1) B‡jKUªwbK (electronic) I (2)
Zworwe‡køl¨ (electrolytic) cwievnx| †h mKj cwievnx B‡jKUªb cÖev‡ni gva¨‡g we`y¨r cÖevwnZ K‡i Zv‡K
B‡jKUªwbK cwievnx e‡j| †hgbÑ mKj avZz I MÖvdvBU| we`y¨rcÖevn hw` cwievnxi Avqb Øviv mvwaZ nq, Hme
cwievnx‡K Zworwe‡køl¨ cwievnx e‡j| †hgb MwjZ jeY, GwmW, ¶vi I je‡Yi `ªeY|
ZworØvi: ZworØvi n‡jv avZe ev AavZe we`y¨r cwievnx c`v_©| G‡ì‡K B‡jKUªwbK cwievnx ejv nq| ZworØvi
ZworivmvqwbK †Kv‡li B‡jKUªwbK cwievnx I `ªe‡Yi (AvqwbK cwievnx) g‡a¨ we`y¨r cÖev‡ni †hvMm~Î i¶v
K‡i| ZworivmvqwbK †Kvl MV‡b `ywU ZworØvi cÖ‡qvRb| GKwU‡K A¨v‡bvW ZworØvi Ges AciwU‡K K¨v‡_vW
ZworØvi e‡j|
A¨v‡bvW ZworØv‡iÑ 1. RviY wewµqv m¤úbœ nq I 2. Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡l `ªe‡Yi A¨vbvq‡bi B‡jKUªb avZe
`‡Ê (A¨v‡bvW) ¯’vbvšÍwiZ nq|
K¨v‡_vW ZworØv‡iÑ 1. weRviY wewµqv m¤úbœ nq I 2. Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡l `ªe‡Yi K¨vUvqb KZ…©K avZe `Ê
(K¨v‡_vW) †_‡K B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i|
GKwU cv‡Î Zworwe‡køl¨ `ªeY wb‡q, A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW wn‡m‡e `yÕwU avZe `Ð‡K Zvi I e¨vUvwii gva¨‡g hy³
K‡i Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kvl MVb Kiv nq| Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡l A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW ZworØvi wn‡m‡e avZe `Ê ev
MÖvdvBU `Ê eënvi Kiv nq| GB †Kv‡l A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW ZworØvi wn‡m‡e GKB avZe `Ê A_ev wfbœ avZe
`Ê eënvi Kiv hvq| avZe `Ê ïay B‡jKUªb cwievnxi KvR K‡i, †Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK wewµqvq AskMÖnY K‡i bv|
Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡l eëüZ e¨vUvwii abvZ¥K cÖvšÍ †h avZe `‡Êi mv‡_ hy³ Zv A¨v‡bvW wn‡m‡e Ges FYvZ¥K
cÖvšÍ †h avZe `‡Êi mv‡_ hy³ Zv K¨v‡_vW wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i|
116 imvqb
M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡l A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW ZworØvi MV‡bi c×wZ Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kvl †_‡K c„_K| GB †Kv‡l GKwU
avZe `Ê‡K H avZzi Zworwe‡køl¨ `ªe‡Yi g‡a¨ ¯’vcb K‡i ZworØvi MVb Kiv nq| M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡li A¨v‡bvW
I K¨v‡_vW wn‡m‡e wfbœ avZe `Ê‡K eënvi Kiv nq (GKB avZe `Ê‡K wfbœ NbgvÎvi Zworwe‡kø‡lï g‡a¨
¯’vcb K‡i A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW MVb Kiv hvq| GB m¤ú‡K© cieZ©x †kÖwY‡Z Rvb‡e)| M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡li
A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW wba©vwiZ nq avZzi mwµqZv Øviv| ZworØvi wn‡m‡e eëüZ avZe `ÊØ‡qi g‡a¨ AwaK mwµq
avZz A¨v‡bvW Ges Kg mwµq avZz K¨v‡_vW wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i| M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡li A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW‡K
mvaviYZ e¨vUvwii gva¨‡g mshy³ Kiv nq bv| ïay Zv‡ii gva¨‡g hy³ Kiv nq| cÖ‡qvR‡b evj¦ hy³ Kiv nq
we`y¨‡Zi Drcv`b wbwðZ nIqvi Rb¨|
M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡li avZz / avZe Avqb ZworØvi
wewfbœ cÖKv‡ii ZworØvi i‡q‡Q| Zb¥‡a¨ avZz/avZe Avqb ZworØvi Ab¨Zg| †Kv‡bv GKwU avZz hw` D³ avZzi
je‡Yi `ªe‡Y Wyev‡bv _v‡K, Zvn‡j Zv‡K avZz/avZz Avqb ZworØvi e‡jÑ †hgb: Kcvi avZzi `Ê ev avZe cvZ
Kcvi mvj‡d‡Ui Rjxq `ªe‡Y Wyev‡bv _v‡K, Zvn‡j Zv‡K Kcvi/Kcvi(II) ev Cu|Cu2+(aq) ZworØvi e‡j|
Abyiƒcfv‡e, Ag|Ag+(aq) Ges Zn|Zn2+(aq) D‡jøL‡hvM¨ avZy/avZe Avqb ZworØv‡ii D`vniY|
ZworØvi wewµqv
Dc‡i Avgiv avZz/avZe Avqb ZworØvi m¤ú‡K© †R‡bwQ| Ag|Ag+(aq) ZworØviwUi wewµqv‡K Avgiv
wb‡gœv³fv‡e wjL‡Z cvwi|
Ag(s) Ag+(aq) + e¯
avZz/avZe Avqb ZworØvi wewµqv DfgyLx cÖK…wZi n‡q _v‡K| A_©vr ZworØvi wewµqvq avZe Ag (s) B‡jKUªb
Z¨vM K‡i Ag+(aq) Avq‡b cwiYZ n‡q `ªe‡Y `ªexf~Z nq| Aciw`‡K `ªe‡Yi Ag+ (aq) Avqb‡K hw` GKwU
B‡jKUªb cÖ`vb Kiv hvq, Zvn‡j Ag+ (aq) Avqb avZe Ag(s) G cwiYZ n‡e|
Zvn‡j ZworØvi wewµqv RviY ev weRviY wewµqv| A_©vr †Kv‡bv GKwU ZworØvi wewµqvq B‡jKUª‡bi Av`vb A_ev
cÖ`vb N‡U| wKš‘ Avgiv Rvwb, RviY-weRviY hyMcr N‡U| hw` GKwU ZworØvi B‡jKUªb cÖ`vb K‡i (RviY) Zvn‡j
D³ B‡jKUªbwU MÖnY Kivi Rb¨ Av‡iKwU ZworØv‡ii cª‡qvRb bq wK? Avm‡j wVK ZvB| ZworivmvqwbK wewµqvq
Rb¨ `yBwU ZworØvi cÖ‡qvRb-K¨v‡_vW I A¨v‡bvW| ZworivmvqwbK †Kv‡li †h ZworØv‡i weRviY wewµqv m¤úbœ Zv‡K
K¨v‡_vW e‡j| Avevi †h ZworØv‡i RviY wewµqv m¤úbœ nq Zv‡K A¨v‡bvW e‡j| M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡l ZworØvi wewµqv
mvaviYZ ¯^Ztù‚Z©fv‡e m¤úbœ nq| Avevi ZworØv‡i we`y¨r cÖev‡ni gva¨‡g ZworØvi wewµqv m¤úv`b Kiv hvq|
A¨v‡bvW wewµqv : M M+ + e¯ A_ev X¯ X + e¯
K¨v‡_vW wewµqv : X + e¯ X¯ A_ev M+ + e¯ M
8.10 M¨vjfvwbK †Kvl
†h ZworivmvqwbK †Kv‡l ZworØvi wewµqv ¯^Ztù~Z©fv‡e N‡U, A_©vr wewµqv msNU‡bi Rb¨ evwni †_‡K kw³i
ìKvi nq bv Ges ivmvqwbK kw³ we`y¨rkw³‡Z cwiYZ nq, Zv‡K M¨vjfvwbK †Kvl e‡j| W¨vwbqvj †Kvl
(Daniel cell) GKwU M¨vjfvwbK †Kvl| W¨vwbqvj †Kv‡l K¨v‡_vW wn‡m‡e Cu|Cu2+(aq) avZz/avZe Avqb
ZworØvi I A¨v‡bvW wn‡m‡e Zn|Zn2+(aq) avZz/avZe Avqb ZworØvi eëüZ nq| wP‡Î 8.9-G W¨vwbqvj
†Kv‡li MVb †`Lv‡bv n‡jv| K¨v‡_vW wn‡m‡e GKwU cv‡Î Kcvi `Ê Kcvi mvj‡d‡Ui Rjxq `ªe‡Y Wyev‡bv _v‡K|
imvqb 117
Ab¨ cv‡Î A¨v‡bvW wn‡m‡e wRsK `Û wRsK mvj‡d‡Ui Rjxq `ªe‡Y Wyev‡bv _v‡K| cvÎØ‡qi `ªe‡Yi g‡a¨ ms‡hvM
¯’vc‡bi Rb¨ wbw®Œq Zworwe‡køl¨ (KCl) `ªeYc~Y© U-AvK…wZi wUDe `ªeYØ‡qi g‡a¨ Wyev‡bv nq| Gevi hw`
Zv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ ZworØvi `ywU‡K mshy³ Kiv nq, Zvn‡j wb‡gœv³ RviY-weRviY wewµqv ¯^Ztù~Z©fv‡e NU‡e|
A¨v‡bvW wewµqv : Zn (s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e¯
K¨v‡_vW wewµqv : Cu2+ (aq) + 2e¯ Cu (s)
†Kvl wewµqv : Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu (s)
A_©vr Zn A¨v‡bvW wb‡R B‡jKUªb †Q‡o we‡hvwRZ (dissolution) n‡q `ªe‡Y Zn2+(aq) Avqb wn‡m‡e `ªexf~Z
n‡e| Aciw`‡K, `ªe‡Yi Cu2+(aq) Avqb K¨v‡_vW †_‡K B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i avZe Cu wn‡m‡e K¨v‡_vW Rgv
n‡e| cÖK…Zc‡¶, A¨v‡bv‡W Drcbœ B‡jKUªb Zv‡ii gva¨‡g K¨v‡_v‡W †cuŠ‡Q B‡jKUª‡bi mgZv i¶v K‡i| Zvn‡j
Zvi w`‡q ZworØvi `ywU‡K mshy³ Ki‡jB A¨v‡bvW †_‡K K¨v‡_v‡W B‡jKUªb cªev‡ni m„wó n‡e| B‡jKUªb cÖevn
gv‡bB we`y¨r cÖevn| Zvn‡j Avgiv eySjvg, hw` W¨vwbqvj †Kv‡li evB‡ii Zv‡ii mv‡_ ê`y¨wZK evj¦ hy³ Kiv
nq, Zvn‡j evj¦wU R¡‡j DV‡e| Gevi †f‡e †`L, D‡jøwLZ we`y¨rcÖevn KZ¶Y Pj‡e? ZvQvovI †Kvl wewµqv †k‡l
f‡ii w`K †_‡K wRsK I Kcvi `‡Êi Ae¯’v Kx n‡e? wb‡Riv wPšÍv K‡i †ei Ki I LvZvq †jL|
e¯ e¯
wRsK (Zn) Kcvi (Cu)

A¨v‡bvW K+ Cl¯¯ K¨v‡_vW
jeY †mZz
(salt bridge)
ZnSO4 `ªeY CuSO4 `ªeY

wPÎ-8.9: M¨vjfvwbK †Kvl|
Pj Gevi jeY-†mZzi Kvh© I cÖ‡qvRbxqZv we‡ePbv Kwi| Avgiv †`Ljvg †h, A¨v‡bv‡W Zn2+(aq) Avqb ˆZwi
n‡q `ªe‡Y hvq| Aciw`‡K, K¨v‡_v‡W `ªeY †_‡K Cu2+(aq) Avqb Cu wn‡m‡e Rgv nq| Zvn‡j, A¨v‡bvW cv‡Î
Zn2+(aq) Avq‡bi AvwaK¨ nq I K¨v‡_vW cv‡Î Cu2+(aq) Avq‡bi NvUwZ nq| Avgiv Rvwb †h, †Kv‡bv GKwU
we‡kl Avqb (abvZ¥K ev FYvZ¥K) GKv _vK‡Z cv‡i bv| A_©vr GKwU abvZ¥K Avqb GKwU FYvZ¥K Avq‡bi
Dcw¯’wZ Qvov ˆZwi nq bv| D‡ëvwUI wVK| myZivs A¨v‡bvW cv‡Î Drcbœ Zn2+(aq) Avq‡bi mgZyj¨ cwigvY
FYvZ¥K Avq‡bi (mvj‡dU Avqb) cÖ‡qvRb n‡e| Ab¨w`‡K, K¨v‡_vW cv‡Îi `ªeY †_‡K Cu2+(aq) Avqb Cu
118 imvqb
wn‡m‡e Rgv nIqvi d‡j mgZyj¨ cwigvY FYvZ¥K Avqb (mvj‡dU Avqb) gy³ n‡e| d‡j GKw`‡K A¨v‡bvW cv‡Î
abvZ¥K Avqb {Zn2+(aq)}, Aciw`‡K K¨v‡_vW cv‡Î FYvZ¥K Avq‡bi (mvj‡dU) AvwaK¨ NU‡e| cÖK…Zc‡¶, `yB
cv‡Îi g‡a¨ Avq‡bi mgZv eRvq bv _vK‡j wewµqv NU‡e bv| Kv‡RB, jeY-†mZz hy³ K‡i Zb¥‡a¨ Aew¯’Z
abvZ¥K {K+(aq)} I FYvZ¥K {Cl¯(aq)} Avq‡bi mvnv‡h¨ K¨v‡_vW I A¨v‡bvW-cv‡Î D‡jøwLZ Avq‡bi
mgZv i¶v Kiv nq|
8.11 WªvB †m‡ji MVb I B‡jKUªb ¯’vbvšÍ‡ii †KŠkj
WªvB †mj (†Kvl) GK ai‡bi M¨vjfvwbK †Kvl (wPÎ-8.10)| cÖPwjZfv‡e Avgiv WªvB †mj‡K e¨vUvwi e‡j _vwK|
Dc‡i Avgiv M¨vjfvwbK †Kvl m¤ú‡K© †R‡bwQ| WªvB †m‡ji gva¨‡g ivmvqwbK kw³‡K we`y¨rkw³‡Z iƒcvšÍi Kiv
nq| me©vwaK cwiwPZ WªvB †mj n‡jvÑ †jK&‡jÝ †mj (Leclanché cell)| WªvB †mj Avgiv mvaviYZ UP©jvBU
R¡vjv‡Z, †iwWI evRv‡Z, wUwfi wi‡gvU Pvjv‡Z, †Ljbv Pvjv‡Z cÖf„wZ Kv‡R eënvi Kwi| M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡li
b¨vq WªvB †mjI A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW Øviv MwVZ| Zdvr n‡jv WªvB †mj MV‡b †Kvb Zij Zworwe‡køl¨
(electrolyte) _v‡K bv| Pj Gevi WªvB †m‡ji MVb I G‡Z B‡jKUªb cÖevn m„wó Z_v we`y¨r Drcbœ nIqvi
†KŠkj wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kwi|
+
WªvB †m‡ji A¨v‡bvW wn‡m‡e mvaviYZ avZe wRs‡Ki ˆZwi †QvU
Rvi (†KŠUv) eënvi Kiv nq| D³ †KŠUvwU g¨v½vwbR WvBA·vBW
A¨v‡gvwbqvg †K¬vivBW I (MnO2) I Zworwe‡køl¨ `ªe Øviv c~Y© Kiv nq| Zworwe‡køl¨ `ªe
wRsK †K¬vivB‡Wi †jB
wn‡m‡e A¨v‡gvwbqvg †K¬vivBW (NH4Cl) I wRsK †K¬vivBW
MnO2 -Gi ¯—i (ZnCl2) wgwkªZ K‡i cvwb w`‡q KvB (paste) ˆZwi Kiv nq|
cªvß KvB‡K Nb Kivi Rb¨ ÷vP© (starch) hy³ Kiv nq| Gici
MÖvdvBU K¨v‡_vW
wRs‡Ki †KŠUvwU KvB Øviv c~Y© K‡i Zvi wVK gvSLv‡b K¨v‡_vW `Ê
wRsK A¨v‡bvW
cª‡ek Kiv‡bv nq| K¨v‡_vW wn‡m‡e g¨v½vwbR WvBA·vBW Gi
wPÎ-8.10: WªvB †mj
fvix AveiYhy³ Kve©b `Ð eënvi Kiv nq| WªvB †m‡ji hw`
eë‡”Q` Kiv nq, Zvn‡j Avgiv †m‡ji †K‡›`ª Kve©b `Ê, Zvi Dci g¨v½vwbR WvBA·vB‡Wi AveiY, Gici
cvwb w`‡q ˆZwi ÷vP©, A¨v‡gvwbqvg †K¬vivBW I wRsK †K¬vivB‡Wi Nb KvB Ges me©evB‡i avZe wRs‡Ki cvZ
†`L‡Z cve (wPÎ- 8.10)|
Avgiv Rvwb, B‡jKUªb cÖev‡ni gva¨‡g we`y¨r Drcbœ nq, Avi B‡jKUªb Av`vb-cÖ`v‡bi (RviY-weRviY) d‡j
B‡jKUªb cÖev‡ni m„wó Kiv hvq| Pj WªvB †m‡ji A¨v‡bv‡W B‡jKUª‡bi Drcv`b I K¨v‡_v‡W MÖn‡Yi †KŠkj wb‡P
†`wL|
A¨v‡bvW wewµqv : Zn(s) o Zn2+(aq) + 2e¯
K¨v‡_vW wewµqv : 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2 (s) + 2e¯ o 2NH3(g) + Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l)
Zn (s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO 2(s) o Zn 2+ (aq) + 2NH3(g) + Mn 2O3 (s) + H2O(l)

imvqb 119
A¨v‡bv‡W wRsK `Ê RvwiZ n‡q 2wU B‡jKUªb I wRsK Avqb Drcbœ K‡i| Drcbœ wRsK Avqb KvB‡qi mv‡_ wg‡k
hv‡e| Ab¨w`‡K, K¨v‡_v‡W Aew¯’Z g¨v½vwbR WvBA·vBW A¨v‡bv‡W Drcbœ B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i weRvwiZ nq|
A¨v‡gvwbqvg Avqb g¨v½vwbR WvBA·vBW‡K weRvwiZ n‡Z mnvqZv K‡i gvÎ| Kve©b `Ê, A¨v‡bv‡W Drcbœ
B‡jKUªb cwienb K‡i| Avgiv Rvwb, B‡jKUª‡bi cÖevn m„wó Kiv gv‡bB we`y¨‡Zi Drcv`b, Zvn‡j †hLv‡b
we`y¨r cÖ‡qvRb †mLv‡b WªvB †mj mshy³ Ki‡jB D‡jøwLZ wewµqvmg~n msNwUZ n‡e Ges Avgiv we`y¨rkw³ cve|
WªvB †mj †_‡K 1.5 †fvë Zwor wefe cvIqv hvq|
Avgiv †`wL †h, GKwU WªvB †mj wKQzw`b ci Avi KvR K‡i bv, A_©vr we`y¨rkw³ †`q bv| Dc‡ii Av‡jvPbv †_‡K
†f‡e †`L, †Kb Ggb nq? Pj wb‡Pi QKwU (QK-8.1) c~iY Kwi|
†m‡ji Dcv`vb eënv‡ii c‡ii Ae¯’v gšÍe¨

Kve©b `Ê RvwiZ ev weRvwiZ n‡e bv ¶q ev e„w× n‡e bv| ïay
B‡jKUªb cÖev‡n AskMÖnY K‡i
wRsK A¨v‡bvW
g¨v½vwbR WvBA·vB‡Wi AveiY
A¨v‡gvwbqvg †K¬vivBW
cvwb
wRsK †K¬vivBW
÷vP©
QK-8.1: eënv‡ii c‡i WªvB †m‡ji wewfbœ As‡ki Ae¯’v
wk¶v_©xiv mevB wg‡j GKwU cyivZb I GKwU bZzb WªvB †mj wb‡q cix¶v K‡i Dc‡ii Q‡Ki DË‡ii mv‡_ wgwj‡q
†`L| mveavb! †Kvbfv‡eB WªvB †m‡ji wfZ‡ii ivmvqwbK `ªe¨vw` kix‡ii †Kv_vI jvM‡Z †Ìqv hv‡e bv| KvRwU
Kivi mgq cÖ‡qvR‡b n¨vÛMøvfm ev cwjw_b e¨vM nv‡Z jvMvI|
8.12 ¯^v¯’¨ I cwi‡e‡ki Dci e¨vUvwii cÖfve
Avgiv wewfbœ ai‡bi e¨vUvwi eënvi K‡i _vwK †hgbÑ WªvB †mj (dry cell), gviKvwi †Kvl (mercury
battery), †jW-†÷v‡iR (lead-storage battery) I wjw_qvg (lithium ion battery) e¨vUvwi| Gme e¨vUvwi
wewfbœ avZz I avZe Avq‡bi mgš^‡q ˆZwi| Dc‡i †`‡LwQ †h, WªvB †mj MV‡b `¯Ív (Zn) `Ê I MnO2
eënvi Kiv nq| gviKvwi †Kv‡l Zn I gviwKDivm A·vBW (Hg2O) eënvi nq| Avevi †jW-†÷v‡iR e¨vUvwi,
(hv‡K Avgiv mPivPi gvBK Pvjv‡bvi Kv‡R eëüZ n‡Z †`wL) g~jZ wmmv (Pb) I wmmvi A·vBW (PbO2) Øviv
ˆZwi| wjw_qvg e¨vUvwi‡Z wjw_qvg †Kvevë A·vBW (LiCoO2) eënvi Kiv nq| D‡jøwLZ avZzmg~n‡K fvix avZz
(heavy metal) e‡j| ivmvqwbK a‡g©i we‡ePbvq e¨vUvwi‡Z eëüZ Gme fvix avZz Ges avZe †hŠMmg~n welv³
(toxic) I Rxe‡`‡n K¨vÝvi m„wóKvix (carcinogenic) wn‡m‡e cwiwPZ| Zvn‡j e¨vUvwi eënv‡ii ci †d‡j
120 imvqb
w`‡j Gme ¶wZKviK avZz I avZe †hŠMmg~n gvwU I cvwbi mv‡_ hy³ nq| cieZ©x‡Z Zviv gvwU‡Z wg‡k Dw™¢` I
dm‡j P‡j Av‡m| Abyiƒcfv‡e, cvwb‡Z RjR cÖvYx I Dw™¢‡ì †`‡nI Gme ¶wZKviK ivmvqwbK c`v_© cÖ‡ek
K‡i| Gfv‡e e¨vUvwi‡Z eëüZ ivmvqwbK c`v_© gvwU I cvwb‡Z avZe c`v‡_©i fvimvg¨ bó K‡i Ges Avgv‡ì
Lv`¨-wkKj (food chain)-G cÖ‡ek K‡i| e¨vUvwii eR©¨ Øviv `~wlZ gvwU I cvwb‡Z Rb¥v‡bv Lv`¨ MÖnY Ki‡j
K¨vÝvimn bvbv RwUj †iv‡Mi m„wó n‡Z cv‡i| myZivs e¨vUvwii eR©¨ †Kv‡bvfv‡eB cwi‡e‡k †djv DwPZ bq| eis
e¨vUvwii eR©¨ msMÖn K‡i h_vh_ ivmvqwbK cÖwµqvi gva¨‡g eëüZ avZz I avZe †hŠMmg~n cybiy×vi (recover)
K‡i PµvKvi (cyclic order)-G bZzb e¨vUvwi ˆZwi‡Z eënvi Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| Gi d‡j cwi‡ek I
¯^v¯’ï¶v Ges A_©mvkªq Kiv m¤¢e|
8.13 we`y¨r eënvi K‡i wewµqv msNUb
Avgiv †`‡LwQ †h, M¨vjfvwbK †Kvl †hgbÑ W¨vwbqvj †Kvl, WªvB †mj e¨vUvwii †¶‡Î A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW
ZworØvi wewµqv ¯^Ztù~Z©fv‡e N‡U ivmvqwbK kw³ †_‡K we`y¨rkw³ Drcbœ nq| wKš‘ ¯^Ztù~Z©fv‡e N‡U bv
GiKg A‡bK wewµqvB ZworivmvqwbK †Kv‡l evwni †_‡K we`y¨r cÖev‡ni gva¨‡g msNwUZ Kiv hvq| mnRfv‡e
ej‡Z †M‡j, †hgb M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡l we`y¨rkw³ ˆZwii d‡j †Kv‡lmshy³ evj¦ R¡‡j, Aciw`‡K Zworwe‡køl¨
†Kv‡l ev‡j¦i cwie‡Z© D‡ëv we`y¨rkw³i Drm (e¨vUvwi) hy³ Ki‡Z nq| †h †Kv‡l we`y¨rkw³‡K eënvi K‡i
ZworØvi wewµqv msNwUZ Kiv nq, Zv‡K Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kvl (electrolytic cell) e‡j| Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡l
we`y¨rkw³ ivmvqwbK kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq| Zworwe‡køl‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ avZycÖ‡jc (electroplating) †Ìqv, avZz
we‡kvab Kiv I bZzb ivmvqwbK c`v_© Drcv`b Kiv m¤¢e|
8.14 Zworwe‡kølY I Zworwe‡kø‡lï wewkøó nIqvi †KŠkj
Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡li MVb M¨vjfvwbK †Kv‡li g‡ZvB, Z‡e G‡¶‡Î †Kvl MV‡b we`y¨r MÖnYKvixi (†hgbÑ
ê`y¨wZK evj¦) cwie‡Z© †Kv‡l we`y¨r mieivnKvix wn‡m‡e we`y¨‡Zi Drm (†hgbÑ e¨vUvwi) hy³ _v‡K|
Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kvl GK cÖ‡Kvô (one-compartment) ev `yB cÖ‡Kvô (two-compartment) wewkó n‡Z
cv‡i| `yB cÖ‡Kvôwewkó Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡li MVb W¨vwbqvj †Kv‡li g‡Zv| wP‡Î GKwU GK cÖ‡Kvôwewkó
Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kvl †`Lv‡bv n‡jv| †Kv‡li g‡a¨ we`y¨rcÖevn Pvjv‡j
GKwU abvZ¥K †cvj ZworØvi (A¨v‡bvW) I AciwU FYvZ¥K †cvj e- e-
e¨vUvwi
ZworØvi (K¨v‡_vW) -Gi m„wó nq| Gi d‡j Zworwe‡køl¨ `ªe‡Y A¨v‡bvW K¨v‡_vW
Dcw¯’Z Avqbmg~n Zv‡ì PvR© Abymv‡i ZworØv‡i AvK„ó nq, A_©vr

FYvZ¥K Avavbhy³ Avqb A¨v‡bvW I abvZ¥K Avavbhy³ Avqb
MwjZ †mvwWqvg
K¨v‡_vW Øviv AvK…ó n‡e| FYvZ¥K Avqb A¨v‡bv‡W B‡jKUªb cª`vb †K¬vivBW
(RviY) K‡i bZzb c`v‡_© cwiYZ nq| Aciw`‡K, abvZ¥K Avqb
K¨v‡_vW †_‡K B‡jKUªb MÖnY (weRviY) K‡i bZzb c`v‡_© iƒcvšÍwiZ A¨v‡bvW wewµqv: 2Cl- Cl2 (g)+2e-
nq| Gfv‡e Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡li A¨v‡bv‡W RviY wewµqvq m„ó K¨v‡_vW wewµqv: 2Na++2e- 2Na(s)
B‡jKUªb Zv‡ii ga¨ w`‡q cÖevwnZ n‡q K¨v‡_v‡Wi weRviY wewµqvi
Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq B‡jKUª‡bi Pvwn`v †gUvq| wPÎ-8.11: Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kvl
imvqb 121
A¨v‡bvW wewµqv : X¯ X + e¯

K¨v‡_vW wewµqv : M+ + e¯ M
GLv‡b e‡j ivLv ìKvi †h, †Kv‡l we`y¨rcÖev‡ni d‡j ïay †h, Avavbhy³ Avqb AvK…ó nq, Zv wVK bq| `ªe‡Y
Dcw¯’Z Avavbwenxb †hŠMI Zv‡ì RvwiZ ev weRvwiZ nIqvi cÖeYZvi Dci wfwË K‡i A¨v‡bvW ev K¨v‡_vW Øviv
AvK…ó n‡Z cv‡i| †gvUK_v Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kvl Avq‡bi b¨vq PvR©wenxb †hŠ‡MiI RviY-weRviY wewµqv m¤úv`b
Kiv m¤¢e| GLb Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡li ev¯Í‡e eënvi wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv hvK|
8.15 ZworivmvqwbK †Kv‡li cÖ‡qvM

cÖvPxbKv‡j hwÌ Zworwe‡køl‡Yi †KŠkj cÖ‡qvM K‡i ïay GK avZzi Dci Ab¨ avZzi cÖ‡jc †Ìqv n‡Zv, wKš‘
AvaywbKKv‡j Zworwe‡køl‡Yi eënvi e¨vcK| Zworwe‡køl‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ †Kv‡bv avZzi Dci Ab¨ avZzi cÖ‡jc
†Ìqvi cÖwµqv‡K B‡jK‡Uªv‡cøwUs (electroplating) ejv nq| AvaywbK imvq‡b Zworwe‡kølY †KŠk‡ji gva¨‡g
bZzb c`v‡_©i Drcv`b, AvKwiK †_‡K avZzi wb®‹vkb
(extraction), we`y¨rkw³i Drcv`b (dz‡qj †mj), nvB‡Wªv‡Rb dz‡qj
PvwjZ Mvwo
cix¶vMv‡i ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i we‡kølY (analysis),
c`v‡_© i cwi‡kvab UH¿QLQJ I weïw×KiY
SXUL¿FDWLRQ, cwi‡ek `~lYKvix c`v‡_©i eë¯’vcbv
(pollutant management) BZ¨vw` Kiv nq|
wPwKrmvkv‡¯¿ eëüZ wKQy wKQy hš¿cvwZi †KŠkjI
Zworwe‡kølY wbf©i| wPÎ-8.12: dz‡qj †mj Øviv PvwjZ evm
Zworwe‡kølY †KŠkj eënvi K‡i †jvnv ev iƒcvi Dci †mvbvi cÖ‡jc †Ìqv hvq| Zworwe‡kølY †KŠkj eënvi
K‡i cvwb‡K AcÖ‡qvRbxq Avqbgy³ K‡i weï× Kiv hvq|
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb dz‡qj †m‡ji mvnv‡h¨ we`y¨r Drcbœ Kiv nq †hLv‡bÑ A¨v‡bv‡W nvB‡Wªv‡Rb AYy RvwiZ nq, Avi
K¨v‡_v‡W Aw·‡Rb AYy weRvwiZ n‡q cvwb Drcbœ K‡i| d‡j †Kv‡l B‡jKUªb A¨v‡bvW n‡Z K¨v‡_v‡W cÖevwnZ nq
Ges Avgiv we`y¨r cvB| D³ we`y¨‡Zi mvnv‡h¨ Mvwo ch©šÍ PjvPj Ki‡Z cv‡i (wPÎ-8.12)| cix¶vMv‡i
Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡li gva¨‡g wewfbœ c`v‡_©i g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv wKQyi
cwigvY wbY©q Kiv hvq, †hgb cvwb‡Z Av‡m©wb‡Ki cwigvY wbY©q|
Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡l eR©¨‡K cwi‡kvab K‡i cwi‡ek i¶v Kiv
hvq| Wvqv‡ewUK †ivMxi i‡³i g‡a¨ Møy‡Kv‡Ri cwigvY wbY©q
Kivi Rb¨ Zworwe‡kølY †KŠkj wbf©i †mÝi (sensor) eënvi
Kiv nq|
wP‡Î Zworwe‡kølY †KŠkj eënvi K‡i gvbe‡`‡ni i‡³
Møy‡Kv‡Ri cwigvY wbY©q †`Lv‡bv n‡jv (wPÎ-8.13)| evg nv‡Zi
Av½y‡j jvMv‡bv †QvU AskwU‡Z cvZjv I wPKb A¨v‡bvW I
wPÎ-8.13:ZworivmvqwbK Møy‡KvR †mÝi K¨v‡_vW emv‡bv Av‡Q| cÖK…Zc‡¶, A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW
122 imvqb
cøvw÷‡Ki Dci avZzi cvZjv AveiY, hv w¯ŒbwcÖw›Us cÖhyw³i gva¨‡g ˆZwi Kiv nq| A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_v‡Wi
gvSLv‡b GKUv †QvU duvKv bvjx (channel) _v‡K| Wvb nv‡Zi †gvUv AskwU g~jZ we`y¨r cÖev‡ni Drm (e¨vUvwi)
I we`y¨r cÖev‡ni d‡j D™¢~Z wewµqvq AskMÖnYKvix AYyi wnmve-wbKvk Kivi hš¿we‡kl wb‡q MwVZ| Zvn‡j
DwjøwLZ wnmve-wbKvk Kivi hš¿vskwU ev` w`‡j Dc‡i ewY©Z evwK Ask¸‡jv n‡jvÑ A¨v‡bvW, K¨v‡_vW I e¨vUvwi|
Gevi cÖvß Ask¸‡jv‡K GKwU Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kv‡li mv‡_ Zzjbv Ki‡j †`Le †h, Zworwe‡køl¨ †Kvl MV‡bi Rb¨
ïay Zworwe‡køl¨ `ªeY Abycw¯’Z| Avgiv Rvwb, gvbe‡`‡ni i‡³ wewfbœ iK‡gi Zworwe‡køl¨ c`v_© †hgbÑ
Avqb, †cÖvUb BZ¨vw` _v‡K| hw` A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_v‡Wi gvSLv‡b duvKv bvjx‡Z i³ †Ìqv nq, Zvn‡j GKwU c~Y©
Zwor †Kvl MwVZ n‡e| Avm‡j, duvKv bvjx‡Z i³ w`‡j †Kv‡l mshy³ Drm n‡Z we`y¨r cÖev‡ni d‡j i‡³ Aew¯’Z
Møy‡KvR AYy A¨v‡bv‡W RvwiZ nq| Ab¨w`‡K, wnmve-wbKvk Kivi h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ Møy‡Kv‡Ri Rvi‡Yi d‡j D™¢~Z
B‡jKUª‡bi msL¨v wbY©q K‡i hš¿wU Zvi c`©vq (screen) i‡³ Aew¯’Z Møy‡Kv‡Ri cwigvY gwbU‡i wWwR‡Ui
(digit) mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk K‡i| gRvi e¨vcvi n‡jv, G cÖhyw³ eënvi K‡i i‡³i Møy‡Kv‡Ri cwigvY wbY©q Ki‡Z
GK wgwbU mgqB h‡_ó|
8.16 cvwbi Zworwe‡kølY

Avgiv Rvwb, cvwbi AYy 2wU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I 1wU Aw·‡Rb †gŠ‡ji cigvYy Øviv MwVZ| cvwb MV‡bi ivmvqwbK
wewµqv wb‡P †`Lv‡bv n‡jv|
H2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) H2O (l) + Zvc
GK AYy nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I Aa© AYy Aw·‡Rb wg‡j GK AYy cvwb Drcbœ nq| Zvn‡j cvwbi AYy‡K fvO‡j wecixZ
wewµqvq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I Aw·‡Rb M¨vm cvIqv hvq|
2H2O (l) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
D³ wewµqvwU ¯^Ztù~Z© (spontaneous) bq, A_©vr wewµqvwU msNwUZ Kivi Rb¨ kw³ w`‡Z nq| Zworwe‡køl¨
†Kv‡li gva¨‡g cvwb‡K fvOv hvq| cvwbi we‡køl‡Yi Rb¨ †h ZworivmvqwbK †Kvl eëüZ nq, Zv‡Z
ivmvqwbKfv‡e wbw®Œq avZzi A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW eënvi Kiv nq| mvaviYZ avZe cøvwUbv‡gi (Pt) cvZ A¨v‡bvW
I K¨v‡_vW wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq| mvjwdDwiK GwmW Øviv mvgvb¨ A¤øxq cvwbi `ªeY ˆZwi K‡i Zv‡Z cøvwUbvg
A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_v‡Wi gva¨‡g we`y¨r cÖevwnZ Ki‡j wb‡gœv³ wewµqv msNwUZ nq|
cvwb we‡hvwRZ n‡q nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb I nvBWªw·j Avqb Drcbœ K‡i| nvBWªw·j Avqb A¨v‡bv‡W RvwiZ nq Ges
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb K¨v‡_v‡W weRvwiZ nq|
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH- (aq)
A¨v‡bvW wewµqv : 4OH- (aq) O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e¯

K¨v‡_vW wewµqv : 4 H+ (aq) + 4 e¯ 2 H2 (g)
4H2O (l) 2H2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O (l)

ev, 2H2O (l) 2H2(g) + O2 (g)
A¨v‡bv‡W nvBWªw·j Avqb RvwiZ n‡q Aw·‡Rb M¨vm I B‡jKUªb ˆZwi K‡i| Ab¨w`‡K, K¨v‡_v‡W
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb weRvwiZ n‡q nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm Drcbœ nq| cÖK…Zc‡¶, A¨v‡bv‡W Drcbœ B‡jKUªb Zv‡ii
imvqb 123
gva¨‡g K¨v‡_v‡W †cuŠQvq| GLv‡b D‡jøL¨ †h, wewµqvq mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b ev e¨q nq bv|
Avm‡j mvjwdDwiK GwmW ïay `ªe‡Yi ga¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cwievwnZvi KvR K‡i|
Aw·‡Rb M¨vm nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm
K¨v‡_vW cÖvš—
A¨v‡bvW cÖvš—
wPÎ-8.14: cvwbi Zwor we‡kølY|

8.17 †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW `ªe‡Yi Zworwe‡kølY
†mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi m¤ú„³ Rjxq `ªeY‡K eªvBb (brine) e‡j| †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW `ªeY‡K Zworwe‡kølY K‡i
cÖavbZ †K¬vwib M¨vm Drcbœ Kiv nq| evwYwR¨Kfv‡e †K¬vwib Drcv`‡bi Rb¨ mgy‡`ªi cvwb‡K Zworwe‡kølY Kiv
nq| G‡¶‡Î mgy‡`ªi cvwb‡K †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW `ªeY wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv Kiv nq, †Kbbv mgy‡`ªi cvwb‡Z cÖPzi
cwigv‡Y jeY _v‡K| Zworwe‡kølY Kivi Rb¨ h_vixwZ A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_vW jeYv³ cvwb‡Z Wywe‡q Zv‡Z we`y¨r
cÖevn †Ìqv nq| D‡jøL¨ †h, †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW `ªe‡Y we`y¨r cÖev‡ni d‡j A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_v‡W wewµqv wKQyUv
RwUj| †h‡nZz cvwb wb‡RI Zworwe‡køl¨ †mRb¨ †mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi Rjxq `ªe‡Y we`y¨r cÖevn Pvjv‡j †mvwWqvg
†K¬vivB‡Wi mv‡_ cvwbiI RviY-weRviY N‡U| cieZ©x‡Z †Zvgiv G wel‡q we¯ÍvwiZ Rvb‡Z cvi‡e| wb‡¤œ
A¨v‡bvW I K¨v‡_v‡W msNwUZ cÖavb RviY-weRviY wewµqvi Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv| †mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi Rjxq
`ªe‡Y †mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+), †K¬vivBW Avqb (Cl¯) nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb (H +) I nvBWªw·j Avqb (OH¯) _v‡K|
A¨v‡bvW wewµqv : 2Cl¯ (aq) o Cl2 (g) + 2e¯
K¨v‡_vW wewµqv : 2H+ (aq) + 2e¯ o H2 (g)
cvwbi Zworwe‡køl‡Y `ªe‡Yi ga¨ w`‡q we`y¨r cwien‡bi Rb¨ †hgb mvjwdDwiK GwmW eënvi Kiv nq, G‡¶‡Î
†Zgb wKQz hy³ Kivi ìKvi nq bv| KviY †mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi `ªe‡Y Dcw¯’Z †mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I
†K¬vivBW Avqb (Cl¯) we`y¨r cwievwnZvi KvR K‡i| we`y¨r cÖevwnZ Ki‡j e- e-
e¨vUvwi
A¨v‡bv‡W †K¬vivBW Avqb RvwiZ n‡q †K¬vwib M¨vm I B‡jKUªb ˆZwi nq| A¨v‡bvW K¨v‡_vW
Ab¨w`‡K, K¨v‡_v‡W nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb weRvwiZ n‡q nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨v‡m +
cwiYZ nq| cÖK…Zc‡¶, A¨v‡bv‡W Drcbœ B‡jKUªb Zv‡ii gva¨‡g K¨v‡_v‡W

†cuŠQvq I K¨v‡_v‡W nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb weRvi‡Yi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq B‡jKUª‡bi
†mvwWqvg
mieivn K‡i| `ªe‡Yi OH¯ I †mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) wgwjZ n‡q †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW `ªeY
nvBWª·vBW (NaOH) wn‡m‡e _v‡K| Zvn‡j †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW `ªeY‡K
Zworwe‡kølY Ki‡j †K¬vwib I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨v‡mi mv‡_ †mvwWqvg wPÎ-8.15: †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW
nvBWª·vBW Dc-RvZ †hŠM (bi-product) wn‡m‡e cvIqv hvq| GB `ªe‡Yi `ªe‡Yi Zworwe‡kølY
Zworwe‡køl‡Y cvi` K¨v‡_vW eënvi Kiv n‡j wfbœfv‡e K¨v‡_vW wewµqv
m¤úbœ nq (Øv`k Aa¨v‡q Uq‡jU wK¬bvi Ask †`L)|
124 imvqb
8.18 Zworwe‡køl‡Y Drcvw`Z c`v‡_©i evwYwR¨K eënvi

Zworwe‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g AvKwiK †_‡K wewfbœ avZz †hgbÑ †mvwWqvg, A¨vjywgwbqvg, Zvgv, `¯Ív, †jvnv, wmmv
cÖf„wZ wb®‹vkb Kiv nq| AvaywbK we‡k¦ Gme avZzi eënvi Acwimxg| †jvnvi evwYwR¨K eënvi me©‡¶‡ÎB
we¯Í…Z| `vjvb, BgviZ, †ijc_, cvKv iv¯Ív-NvU, †mZz, hvbevnb, wegvb, RvnvR, hš¿cvwZ, KjKviLvbv,
AvmevecÎ cÖf„wZ ˆZwi‡Z †jvnv Qvov we‡ePbv Kiv hvq wK? ZvQvovI †jvnvi msKi, B¯úvZ k³ I gwiPv‡ivax
avZe c`v_© wn‡m‡e mgv`„Z| evwYwR¨Kfv‡e B¯úvZ †jvnvi cwie‡Z© eëüZ nq| Zvgv w`‡q ˆZwi ê`y¨wZK Zvi
eûj eëüZ nq| ¯^í we`y¨r‡ivax nIqvi Kvi‡Y Zvgvi Zvi evwYwR¨Kfv‡e †ewk mgv`„Z| A¨vjywgwbqvg avZz
IR‡b nvjKv nIqvq wegvb ˆZwi‡Z eënvi Kiv nq| ZvQvovI ivbœv-evbœv Kivi Rb¨ eëüZ nvwo-cvwZj
A¨vjywgwbqvg w`‡q ˆZwi|
evwYwR¨Kfv‡e B‡j‡Uªv‡cøwUs-Gi gva¨‡g †jvnvq Ab¨ avZzi we‡kl K‡i `¯Ív I g¨vM‡bwmqv‡gi gwiPv‡ivaK
cÖ‡jc †Ìqv nq| G‡Z †jvnvi ¯’vwqZ¡ e„w× cvq| B‡j‡Uªv‡cøwUs-Gi mvnv‡h¨ †Kv‡bv avZzi Dci Ab¨ avZzi cÖ‡jc
w`‡j Zv AZ¨šÍ gm„Y nq| mnRjf¨ †Kv‡bv avZzi Dci g~jëvb avZzi cÖ‡jc w`‡q wewfbœ ai‡bi AvK©lYxq
AjsKvi ˆZwi Kiv nq| †hgbÑ iƒcvi ˆZwi AjsKv‡ii Dci †mvbvi cÖ‡jc w`‡q AjsKv‡ii D¾¡j¨ e„w× Kiv nq|
cvwbi Zworwe‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g Drcbœ nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm g~jëvb I cwi‡ekevÜe R¡vjvwb| nvB‡Wªv‡Rb‡K †cvov‡j
cwi‡e‡ki Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq cvwb I Zvc Drcbœ nq| nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm eZ©gvb mg‡qi dz‡qj †m‡ji me‡P‡q fv‡jv
R¡vjvwb| mgy‡`ªi cvwbi Zworwe‡køl‡Y Drcbœ †K¬vwib M¨vm evwYwR¨Kfv‡e RxevYybvkK wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq
Ges wewfbœ KviLvbvi KuvPvgvj wn‡m‡e †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW (¶vi) cÖPzi eënvi Kiv nq|
8.19 wbDwK¬qvi wewµqv I we`y¨r Drcv`b

Avgiv ivmvqwbK eÜ‡bi †¶‡Î †`‡LwQ †h, me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡ii B‡jKUªb Av`vb-cÖ`vb ev fvMvfvwMi
gva¨‡g ivmvqwbK eÜb MwVZ nq| wbDwK¬qv‡mi †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b nq bv, A_©vr †Kv‡bv bZzb cigvYyi MVb nq
bv, eis cigvYy¸‡jv me©ewnt¯’ kw³¯Í‡ii B‡jKUª‡bi cwieZ©‡bi gva¨‡g mshy³ n‡q †hŠM MVb K‡i| G‡¶‡Î
†mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW (NaCl) I cvwb (H2O) †hŠM MV‡bi †KŠkj we‡ePbv Ki| GLv‡b Avgiv GK we‡kl
ai‡bi wewµqv m¤ú‡K© Rvbe †hLv‡b B‡jKUª‡bi welqwU m¤ú~Y© Abycw¯’Z, GLv‡b wewµqvi d‡j bZzb †gŠ‡ji
m„wó nq|
Avgiv Rvwb, nvB‡Wªv‡Rb e¨ZxZ, Ab¨ me †gŠ‡ji wbDwK¬qvm `yÕai‡bi †gŠwjK KYv Øviv MwVZ| KYv¸‡jv n‡jvÑ
†cÖvUb I wbDUªb| eo †gŠjmg~n we‡kl K‡i hv‡ì cvigvYweK msL¨v 83-Gi †ewk Zv‡ì wbDwK¬qvm
¯^Ztù‚Z©fv‡e †f‡O †QvU †QvU wbDwK¬qv‡m cwiYZ nq| Gfv‡e eo wbDwK¬qvm †f‡O †QvU wbDwK¬qvm ˆZwi nIqvi
mgq cÖPzi cwigv‡Y kw³ Av‡jvKiwk¥ wn‡m‡e wbM©Z nq| welqwU‡K wbDwK¬qvi wewµqv e‡j| †hgbÑ
†cv‡jvwbqvg-210 (210Po) ¯^Ztù~Z©fv‡e †f‡O wmmv-206 (206Pb) I BD‡iwbqvg-238 (238U) †f‡O
†_vwiqvg-234 (234Th) Drcbœ nq| cÖ‡Z¨K †¶‡ÎB Avjdv KYv (wØ-abvZ¥K 4He wbDwK¬qvm) Drcbœ nq|
imvqb 125
Avevi †QvU †QvU wbDwK¬qvm GK‡Î hy³ n‡q eo wbDwK¬qvmI Drcbœ n‡Z cv‡i, †hgb D”P ZvcgvÎvq (15 wgwjqb
qC) PviwU nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYyi wbDwK¬qvm hy³ n‡q wnwjqvg wbDwK¬qvm Z_v wnwjqvg cigvYy Drcbœ K‡i| m~‡h©i
g‡a¨ G ai‡bi wewµqv N‡U _v‡K| Zvn‡j Avgiv eySjvg †h, wbDwK¬qvi wewµqvq eo wbDwK¬qvm †f‡O †QvU †QvU
wbDwK¬qvm ˆZwi nq, hv‡K wbDwK¬qvi wdmb wewµqv QXFOHDU¿VVLRQ ejv nq| Avevi †QvU †QvU wbDwK¬qvm
hy³ n‡q eo wbDwK¬qvmI ˆZwi n‡Z cv‡i| G‡K wbDwK¬qvi wdDmb QXFOHDUIXVLRQ wewµqv e‡j|
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hvq| G‡mv Gevi Avgiv wbDwK¬qvi wewµqv I ivmvqwbK wewµqvq wbM©Z kw³i g‡a¨ GKwU ZzjbvwPÎ Zz‡j awi|
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wdmb wewµqvi gva¨‡g †h kw³ cvIqv hvq Zvi mgcwigvY kw³ †c‡Z (2.0 u 1013 y 891000) = 2.2 u 107
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†cvov‡j Kx cwigvY Kve©b WvBA·vBW Drcbœ n‡e Zv wnmve Ki|
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gvivZ¥K ¶wZ Ki‡e ZvI Abyaveb Kiv m¤¢e|
we‡k¦i wewfbœ †`k cvigvYweK Pzwjø‡Z (nuclear reactor)

wdmb wewµqvq D™¢~Z kw³‡K eënvi K‡i we`y¨r Drcv`b
Ki‡Q| DËi Av‡gwiKv Zv‡ì we`y¨‡Zi †gvU Pvwn`vi
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cvigvYweK Pzwjø‡Z wdmb wewµqvi d‡j D™¢~Z Zvckw³‡K
Kv‡R jvwM‡q we`y¨r Drcbœ Kiv nq| we`y¨r Drcbœ Kivi
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jvBU IqvUvi Pzwjø, †nwf IqvUvi Pzwjø I weªWvi Pzwjø Ab¨Zg|
cvigvYweK Pzwjøi mvnv‡h¨ we`y¨r Drcv`b mvkªqx n‡jI Gi SzuwK i‡q‡Q| wdmb wewµqvq Drcbœ †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv
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8.20 c`v_© `ªexf~Z K‡i I ivmvqwbK wewµqvq Zv‡ci cwieZ©b cix¶v (`jMZ):
wZbwU cwjw_‡bi e¨v‡M AvbygvwbK 25 wm wm K‡i cvwb bvI Ges e¨vM¸wj‡K kbv³KiY b¤î 1, 2 I 3 `vI| e¨v‡Mi
gyL AvUKv‡bvi Rb¨ myZv Av‡M †_‡KB †K‡U bvI| Gevi e¨vM-1 G mvgvb¨ Pzb (K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW) hy³ K‡i gyLwU myZv
w`‡q eÜ Ki| Gevi e¨v‡Mi Mv‡q nvZ w`‡q ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b j¶ Ki| Gfv‡e e¨vM-2 I e¨vM-3 -G h_vµ‡g †mvWv
(Na2CO3) I Lvev‡ii †mvWv (NaHCO3) †hvM Ki| Zvici e¨vM 2wU‡Z †jeyi im ev jNy Gwm‡Wi `ªeY †hvM K‡i
ZvovZvwo e¨v‡Mi gyL k³ K‡i AvUwK‡q `vI Ges cwieZ©b j¶ Ki| Ges QK-8.2 cÖZ¨¶ NUbvewj wjwce× Ki|
e¨vM mshy³ `ªe j¶Yxq cwieZ©b m¤¢ve¨ wewµqv wewµqvi aib

1
2
3
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mZ©KZv I civgk© : (1) GwmW `ªeY eënvi bv KivB DËg, Z‡e jNy `ªeY mveavbZvi mv‡_ eënvi Kiv †h‡Z
cv‡i, (2) gyL eÜ Kivi c~‡e© hZ`~i m¤¢e e¨v‡Mi ga¨Kvi evZvm †ei K‡i w`‡Z n‡e I (3) †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b
j¶Yxq bv n‡j cvwbi cwigvY Kwg‡q †ewk cwigv‡Y `ªe hy³ Ki‡Z n‡e|
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K. GK L. `yB
M. wZb N. Pvi
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i
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2. DÏxc‡Ki cÖwµqv †jvnviÑ
K. cwigvY e„w× K‡i L. ¶q‡iva K‡i
M. `„pZv e„w× K‡i N. weï×Zv e„w× K‡i
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K. Zn `Ê L. MnO2
M. Kve©b `Ê N. N
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128 imvqb
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1.
i. †c‡Uªvwjqvg + O2 CO2 + H2O + kw³
238
ii. U + 0n1 56Ba + 36 Kr + 30n1 + kw³
iii. Zn + CuCl2 ZnCl2 + Cu + kw³
K. B‡jK‡Uªv‡cøwUs Kx?
L. ZworivmvqwbK †Kv‡l jeY‡mZz eënvi Kiv nq †Kb?
M. DÏxc‡Ki wØZxq wewµqvwU ivmvqwbK wewµqv bq- e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. kw³ Drcv`‡b (i) I (iii) Gi wewµqv Zzjbv Ki|
2.
e¨vUvwi
weMwjZ MgCl2
K. avZe cwievnx Kx?

L. GwmWwgwkÖZ cvwb‡K Zworwe‡køl¨ cwievnx ejv nq †Kb? e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. Dc‡ii †Kv‡l A¨v‡bv‡W msNwUZ wewµqvwU e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. DÏxc‡K msNwUZ wewµqvq Zwor cÖev‡ni cÖ‡qvRbxqZvi †hŠw³K e¨vL¨v `vI|
beg Aa¨vq
GwmW-¶vi mgZv
cvebv †Rjvi †eov Dc‡Rjvq hgybvi P‡i 50wU Pzwjø‡Z Mvwo/AvBwcGm/†mvjvi c¨v‡b‡ji cwiZ¨³ e¨vUvwii GwmW
†gkv‡bv Mv` †_‡K wmmv AvniY Kiv n‡”Q| Pzwjø¸‡jvi welv³ †auvqv I DrKU M‡Ü †jvKRb AwZô| Pzwjøi
Av‡kcv‡ki Rwg‡Z dmj n‡”Q bv| Nvm †L‡q gi‡Q Mevw`cï| Lvwj nv‡Z e¨vUvwi †f‡O welv³ DcKiY †ei K‡i
`wi`ª kÖwgK| Zv‡ì nv‡Z †`Lv w`‡q‡Q Nv|
e¨vUvwii cøvw÷K Kfv‡ii †fZ‡i `ywU †P¤^v‡i jNy
mvjwdDwiK GvwmW (H2SO4), wmmv (†jW; Pb) Ges †jW
WvBA·vBW (PbO2) _v‡K| e¨vUvwii QvB I Mv‡ì Ici
Zvc w`‡j mvjwdDwiK GwmW we‡hvwRZ n‡q mvjdvi
UªvBA·vBW (SO3) Ges mvjdvi WvBA·vBW (SO2)
Drcbœ nq| GB `y‡qi wgkªY Nb Kzqvkvi g‡Zv Ae¯’v
m„wó K‡i| H GjvKvq GwmWe„wói SuzwK †`Lv w`‡q‡Q|
†jW I †jW †hŠM AZ¨šÍ welv³ c`v_©| Lvwj nv‡Z e¨vUvwi
fvOv I †fZ‡ii eR©¨ ¯úk© KivI ¯^v‡¯’ï Rb¨ ¶wZKi|
cwiZ¨³ e¨vUvwii ¯‘c
AZ¨š— Kvh©Ki `~lY wbqš¿Y eë¯’v Aej¤^b K‡i gvwK©b hy³iv‡óª 1997-2001 mv‡j eëüZ e¨vUvwii 97%
†jW Avni‡Yi cvkvcvwk mvjwdDwiK GwmW (H2SO4) Ges cøvw÷K cybtcÖwµqvRvZ Kiv n‡q‡Q|
GB Aa¨v‡qi cvV †k‡l Avgiv-
(1) A¤ø, ¶vi I je‡Yi êwkó¨ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie| (14) cvwb`~l‡Yi KviY I cwi‡kva‡bi Dcvqmg~n eY ©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) cwiwPZ cwi‡e‡ki c`v_©¸‡jvi ga¨ †_‡K A¤ø, ¶vi I jeY‡K (15) Av‡m©wbKhy³ cvwb cv‡bi ¶wZKi w`K D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvie|
kbv³ Ki‡Z cvie| (16) pH cwigv‡ci gva¨‡g M„‡ni/ j¨v‡ei/jeYv³ cvwbi cÖK…wZ wbY©q
(3) ¶viK I ¶viRvZxq c`v‡_©i cv_©K¨ Ki‡Z cvie| Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) eënvh© c`v‡_©i Ici A¤ø I ¶v‡ii cÖfve eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie| (17) †hŠMmg~‡ni `ªe‡Yi pH gvb wbY©q K‡i ev wjUgvm ev BDwbfvm©vj
(5) M„n¯’vwj c`v‡_©i Ici A¤ø I ¶viRvZxh `ª‡eï cÖfv‡ei Avw_©K BwÛ‡KUi eënvi K‡i †hŠ‡Mi cÖK…wZ Zzjbv (GwmW, ¶vi) Ki‡Z
¸iyZ¡ g~j¨vqb Ki‡Z cvie| cvie|
(6) pH -Gi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie| (18) `~lYgy³ cvwb eënv‡i AvMÖn cÖ`k©b Kie|
(7) pH -cwigv‡ci ¸iyZ¡ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie| (19) GwmW mš¿v‡mi fqven w`K m¤ú‡K© m‡PZbZvi cwiPq wè Ges
(8) cwi‡e‡ki fvimvg¨ i¶vq A¤ø-¶vi mgZvi ¸i“Z¡ Abyaveb Ki‡Z Ab¨‡ì‡K m‡PZb Ki‡Z cvie|
cvie| (20) eënvh© c`v‡_©i Ici A¤ø I ¶v‡ii cÖfve cix¶vi gva¨‡g †`Lv‡Z
(9) GwmW e„wói KviY, ¶wZKi w`Kmg~n Ges Zv †_‡K i¶vi Dcvq cvie|
e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie| (21) A~Ò I ¶viRvZxq c`v_© eënv‡ii †¶‡Î h_vh_ c~e©-mZK©Zvg~jK
(10) cvwbPµ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie| eë¯’v MÖnY Ki‡Z cvie|
(11) cvwbi LiZv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(12) Li cvwb eënv‡i myweavmg~n D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvie|
(13) Li cvwb eënv‡i Avw_©K ¶wZ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
130 imvqb
9.1 GwmW
Zzwg wK KL‡bv UK `ya/`wa †L‡qQ? AwZwi³ LvIqvi d‡j KL‡bv †Zvgvi cvK¯’wj‡Z mgm¨v Abyfe K‡iQ? hw`
DËi nu¨v nq Z‡e Zzwg Gwm‡Wi imvqb Abyfe K‡iQ|
wk¶v_©xi KvR:
†fvM¨c‡Y¨ GwmW
1. cÎ-cwÎKv, cywómsµvšÍ eBcy¯ÍK †`‡L GwmWmg„× dj-g~j I wewfbœ †fvM¨c‡Y¨ Dcw¯’Z Gwm‡Wi
bvgmn c‡Yï GKwU ZvwjKv Ki|
2. ZvwjKvwU K¬v‡mi Ab¨vb¨ eÜz‡ì mv‡_ wgwj‡q bvI|
Zzwg evmvq bvbv iKg Gwm‡Wi ms¯úk© cvI| †hgb, md&&U wWªsKm¸‡jv (Kve©wbK GwmW), †jey ev Kgjv (mvBwUªK
GwmW), †ZuZz‡j UviUvwiK GwmW, wf‡bMvi (B_vbwqK GwmW)| GB GwmW¸‡jv Avgiv LvB, ivbœvq eënvi Kwi|
G‡ì me¸‡jvi ¯^v` UK| G¸‡jv †Zvgvi Lv`¨ cwicv‡K mvnvh¨ K‡i| gy‡L iæwP Av‡b| wfUvwgb-wm-Gi Pvwn`v
†gUvq Ges †ivM cÖwZ‡iv‡a mvnvh¨ K‡i| †Zvgvi cvK¯’wji †Ìqvj nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW Drcbœ K‡i| Gi
cwiwgZ cwigvY Lv`¨ cwicv‡Ki Rb¨ Avek¨K| AwZwi³ GwmW Drcbœ n‡j cvK¯’wj I Mjvq cÖ`vn Abyfe Ki|
†h me Lv`¨ †L‡j AwZwi³ GwmW Drcbœ nq memgq Zv cwinvi K‡i Pj‡e|
wf‡bMvi
Kgjv †jey
wPÎ 9.1 : A¤øxq Lv`¨ Dcv`vb

j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z Zzwg KZ¸‡jv wfbœ ai‡bi GwmW cv‡e| G¸‡jv n‡jv : 1. nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW (HCl),
2. mvjwdDwiK GwmW (H2SO4) Ges 3. bvBwUªK GwmW (HNO3)|
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW M¨v‡mi Rjxq `ªeY n‡jv nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW| weï× nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW, mvjwdDwiK
GwmW I bvBwUªK GwmW eY©nxb Zij c`v_©| Mvp Gwm‡W mvgvb¨ cwigv‡Y cvwb Dcw¯’Z _v‡K| Aciw`‡K jNy
Gwm‡W ZzjbvgyjKfv‡e †ewk cwigv‡Y cvwb _v‡K| j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z AwZwi³ cvwb‡Z GB GwmW¸‡jvi `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z
K‡i eënvi Kiv nq|
KL‡bvB j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z †Kv‡bv Gwm‡Wi
9.2 jNy Gwm‡Wi ag© ¯^v` wb‡Z †Póv Ki‡e bv|
1. ¯^v` : cÖvq mKj jNy GwmW UK ¯^v`hy³|
imvqb 131
wk¶v_©xi KvR :
j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z jNy Gwm‡Wi ivmvqwbK ag© cix¶Y:
2. wjUgvm cix¶v: jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK Gwm‡W †fRv jvj I bxj wjUgvm KvMR Wzwe‡q ch©‡e¶Y Ki|
GKBfv‡e jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW I bvBwUªK Gwm‡W cix¶vwU Ki| djvdj cieZ©x c„ôvi bgybv Q‡K
wjwce× Ki|
3. mwµq avZzi mv‡_ jNy Gwm‡Wi wewµqv :
K. GKwU †U÷wUD‡e 3-5mL jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW bvI| jNy Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ mwµq avZz K I
L. G‡Z GK UzKiv cwi®‹vi (†mÛ‡ccvi w`‡q N‡l) g¨vM‡bwmqvg Na we‡ùviYmn wewµqv K‡i|
wieb †hvM Ki| myZivs j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z G‡ì cix¶v
M. †U÷wUDewUi gy‡L GKwU R¡jšÍ KvwV ai| Ki‡e bv|
N. Avqib I Kcvi P~Y© wb‡qI cix¶vwU m¤úbœ Ki|

O. GKBfv‡e jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW I bvBwUªK Gwm‡W cix¶vwU Ki|
P. djvdj cieZ©x c„ôvi bgybv Q‡K wjwce× Ki|
4. avZe Kve©‡b‡Ui mv‡_ Gwm‡Wi wewµqv:
K. GKwU †U÷wUD‡e 1MÖvg †mvwWqvg Kve©‡bU bvI|
L. G‡Z 3-5mL jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW †hvM Ki|
M. wP‡Îi b¨vq hš¿m¾vq Drcbœ M¨vm‡K Pz‡bi cvwbi ga¨ w`‡q Pvjbv Ki|
wPÎ 9.2 : avZe Kve©‡b‡Ui N. GKB fv‡e jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW I bvBwUªK Gwm‡W cix¶vwU Ki|
mv‡_ Gwm‡Wi wewµqv O. djvdj cieZ©x c„ôvi bgybv Q‡K wjwce× Ki|
5. avZe nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡b‡Ui mv‡_ Gwm‡Wi wewµqv :
K. GKwU †U÷wUD‡e 1MÖvg †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU bvI|
L. G‡Z 3-5mL jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW †hvM Ki|
M. 4 bs cix¶vi wP‡Îi b¨vq hš¿m¾vq Drcbœ M¨vm‡K Pz‡bi cvwbi ga¨ w`‡q Pvjbv Ki|
N. GKBfv‡e jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW I bvBwUªK Gwm‡W cix¶vwU Ki|
O. djvdj cieZ©x c„ôvi bgybv Q‡K wjwce× Ki|
6. avZyi nvBWª·vB‡Wi mv‡_ Gwm‡Wi wewµqv :
K. GKwU †U÷wUD‡e 3-5mL jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW bvI|
L. G‡Z 1MÖvg g¨vM‡bwmqvg nvBWª·vBW †hvM Ki|
M. wgkÖYwU‡K g„`y Auv‡P 30 wgwbU Mig Ki|
N. AZtci wgkÖYwU‡K †i‡L w`‡q VvÊv n‡Z `vI|
O. GKBfv‡e jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW I bvBwUªK Gwm‡W cix¶vwU Ki|
P. djvdj cieZ©x c„ôvi bgybv Q‡K wjwce× Ki|
132 imvqb
7. avZyi A·vB‡Wi mv‡_ Gwm‡Wi wewµqv :

K. GKwU †U÷wUD‡e 3-5mL jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW bvI|
L. G‡Z 1 MÖvg Kcvi(II) A·vBW †hvM Ki|
M. wgkÖYwU‡K g„`y Auv‡P 30 wgwbU Mig Ki|
N. AZtci wgkÖYwU‡K †i‡L w`‡q VvÊv n‡Z `vI|
O. GKBfv‡e jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW I bvBwUªK Gwm‡W
cix¶vwU Ki| e¨vUvwi
UP© evj¦
P. djvdj wb‡Pi bgybv Q‡K wjwce× Ki|
8. jNy Gwm‡Wi we`y¨r cwievwnZv :
wRsK A¨v‡bvW Kcvi K¨v‡_vW
K. GKwU weKv‡ii A‡a©K cwigvY As‡k jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK
GwmW bvI|
L. wP‡Îi b¨vq hš¿m¾v Ki
GwmW `ªeY
M. e¨vUvwii mvnv‡h¨ eZ©bx‡Z we`y¨r cÖevwnZ Ki|
N. djvdj wb‡Pi bgybv Q‡K wjwce× Ki| wPÎ 9.3 : GwmW `ªe‡Yi cwievwnZvi cix¶v
Q‡Ki bgybv
µwgK bs cix¶v ch©‡e¶Y wm×všÍ
1.
2.
avZzi mwµqZv wmwiR

9.3 cix¶vmg~‡ni djvdj we‡kølY avZz ms‡KZ
K. mwµq avZzi mv‡_ Gwm‡Wi wewµqv: cUvwmqvg K
†mvwWqvg Na
ivmvqwbK mwµqZv wmwi‡R nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi Dc‡ii avZzmg~n jNy Gwm‡Wi
K¨vjwmqvg Ca mwµq
mv‡_ wewµqvq jeY I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i|
g¨vM‡bwmqvg Mg
avZz + jNy GwmW jeY + nvB‡Wªv‡Rb A¨vjywgwbqvg Al
†hgb, g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW, jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW wRsK Zn
ga¨g
I AwZ jNy bvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqvq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i| Avqib Fe
mwµq
G‡Z cÖgvwYZ nq †h jNy Gwm‡W nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb Dcw¯’Z| †jW Pb
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) nvB‡Wªv‡Rb H
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) Kcvi Cu Kg
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g) Ag
wmjfvi mwµq
GB wewµqv¸‡jv‡K wb‡Pi AvqwbK mgxKiY w`‡q cÖKvk Kiv hvq| GwmW †_‡K nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cÖwZ¯’vcb
ÿgZvi wfwË‡Z avZzi mwµqZv wmwiR
imvqb 133
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
†fvM¨cY¨ wf‡bMvi I †jeyi im g¨vM‡bwmqv‡gi mv‡_ wewµqvq nvB‡Wª‡Rb M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i| Kcvi nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK
Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i bv wKš‘ jNy I Mvp bvBwUªK GwmW I Mvp mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i| GB
wfbœZvi KviY n‡jv bvBwUªK GwmW I mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi RviY ag©| GwmW¸‡jv wb‡¤œv³fv‡e Rvqgvb Aw·‡Rb
Drcbœ K‡i Ges avZzi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i|
2HNO3 2NO + H2O + 3[O]
ga¨g Mvp eY©nxb
2HNO3 2NO2 + H2O + [O]
Mvp ev`vwg eY©
H2SO4 H2O + SO2 + [O]
Mvp
wewµqvq Drcbœ Rvqgvb Aw·‡Rb wewµqvq Dcw¯’Z avZz‡K RvwiZ K‡i avZzi A·vBW Drcbœ K‡i| avZzi A·vBW
Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i jeY I cvwb Drcbœ K‡i| Dc‡ii RviY wewµqv Ges GwmW ¶vi cÖkgb wewµqv †hvM
K‡i m¤ú~Y© wewµqv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
L. avZe Kve©‡b‡Ui mv‡_ Gwm‡Wi wewµqv:
jNy GwmW avZe Kve©‡b‡Ui mv‡_ wewµqvq Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i|
avZe Kve©‡bU + jNy GwmW jeY + cvwb + Kve©b WvBA·vBW
†mvwWqvg Kve©‡bU (KwVb ev Rjxq `ªeY) jNy Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqvq Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨v‡mi eyèy` Drcbœ
K‡i|
Na2CO3(s ev aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2 NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3(s ev aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3(s ev aq) + 2HNO3(aq) 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
GB mgxKiY¸‡jv‡K wb‡Pi AvqwbK mgxKiY ØvivI cÖKvk Ki‡Z cvi‡e|

CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Pzbvcv_i ev K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW I jNy bvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i K¨vjwmqvg
jeY I Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i| jNy mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqvq K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡b‡Ui
DcwiZ‡j A`ªeYxq K¨vjwmqvg mvj‡d‡Ui Av¯ÍiY m„wó nq e‡j wewµqv †kl ch©šÍ AMÖmi nq bv|
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
wb‡Pi AvqwbK mgxKi‡Yi mvnv‡hÏ wewµqvmg~n Dc¯’vcb Kiv hvq|

134 imvqb
CaCO3(s) + 2H+ (aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
M. avZe nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡b‡Ui mv‡_ Gwm‡Wi wewµqv:

jNy GwmW avZe nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡b‡Ui mv‡_ wewµqvq Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i|
avZe nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU + jNy GwmW jeY + cvwb + Kve©b WvBA·vBW
†mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU (KwVb ev Rjxq `ªeY) jNy Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqvq Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨v‡mi eyèy`
Drcbœ K‡i|
NaHCO3(s ev aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2NaHCO3 (s ev aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
NaHCO3 (s ev aq) + HNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
GB mgxKiY¸‡jv‡K wb‡Pi AvqwbK mgxKiY ØvivI cÖKvk Ki‡Z cvi‡e|

HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)
N. avZyi nvBWª·vBW I A·vB‡Wi mv‡_ Gwm‡Wi wewµqv:

avZyi nvBWª·vBW I A·vBW n‡jv ¶viK| GwmW I ¶vi‡Ki wewµqvq jeY Ges cvwb Drcbœ nq| G wewµqvq
GwmW I ¶viK Df‡qi êwkó¨m~PK ag© †jvc cvq| G wewµqv‡K cÖkgb wewµqv ejv nq|
GwmW + avZyi nvBWª·vBW jeY + cvwb
GwmW + avZyi A·vBW jeY + cvwb
jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ g¨vM‡bwmqvg nvBWª·vB‡Wi wewµqvq g¨vM‡bwmqvg †K¬vivBW I cvwb Drcbœ nq|
2HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
jNy mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ Kcvi (II) A·vB‡Wi wewµqvq Kcvi (II) mvj‡dU I cvwb Drcbœ nq|
H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
jNy bvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ K¨vjwmqvg A·vB‡Wi wewµqvq K¨vjwmqvg bvB‡UªU I cvwb Drcbœ nq|
2HNO3(aq) + CaO(s) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
O. jNy Gwm‡Wi we`y¨r cwievwnZv:
mKj jNy GwmW Zwor cwievnx| Zzwg wP‡Îi b¨vq (wPÎ-9.3) hš¿m¾v K‡i jNy Gwm‡Wi Zwor cwievwnZvi cix¶v
Ki‡Z cvi|
P. Gwm‡Wi ivmvqwbK a‡g© cvwbi f~wgKv:
Zzwg G ch©šÍ Gwm‡W †h mKj êwkó¨ †R‡bQ Zvi meB Rjxq `ªe‡Y| cvwbi Abycw¯’wZ‡Z A~Òxq †hŠM †Kgb ag©
cÖ`k©b K‡i?
Abv`©ª mvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi wµ÷v‡ji Dci ï®‹ bxj wjUgvm †ccvi ¯úk© KivI| Kx †`L‡Z †c‡j ? †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b
imvqb 135
n‡jv bv| cwieZ©b bv nIqvi KviY Abv`ª© mvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi wµ÷v‡j †Kv‡bv nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb †bB| Rjxq `ªe‡Y
mvBwUªK GwmW nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb †`q| G‡K AvqwbKiY e‡j| Rjxq `ªe‡Y Dcw¯’Z nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb Gwm‡Wi
êwkó¨m~PK ag© cÖ`k©b K‡i| Rjxq `ªe‡Y mvBwUªK GwmW AvswkK AvqwbZ nq| B_vbwqK GwmW, Kve©wbK
GwmWI Rjxq `ªe‡Y AvswkK AvqwbZ nq|
mvBwUªK GwmW + cvwb mvBwUªK GwmW(aq)
mvBwUªK GwmW(aq) H+(aq) + mvB‡UªU Avqb(aq)
Rjxq `ªe‡Y nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW M¨vm m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c AvqwbZ nq I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb Drcbœ nq|
HCl(g) + cvwb HCl(aq)
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
weï× mvjwdDwiK GwmW I bvBwUªK GwmW eY©nxb Zij c`v_©| G‡Z †hŠM `ywU AvYweK Ae¯’vq _v‡K| AvqwbZ
bq A_©vr nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb Dcw¯’Z †bB e‡j weï× mvjwdDwiK GwmW I bvBwUªK GwmW Gwm‡Wi êwkó¨m~PK
ag© cÖ`k©b K‡i bv| G‡ì‡K cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z Kiv gvÎ nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb Drcbœ K‡i Ges Gwm‡Wi êwkó¨m~PK
ag© cÖ`k©b K‡i| GB nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb åvg¨gvY _v‡K e‡j GwmW we`y¨r cwienb K‡i|
H2SO4(l) + cvwb H2SO4(aq)
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
HNO3(l) + cvwb HNO3(aq)
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
†h mKj GwmW Rjxq `ªe‡Y AvswkK AvqwbZ nq Zviv `ye©j GwmW| GKBfv‡e †h mKj ¶vi Rjxq `ªe‡Y AvswkK
AvqwbZ nq Zviv `ye©j ¶vi| mej GwmW I mej ¶vi Rjxq `ªe‡Y m¤ú~Y© AvqwbZ nq| A_©vr `ye©j Gwm‡Wi `ªe‡Y
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avq‡bi cwigvY mej Gwm‡Wi Zzjbvq Kg _v‡K| GKBfv‡e `ye©j ¶v‡ii `ªe‡Y nvBWª·vBW Avq‡bi
cwigvY mej ¶v‡ii Zzjbvq Kg _v‡K|
wk¶v_©xi KvR :
mKj Gwm‡W Dcw¯’Z mvaviY †gŠj Ges êwkó¨m~PK ag© cÖ`k©‡bi Rb¨ Avek¨K Avq‡bi we‡ePbvq
Gwm‡Wi msÁv `vI|
xGKwU eY©nxb `ªeY‡K Kxfv‡e GwmW wn‡m‡e kbv³ Ki‡e?
9.4 ¶viK Ges ¶vi
¶viK n‡jv H mKj c`v_© hv GwmW‡K cÖkwgZ K‡i Gi êwkó¨m~PK ag© wejyß K‡i| mvaviYZ avZzi A·vBW
I nvBWª·vBWmg~n ¶viK| ¶viK, GKwU GwmW‡K cÖkgb Ki‡j jeY I cvwb Drcbœ nq|
GwmW + ¶viK jeY + cvwb
136 imvqb
¶vi GKwU we‡kl ai‡bi ¶viK| GwU cvwb‡Z m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c `ªexf~Z nq| †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW, cUvwmqvg
nvBWª·vBW, K¨vjwmqvg nvBWª·vBW, †mvwWqvg A·vBW, K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW BZ¨vw` ¶vi| A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨v‡mi
Rjxq `ªeY ¶vi| Acic‡¶ Kcvi A·vBW, Avqib A·vBW, Avqib nvBWª·vBW BZ¨vw` cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nq bv
e‡j G¸‡jv ¶viK, ¶vi bq|
evmvevwo‡Z ¶viRvZxq c`v_©
evmvevwo‡Z cwi”QbœZv Kv‡R ¶viRvZxq c`v‡_©i †ek eënvi Av‡Q| G¸‡jv †Zj ev Pwe©i mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i
mvevb Drcbœ K‡i|
K‡qKwU eûjcÖPwjZ ¶vi I G‡ì eënvi ZvwjKvq Dc¯’vcb Kiv n‡jv:
bvg ivmvqwbK ms‡KZ eënvi

†mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW NaOH Uq‡jU wK¬bvi wn‡m‡e
ev Kw÷K †mvWv
A¨v‡gvwbqvg nvBWª·vBW NH4OH KvP cwi®‹viK wn‡m‡e
K¨vjwmqvg nvBWª·vBW Ca(OH)2 cvb LvIqvi Pzb ev †Ìqv‡j PzbKvg Kivi Rb¨
ev KwjPzb
j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z Zzwg A‡bK ¶vi cv‡e| †hgb: 1. cUvwmqvg nvBWª·vBW (KOH) 2. †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW
(NaOH) 3. K¨vjwmqvg nvBWª·vBW Ca(OH)2 Ges 4. A¨v‡gvwbqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY {NH4OH}|
9.5 jNy ¶v‡ii ag©

KL‡bvB j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z †Kv‡bv
¯^v` : mKj ¶vi `ªeY KUz ¯^v` I MÜ hy³|
¶v‡ii ¯^v` wb‡Z †Póv Ki‡e bv|
wk¶v_©xi KvR:
j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z jNy ¶v‡ii ivmvqwbK ag© cix¶Y:
2.Abyfe: ¯ú‡k© mKj ¶vi wcw”Qj AbyfzZ nq (GB cix¶vwU Z¡‡Ki ¶wZ K‡i)|
3.wjUgvm cix¶v: jNy †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW †fRv jvj I bxj wjUgvm KvMR Wzwe‡q ch©‡e¶Y Ki| GKBfv‡e jNy
K¨vjwmqvg nvBWª·vBW I jNy A¨v‡gvwbqvg nvBWª·vB‡W cix¶vwU Ki| djvdj bgybv Q‡K wjwce× Ki|
4. avZe Avq‡bi mv‡_ jNy ¶v‡ii wewµqv:
K. wP‡Îi (wPÎ 9.4) b¨vq 1wU ÷¨v‡Û 8wU †U÷wUDe cici mvRvI|
L. ch©vqµ‡g †U÷wUDe¸‡jv‡Z 2mL K‡i A¨vjywgwbqvg, jNy †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW, jNy
K¨vjwmqvg, †jW, g¨vM‡bwmqvg, Avqib(II), Avqib(III), A¨v‡gvwbqv `ªeY, Kcvi jeY Ges
Kcvi(II) I wRsK -Gi bvB‡UªU je‡Yi `ªeY bvI| †jW jeY eënv‡i mZK© _vK‡e|
M. cÖwZwU †U÷wUD‡e 2/3 †duvUv K‡i jNy †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW
imvqb 137
`ªeY †hvM K‡i SuvKvI I cwieZ©b ch©‡e¶Y Ki|

Q. AZtci cÖwZwU‡Z cybivq cwieZ©b bv nIqv ch©šÍ Av‡iv jNy †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY †hvM K‡i SuvKvI I
cwieZ©b ch©‡e¶Y Ki|
R. GKBfv‡e jNy A¨v‡gvwbqvg nvBWª·vBW eënvi K‡i cix¶vwU Ki|
S. djvdj wb‡Pi bgybv Q‡K wjwce× Ki|
wPÎ 9.4 : wewfbœ je‡Yi `ªe‡b †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW †hvM K‡i cix¶v
Q‡Ki bgybv
µwgK avZzi Avqb NaOH(aq) †hvM Kivi d‡j Drcbœ Aat‡¶‡ci eY© AwaK cwigv‡Y NaOH(aq)
bs Drcbœ avZe nvBWª·vBW †hvM Kiv n‡j cwiewZ©Z eY©
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
5. A¨v‡gvwbqvg †hŠ‡Mi mv‡_ ¶v‡ii wewµqv:

K. GKwU gU©v‡i 1 ¯ú¨vPzjv cwigvY A¨v‡gvwbqvg
†K¬vivBW I 2 ¯ú¨vPzjv cwigvY K¨vjwmqvg
nvBWª·vBW bvI|
L. †c‡m‡ji mvnv‡h¨ KwVb c`v_©¸‡jv‡K fv‡jvfv‡e †gkvI|
M. wgkÖYwU‡K GKwU †U÷wUD‡e ¯’vbvšÍi Ki|
N. †U÷wUDewU‡K g„`y Auv‡P Mig Ki|
O. Drcbœ M¨v‡mi MÜ bvI (nv‡Zi mvnv‡h¨ bv‡Ki wPÎ 9.5 : A¨v‡gvwbqvg †K¬vivBW
w`‡K M¨vm avweZ K‡i)| I ¶v‡ii wewµqvi cix¶v
P. Drcbœ M¨v‡mi g‡a¨ GK UzKiv †fRv jvj wjUgvm †ccvi ai|
Q. M¨v‡mi MÜ I wjUgvm †ccv‡ii cwieZ©b bgybv Q‡K D‡jøL Ki|
R. Drcbœ M¨vmwU kbv³ Ki|
138 imvqb
µwgK bs cix¶v ch©‡e¶Y wm×všÍ

1.
2.
9.6 cix¶vmg~‡ni djvdj we‡kølY

K. avZe Avq‡bi mv‡_ jNy ¶v‡ii wewµqv:
AwaKvsk avZe nvBWª·vBW cvwb‡Z A`ªeYxq| avZzi jeY ev Avq‡bi `ªe‡Y jNy †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY †hvM Kiv
n‡j `ªe‡Y Dcw¯’Z avZzi nvBWª·vBW Aatw¶ß nq| AwZwi³ †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY †hvM Kiv n‡j †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv
Aat‡¶c `ªexf~Z nq Ges `ªe‡Yi eY© cwieZ©b nq| †Zvgvi cÖvß djvdj wb‡Pi †Uwe‡ji mv‡_ wgwj‡q bvI|
†Uwej : mPivPi cvIqv hvq Ggb KZ¸‡jv avZe nvBWª·vB‡Wi Aat‡¶c Ges RwUj †hŠ‡Mi eY©
µwgK avZzi Avqb Drcbœ avZe Drcbœ cwiewZ©Z eY©

bs nvBWª·vBW Aat‡¶‡ci eY©
1. Ca2+(aq) Ca(OH)2(s) mv`v -
2. Al3+(aq) Al(OH)3(s) mv`v eY©nxb Zij
NaOH(aq) AwaK
3. Fe2+(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) meyR -
†hvM Kiv NaOH(aq) †hvM
4. Fe3+(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) jvj‡P ev`vwg -
n‡j Kiv n‡j
5. Cu2+(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) nvjKv bxj -
6. Zn2+(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) mv`v eY©nxb Zij
we.`ª. Ca(OH)2(s) cvwb‡Z AvswkK `ªeYxq|

Zzwg avZe nvBWª·vB‡Wi Aat‡¶c Drcv`b wewµqv‡K wb‡¤œv³ AvqwbK mgxKiY Øviv cÖKvk Ki‡Z cvi|
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ca(OH)2(s)
mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡¶c
Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3(s)
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
meyR e‡Y©i Aat‡¶c
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
jvj‡P ev`vwg Aat‡¶c
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
nvjKv bxj Aat‡¶c
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
AvqwbK mgxKiY¸‡jv‡K avZzi jeY I †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vB‡Wi wewµqvi ivmvqwbK mgxKiY wn‡m‡e wb‡¤œv³fv‡e
imvqb 139
cÖKvk Kiv hvq|

CaCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
AlCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Al(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)

FeCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
meyR e‡Y©i Aat‡¶c

FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)
jvj‡P ev`vwg Aat‡¶c

CuCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
nvjKv bxj Aat‡¶c

ZnCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

`ªe‡Y avZzi Avqb¸‡jv A¨v‡gvwbqv `ªe‡Yi mv‡_ Abyiƒc wewµqv †`q, Z‡e Ca2+(aq) Avqb †Kv‡bv Aat‡¶c
Drcbœ K‡i bv|
L. A¨v‡gvwbqvg †hŠ‡Mi mv‡_ ¶v‡ii wewµqv:
A¨v‡gvwbqvg †K¬vivBW, A¨v‡gvwbqvg bvB‡UªU, A¨v‡gvwbqvg mvj‡dU-Gi cÖwZwU‡ZB A¨v‡gvwbqvg Avqb Dcw¯’Z|
KwVb A¨v‡gvwbqvg †hŠM ev Gi `ªeY‡K g„`y Auv‡P Zvc w`‡j A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm wegy³ nq|
2NH4Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) 2NH3(g) + CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NH3(g) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
wewµqv `ywU‡K wb‡¤œv³ AvqwbK mgxKi‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk Kiv hvq|

NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l)
M. Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv:

¶vi `ªeY Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqvq ïay jeY I cvwb Drcbœ K‡i| Zzwg GwmW Ges cÖkgb wewµqv Ask cvV Kivi
mgq G m¤ú‡K© we¯ÍvwiZ c‡oQ|
N. we`y¨r cwievwnZv:
Gwm‡Wi nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb åvg¨gvY _v‡K, c¶všÍ‡i ¶v‡i åvg¨gvY nvBWª·vBW Avqb Dcw¯’Z _v‡K| åvg¨gvY
nvBWª·vBW Avq‡bi Dcw¯’wZi Rb¨ ¶vi we`y¨r cwienb K‡i|
140 imvqb
O. ¶v‡ii ivmvqwbK a‡g© cvwbi f~wgKv:

cUvwmqvg nvBWª·vBW Ges †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW Dfq †hŠ‡MB Avqb Dcw¯’Z| KwVb Ae¯’vq GB Avqb gy³ _v‡K
bv| G¸‡jv‡K `ªexf~Z Kivi mv‡_ mv‡_B m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c AvqwbZ n‡q gy³ nvBWª·vBW Avqb Drcbœ K‡i| `ªe‡Y †Kej
nvBWª·vBW AvqbB FYvZ¥K Avavb enb K‡i|
KOH(s) + cvwb K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NaOH(s) + cvwb Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
A¨v‡gvwbqv AYyi mgwó n‡jv A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm| A¨v‡gvwbqv‡K cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z Kiv n‡j A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm I cvwbi
wewµqvq A¨v‡gvwbqvg Avqb I nvBWª·vBW Avqb Drcbœ nq| Z‡e cvwb‡Z A¨v‡gvwbqvi mvgvb¨ AskB `ªexf~Z nq
Ges Lye Aí msL¨K nvBWª·vBW Avqb Drcbœ nq|
myZivs, A¨v‡gvwbqv `ªe‡Y A¨v‡gvwbqv AYy, cvwbi AYy Ges AímsL¨K A¨v‡gvwbqvg Avqb I nvBWª·vBW Avqb
Dcw¯’Z _v‡K| åvg¨gvY nvBWª·vBW Avq‡bi Dcw¯’wZi Dci ¶vi `ªe‡Yi êwkó¨ wbf©i K‡i|
†h mKj ¶vi Rjxq `ªe‡Y AvswkK AvqwbZ nq Zviv `ye©j ¶vi| mej ¶vi Rjxq `ªe‡Y m¤ú~Y© AvqwbZ nq| A_©vr
`ye©j ¶v‡ii `ªe‡Y nvBWª·vBW Avq‡bi cwigvY mej ¶v‡ii Zzjbvq Kg _v‡K|
wk¶v_©xi KvR:
wb‡Pi cÖwZwU KvR m¤úbœ Ki| †Pv‡L †`Lv hvq Ggb GKwU K‡i cwieZ©b eY©bv Ki| mswkøó AvqwbK mgxKiY
wjL|
jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW `ªe‡Y Avqib ¸uov †hvM Kiv n‡j|
jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK Gwm‡W KwVb †mvwWqvg Kve©‡bU †hvM Kiv n‡j|
Kcvi(II) mvj‡dU `ªe‡Y A¨v‡gvwbqv `ªeY †hvM Kiv n‡j|
mgm¨v mgvavb Ki:
PviwU †j‡ej Qvov †evZ‡ji cÖwZwU‡Z wb‡Pi †Kv‡bv GKwU weKviK Av‡Q|
x A¨v‡gvwbqv `ªeY x jNy †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY
x jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW x cvwZZ cvwb
wb‡Pi `ªe¨vw` Ges hš¿cvwZ eënvi K‡i Zzwg Kxfv‡e cÖwZwU †evZ‡ji Dcv`vb‡K kbv³ Ki‡e?
x Kcvi (II) †K¬vivBW `ªeY x †U÷wUDe
x KwVb †mvwWqvg Kve©‡bU x eyb‡mb evb©vi
9.7 Mvp GwmW
K. Mvp nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW:
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW M¨vm cvwb‡Z AZ¨šÍ `ªeYxq| GB M¨vm cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z n‡q nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK Gwm‡W cwiYZ
nq| mvaviYZ Mvp nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK Gwm‡W f‡ii Abycv‡Z 35% nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW _v‡K| Mvp nvB‡Wªv‡Rb
†K¬vivB‡Wi †evZ‡ji gyL Lyj‡j nvjKv Kzqvkv m„wó nq Ges Zxeª SuvSv‡jv MÜ cvIqv hvq|
imvqb 141
L. Mvp bvBwUªK GwmW:

bvB‡Uªv‡Rb WvBA·vBW (NO2) M¨vm cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z n‡q bvBUªvm GwmW (HNO2) I bvBwUªK GwmW (HNO3)
Drcbœ nq| mvaviYZ nvjKv †auvqvmn Mvp bvBwUªK Gwm‡W f‡ii Abycv‡Z 70% bvBwUªK GwmW _v‡K| Mvp
bvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi †evZ‡ji gyL Lyj‡j nvjKv Kzqvkv m„wó nq Ges Zxeª SuvSv‡jv MÜ cvIqv hvq| we‡hvwRZ n‡q
ev`vwg e‡Y©i bvB‡Uªv‡Rb WvBA·vBW M¨vm Drcbœ Kivi cÖeYZvi Kvi‡Y G¸‡jv‡K ev`vwg e‡Y©i †evZ‡j ivLv nq|
Av‡jvi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z GB we‡hvRb nvi †e‡o hvq| †evZ‡ji gyL Lyj‡j Zxeª SuvSv‡jv MÜmn bvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi
nvjKv Kzqvkv †ewi‡q Av‡m|
M. Mvp mvjwdDwiK GwmW:
mvjdvi UªvBA·vBW (SO3) M¨vm cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z n‡q mvjwdDwiK GwmW (H2SO4) Drcbœ nq| mvaviYZ Mvp
mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡W f‡ii Abycv‡Z cÖvq 98% mvjwdDwiK GwmW _v‡K|
9.8 Mvp GwmW I ¶v‡ii ¶qKvix ag©
Mvp GwmW AZ¨šÍ wec`RbK KviY G¸‡jv AZ¨šÍ ¶qKviK c`v_©| G¸‡jv avZz, Z¡K Ges Kvco ¶q Ki‡Z
cv‡i| Gwm‡Wi g‡Zv Mvp ¶viI ¶qKvix Ges wec`RbK| †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW‡K cÖvqkB Kw÷K †mvWv
(Kw÷K gv‡b †cvov‡bv) ejv nq| Gwm‡Wi Zzjbvq ¶vi Z¡K I †Pv‡Li †ewk ¶wZ K‡i|
wk¶v_©xi KvR:
K. Gwm‡Wi ¶qKvix ag© AbymÜvb:
Mvp mvjwdDwiK GwmW AZ¨šÍ wec`RbK I ¶qKviK c`v_©| G‡Z KL‡bv

cvwb wgkv‡e bv| mZK© _vK‡e hv‡Z Kvc‡o ev Z¡‡K mvjwdDwiK GwmW bv
jv‡M| hw` AmveavbZvekZ †j‡M hvq Zvn‡j mv‡_ mv‡_ cÖPzi cwigv‡Y cvwb
w`‡q ay‡q †dj‡e Ges wk¶K‡K Rvbv‡e|
1. GKwU IqvP Møv‡m GK UzKiv wdëvi †ccvi bvI|

2. wdëvi †ccv‡ii Dc‡i K‡qK †duvUv Mvp mvjwdDwiK GwmW
†hvM Ki|
3. GKUz mgq wb‡q djvdj ch©‡e¶Y Ki Ges wjwce× Ki|
wPÎ 9.6 : Gwm‡Wi ¶qKvix ag© cix¶v

L. ¶v‡ii ¶qKvix ag© AbymÜvb :
Gwm‡Wi g‡Zv †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBWI AZ¨šÍ ¶qKvix Ges wec`RbK| AZ¨š— mZK©Zvi mv‡_
eënvi Ki‡e hv‡Z Z¡‡K I Kvc‡o bv jv‡M| hw` AmZK©ZvekZ †j‡M hvq Zvn‡j cÖPzi cwigv‡Y cvwb
w`‡q ay‡q †dj‡e Ges wk¶K‡K Rvbv‡e|
142 imvqb
1. `ywU 250mL weKvi bvI|

2. Gi GKwU‡Z 50mL cvwZZ cvwb Ges AciwU‡Z
50mL Mvp †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW bvI|
3. Dfq weKv‡i GKwU K‡i gyiwMi cv WzevI Ges 1
w`b †i‡L `vI|
†mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW cvwZZ cvwb
4. GKw`b c‡i GKwU Møvm iW w`‡q Dfq weKv‡ii
gyiwMi cv `ywU‡K †LuvPv w`‡q †`L Ges †Zvgvi wPÎ 9.7 : ¶v‡ii ¶qKvix ag© cix¶v
ch©‡e¶Y LvZvq †jL|
9.9 mej I `ye©j GwmW ev mej I `ye©j ¶v‡ii cix¶v
K. GKwU weKv‡i 50mL jNy nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW `ªeY bvI|
L. wP‡Îi (wPÎ 9.3) b¨vq `yBwU Kve©b (MÖvdvBU) B‡jK‡UªvW Ggbfv‡e weKv‡i ¯’vcb Ki †hb ci¯úi ¯úk© bv
K‡i|
M. AZtci GKwU B‡jK‡UªvW‡K Zv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ e¨vUvwii GKcÖv‡šÍ Ges Aci B‡jK‡UªvW‡K Zv‡ii mvnv‡h¨
UP© ev‡j¦i ga¨w`‡q wb‡q e¨vUvwii Aci cÖv‡š—i mv‡_ hy³ Ki|
N. evj¦wU R¡‡j DV‡j Gi D¾¡jZv j¶ Ki|
O. wf‡bMvi (B_vbwqK GwmW) ev mvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi RbÏ cix¶vwU m¤úbœ Ki|
P. evj¦wUi D¾¡jZvi cv_©K¨ e¨vL¨v Ki|
Q. GKBfv‡e †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW I A¨v‡gvwbqvi RbÏ cix¶vwU m¤úbœ Ki|
9.10 pH-Gi aviYv

AvwfavwbK A‡_© pH gv‡b n‡jv nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avq‡bi ¶gZv| †Kv‡bv `ªe‡Yi pH gvb 0 †_‡K 14 -Gi g‡a¨
n‡e| `ªe‡Yi pH gvb 7 -Gi Kg n‡j `ªeYwU $~Ò[T Avevi 7 -Gi †ewk n‡j `ªeYwU ¶vixq| †Kv‡bv `ªe‡Yi
pH gvb 7 n‡j `ªeYwU cÖkg| `ªe‡Yi pH gvb 7 A‡c¶v n«v‡mi µgvbymv‡i Gwm‡Wi ZxeªZv e„w× cvq Ges pH
gvb 7 A‡c¶v e„w×i µgvbymv‡i ¶v‡ii ZxeªZv e„w× cvq|
GwmwWwU ev A¤øZ¡ ¶viKZ¡
GwmW ev A¤ø cÖkg ¶vi ev †em

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
wPÎ 9.8 : pH †¯‹j

imvqb 143
1. pH cwigvcb:
†gvUv `v‡M pH gvb Rvbvi Rb¨ wjUgvm †ccvi eënvi Kiv hvq| wjUgvm †ccvi m¯Ív I mnRjf¨| †Kv‡bv
`ªe‡Yi pH gvb 7 -Gi Kg n‡j wjUgvm †ccvi jvj Ges 7 -Gi †ewk n‡j bxj eY© aviY K‡i| dz‡ji iwOb
cvcwo Ges iwOb mewR GwmW I ¶vi †hv‡M wfbœ wfbœ eY© †`Lvq| GB c`v_©¸‡jv eY© cwieZ©‡bi gva¨‡g GwmW ev
¶v‡ii Dcw¯’wZ wb‡`©k K‡i| myZivs G¸‡jv wb‡`©kK|
pH gvb Rvbvi Rb¨ mvaviYZ BDwbfvm©vj BwÛ‡KUi, pH †ccvi ev pH wgUvi eënvi Kiv nq|
2. BDwbfvm©vj BwÛ‡KUi:
wewfbœ GwmW-¶vi BwÛ‡KUi ev wb‡`©k‡Ki wgkÖY n‡jv BDwbfvm©vj BwÛ‡KUi| wfbœ wfbœ pH gv‡bi Rb¨
BDwbfvm©vj BwÛ‡KUi wfbœ wfbœ eY© aviY K‡i| ARvbv †Kv‡bv `ªe‡Yi pH gvb Rvbvi Rb¨ `ªe‡Y K‡qK †duvUv
BDwbfvm©vj BwÛ‡KUi †hvM Ki| AZtci Drcbœ eY©‡K ÷¨vÛvW© Kvjvi Pv‡U©i mv‡_ wgwj‡q `ªe‡Yi pH gvb wba©viY
Ki|
3. pH †ccvi:
ARvbv †Kv‡bv `ªe‡Yi pH gvb Rvbvi Rb¨ pH †ccvi eënvi Kiv nq| GRb¨ `ªe‡Y GKUzKiv pH †ccvi †hvM
Ki| AZtci Drcbœ eY©‡K ÷¨vÛvW© Kvjvi Pv‡U©i mv‡_ wgwj‡q `ªe‡Yi pH gvb wba©viY Ki|
pH eY©bv eY©
A¤øxq ¶vixq
Zxeª GwmW jvj
! `ye©j GwmW njy`
wbi‡c¶ meyR
! `ye©j ¶vi bxj
wbi‡c¶
! Zxeª ¶vi †e¸wb
wPÎ 9.9 : BDwbfvm©vj wb‡`©kK Kvjvi PvU© (iwOb wP‡Îi Rb¨ eB‡qi cÖ”Q` †`L) wPÎ 9.10 : pH Kvjvi PvU©
4. pH wgUvi:
ARvbv `ªe‡Yi pH gvb Rvbvi Rb¨ pH wgUvi eënvi Kiv
nq| pH wgUv‡ii B‡jK‡UªvW‡K ARvbv `ªe‡Y Wzwe‡q wgUv‡ii
wWwRUvj wWm‡cø †_‡K mivmwi pH gvb Rvbv hvq|
wk¶v_©xi KvR:
eûj eëüZ †fvM¨c‡Yï pH gvb wbY©q K‡i GwmW, ¶vi I
cÖkg wn‡m‡e ZvwjKvfy³ Ki|
9.11 pH -Gi ¸i“Z¡ wPÎ 9.11 : pH wgUvi
K…wl‡¶‡Î: K…wlKv‡Ri Rb¨ gvwUi pH gvb Lye ¸i“Z¡c~Y©| wbw`©ó dm‡ji Rb¨ gvwUi wba©vwiZ pH gvb eRvq ivLv
¸i“Z¡c~Y©|
144 imvqb
¯^v¯’ï¶v: †cÖvwUb‡K nRg Kivi Rb¨ cvK¯’wj‡Z pH gvb 2 A_©vr GwmwWK Ae¯’v cÖ‡qvRb| Avevi Lv`¨‡K
AwaKZi nRg Kivi Rb¨ ¶z`ªv‡š¿ pH gvb 8 A_©vr ¶viKxq Ae¯’v cÖ‡qvRb| i‡³i pH gvb 7.35 †_‡K 7.45
Ges cÖ¯ªv‡ei pH gvb 6 _vKv cÖ‡qvRb| KZK¸‡jv †ivM kbv³ Kivi Rb¨ pH gvb wbY©q Avek¨K|
†mŠ›`h©ï¶v: †`nZ¡‡Ki Rb¨ Av`k© pH gvb 5.5| Z¡‡Ki pH gvb 5.5 †_‡K 6.5 -Gi g‡a¨ _vK‡j Z¡K wewfbœ
Gjv‡R©b, e¨vK‡Uwiqv Ges cwi‡ek `~l‡Ki AvµgY cÖwZ‡iva Ki‡Z cv‡i| Z¡‡Ki pH gvb Av`k© mxgvi †P‡q
†ewk ev Kg n‡j Z¡‡Ki †KvgjZv I †mŠ›`h© bó n‡e| pH gvb 4 †_‡K 6 -Gi g‡a¨ n‡j Pz‡ji wKDwUKjMy‡jv
gm„Y _v‡K| d‡j Pzj mgfv‡e Av‡jv wewKiY K‡i I Pzj D¾¡j †`Lvq| Pz‡ji pH gvb 6 †_‡K †ewk n‡j
wKDwUKj¸‡jv gm„YZv nvwi‡q †d‡j I Aby¾¡j †`Lvq|
9.12 cÖkgb wewµqv I isaby cix¶v
GwmW I ¶vi GK‡Î wgkv‡j jeY I cvwb Drcbœ nq| GB wewµqv‡K cÖkgb wewµqv e‡j| cÖkgb wewµqv PjvKv‡j
`ªe‡Yi pH gvb cwieZ©b n‡Z _v‡K| Gwm‡Wi Avqb ¶v‡ii Avqb‡K cÖkwgZ K‡i cvwb Drcbœ K‡i| d‡j GwmW
I ¶v‡ii êwkó¨m~PK ag© wejyß nq| cÖkgb wewµqv GKwU AwZ ¸iæZ¡c~Y© wewµqv|
GwmW + ¶vi jeY + cvwb
†Kv‡bv ¶vi `ªe‡Y h_v_© cwigvY GwmW `ªeY †hvM Kiv n‡j cÖkg `ªeY Drcbœ nq| AwZwi³ GwmW †hvM Kiv n‡j
`ªeY GwmWag© cÖvß nq|
isaby cix¶vq g~jZ cÖkgb wewµqv msNwUZ nq| GKwU †ewkifvM cvwbc~Y© †U÷wUD‡e GKUzKiv KvcoKvPv
†mvWvi †Kjvm †hvM Ki| KvcoKvPv †mvWv ¶viRvZxq c`v_©| Gi ivmvqwbK bvg †mvwWqvg Kve©‡bU|
nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW Øviv †U÷wUDewU‡K cÖvq c~Y© Ki| AZci †U÷wUD‡e K‡qK †duvUv BDwbfvm©vj BwÛ‡KUi
†hvM Ki| †U÷wUDewU‡K `yÕw`b †i‡L `vI| BDwbfvm©vj BwÛ‡KU‡ii Kvjvi Pv‡U©i mv‡_ wgwj‡q †U÷wUD‡ei
wewfbœ As‡ki GwmwWwU ev A¤øZ¡ Ges ¶viKZ¡ cÖKvk Ki|
9.13 ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b cÖkgb wewµqvi ¸iæZ¡
cwicv‡K: cwicv‡Ki cÖ‡qvR‡b cvK¯’wj‡Z GwmW m„wó nq| cÖ‡qvR‡bi AwZwi³ GwmW cvK¯’wj‡Z A¯^w¯— m„wó
K‡i| G †_‡K cwiÎv‡Yi Rb¨ g„`y ¶vi †hgb g¨vM‡bwmqvg nvBWª·vBW †meb Kiv nq| Ab¨vb¨ †meb‡hvM¨ ¶vi
n‡jv g¨vM‡bwmqvg Kve©‡bU, †mwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU BZ¨vw`| GB ¶vi¸‡jv cvK¯’wji GwmW‡K cÖkwgZ
K‡i jeY, cvwb I Kve©b WvBA·vBW Drcbœ K‡i|
ùv‡Zi h‡Zœ: gvby‡li gy‡L cÖPzi e¨vK‡Uwiqv _v‡K| GB e¨vK‡Uwiqv gvby‡li gy‡L †j‡M _vKv Lvevi Lvq Ges GwmW
Drcbœ K‡i| GB GwmW ùv‡Zi Gbv‡gj‡K (K¨vjwmqvg †hŠM) AvµgY K‡i Ges ùv‡Zi ¶q nq| Zzwg hLb ùvZ
eªvm Ki ZLb Uz_‡c‡÷i ¶vi gy‡Li GwmW‡K cÖkwgZ K‡i| d‡j ùv‡Zi myi¶v nq|
†KK ˆZwi‡Z: †KK ˆZwi‡Z †ewKs cvDWvi eënvi Kiv nq| G‡Z GwmW I ¶vi `y‡UvB Dcw¯’Z _v‡K| ¶vi
RvZxq c`v_© †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU Ges UviUvwiK Gwm‡Wi ï®‹ wgkÖY n‡jv †ewKs cvDWvi| ï®‹
Ae¯’vq G‡ì g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv wewµqv nq bv| Z‡e cvwb †hvM Ki‡j cÖkgb wewµqv nq Ges Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm
Drcbœ& nq| Drcbœ Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm gq`v‡K †dvjvq| †KK Pzjvq w`‡j DËv‡c Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨v‡mi
Drcv`b e„w× I AvqZb m¤úªmviY N‡U| d‡j †KK A‡bK †dv‡j Ges big nq|
imvqb 145
K…wl‡¶‡Î gvwU cwiPh©vq: wewfbœ GjvKvi gvwU wewfbœ cÖKvi| †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv GjvKvi gvwUi GwmwWwU AZ¨waK ev
pH gvb Kg nIqvq fv‡jv dmj Rb¥vq bv| GB gvwU‡Z Pzb †hvM Ki‡j gvwUi GwmwWwU n«vm cvq| Pzb ¶viRvZxq
c`v_©, Gi ivmvqwbK bvg K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW| Pzb gvwUi AwZwi³ GwmW cÖkwgZ K‡i d‡j gvwUi pH gvb e„w×
cvq| Avevi gvwU AwZwi³ ¶vixq n‡j A_©vr pH gvb Lye †ewk n‡j G‡Z A¨v‡gvwbqvg mvj‡dU †hvM Kiv nq|
GwmWag©x A¨v‡gvwbqvg mvj‡dU AwZwi³ ¶vi‡K cÖkwgZ K‡i gvwUi pH gvb n«vm K‡i|
jeY:
B‡Zvg‡a¨B Zywg jeY m¤ú‡K© †R‡bQ| GwmW I ¶v‡ii wewµqvq jeY I cvwb Drcbœ nq| je‡Yi GKwU Ask
GwmW †_‡K Ges Aci Ask ¶vi †_‡K Av‡m| G Rb¨ cÖwZwU je‡Y GKwU A¤øxq g~jK I GKwU ¶vixq g~jK
_v‡K| mvaviYZ jeYmg~n cÖkg ev wbi‡c¶| mgvb ZxeªZvi GwmW I ¶v‡ii wewµqvq Drcbœ jeY cÖkg Z‡e Zxeª
GwmW I `ye©j ¶v‡ii jeY GwmwWK (FeCl3) Avevi `ye©j GwmW I Zxeª ¶v‡ii jeY ¶vixq (Na2CO3)|
jeYmg~n Rjxq `ªe‡Y abvZ¥K I FYvZ¥K Avq‡b wewkøó nq| Z‡e †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nq bv|
GwmW I ¶viag©x jeY wewµqv K‡i cÖkg jeY Drcbœ K‡i|
HCI + NaOH NaCI + H2O
HCI + Fe(OH)3 FeCI3 + 3H2O
H2CO3 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + 2H2O
2FeCl3(aq) + 3Na2CO3(aq) 6NaCl(aq) + 3CO2(g) + Fe2O3(s)
9.14 GwmWe„wó
mvaviYZ e„wói cvwb wKQzUv GwmwWK| Gi pH gvb 5.6, KviY e„wói cvwb‡Z Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm I
bvB‡Uªv‡Rb WvBA·vBW M¨vm `ªexf~Z _v‡K| RxeRM‡Zi mKj m`m¨ k¦vmwµqvi mgq evqygÊ‡j Kve©b WvBA·vBW
wbtmiY K‡i| †h †Kv‡bv AwMœKvÊ, Av‡MœqwMwii AMœy¨rcv‡Zi d‡j cÖvK…wZK fv‡e evqygÊ‡j Kve©b WvBA·vBW
Rgv nq| BUfvUv, KjKviLvbv I Mvwoi †auvqv cwi‡e‡k Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm wbtmiY K‡i|
eRªcv‡Zi mgq evqygÊ‡j bvB‡Uªv‡Rb WvBA·vBW Drcbœ nq| AšÍt`nb BwÄ‡b †c‡Uªvwjqvg †cvov‡bvi mg‡qI
bvB‡Uªv‡Rb WvBA·vBW Drcbœ nq Ges Zv evqygÊ‡j gy³ nq|
Kve©b WvBA·vBW I bvB‡Uªv‡Rb WvBA·vBW evZv‡m Dcw¯’Z cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqvq GwmW Drcbœ K‡i|
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
bvBUªvm GwmW AZ¨šÍ ¶Y¯’vqx | GwU evZv‡mi Aw·‡R‡bi Øviv RvwiZ n‡q bvBwUªK Gwm‡W cwiYZ nq|
Av‡MœqwMwii AMœy¨rcv‡Zi mgq mvjdvi WvBA·vBW I bvBwUªK A·vBW Drcbœ nq| we`y¨r‡K›`ª, BUfvUv,
KjKviLvbvi R¡vjvwb (Kqjv I †c‡Uªvwjqvg) mvjdvi/bvB‡Uªv‡Rb hy³ n‡j evqygÊ‡j mvjdvi WvBA·vBW/bvBwUªK
A·vBW wegy³ nq| mvjdvi WvBA·vBW evqygÊ‡ji cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqvq mvjwdDivm GwmW Drcbœ K‡i| mvjdvi
WvBA·vBW evqygÊ‡ji Aw·‡Rb I I‡Rv‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i mvjdvi UªvBA·vBW Drcbœ K‡i| mvjdvi
UªvBA·vBW evqygÊ‡ji cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqvq mvjwdDwiK GwmW Drcbœ K‡i|
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
146 imvqb
Dch©y³ GwmW¸‡jv e„wói cvwbi mv‡_ f~c„‡ô cwZZ nq| GwmWe„wói d‡j Rjvkq I gvwUi pH gvb 4 ev 4 -Gi
†P‡q K‡g hvq| A_©vr gvwU I cvwb GwmwWK n‡q hvq| G‡Z Rxe‰ewP‡Îi e¨vcK ¶wZ nq| eû Rxe wejyß nq|
1. wk¶v_©xi KvR
K. c„_Kfv‡e e„wói ïiæ‡Z I †k‡l cvwb msMÖn Ki|
L. pH †ccvi eënvi K‡i GB cvwbi pH gvb wbY©q Ki|
M. cici K‡qK w`b cªwµqvwUi cybive„wË Ki|
N. †Zvgvi gZvgZmn GKwU wi‡cvU© ˆZwi K‡i wk¶‡Ki wbKU Rgv `vI|
2. wk¶v_©xi KvR
GwmWe„wói Drm we‡ePbvq wb‡q evsjv‡`‡k SuzwKc~Y© K‡qKwU GjvKvi bvg wjL|
3. wk¶v_©xi KvR
Dch©y³ cvV we‡ePbvq wb‡q GwmWe„wó cÖwZ‡iv‡ai Dcvq m¤ú‡K© GKwU cÖwZ‡e`b Dc¯’vcb Ki| (D‡jøL¨
mvjdvigy³ †c‡Uªvwjqvg I Kqjv cvIqv hvq)
9.15 cvwb
wk¶v_©xi KvR:
†Kv_vq †Kv_vq cvwb cvIqv hvq? [mvMi, cvnvo, AvKvk, cvZvj, b`x-bvjv mKj RvqMv fvebvq wb‡e|]
cyKzi I b`xi cvwbi mv‡_ mgy‡`ªi cvwbi ¯^v‡ì cv_©K¨ wK?
GK ¯’vb †_‡K Ab¨ ¯’v‡b Kxfv‡e cvwb ¯’vbvšÍwiZ nq?
Zzwg cvwb cvb Ki, Dw™¢` Kxfv‡e cvwb cvq?
†Zvgvi kix‡i Nvg nq, Dw™¢` wK Abyiƒcfv‡e cvwb Z¨vM K‡i?
Dch©y³ welq¸‡jv we‡ePbvq wb‡q c„w_exi cvwbi AveZ©‡bi GKwU Pµ AsKb Ki|
c„w_ex‡Z †gvU wgVv cvwbi cwigvY m¤ú‡K© †Zvgvi gZvgZ `vI|
cvwbP‡µi GKwU D‡jøL‡hvM¨ As‡k cvwb c„w_ex c„‡ôi Dci w`‡q cÖevwnZ nq| GB cÖevn PjvKv‡j cvwb gvwU‡Z
Dcw¯’Z wewfbœ LwbR je‡Yi ms¯ú‡k© Av‡m| cvwb‡Z jeY `ªexf~Z nq| e„wói cvwb‡Z Dcw¯’Z Kve©wbK GwmW
Pzbvcv_i (CaCO3), W‡jvgvBU (CaCO3.MgCO3) mg„× wkjvi Dci w`‡q Mwo‡q hvIqvi mgq ax‡i ax‡i
wewµqv K‡i I G‡ì `ªexf~Z K‡i|
H2O(l) + CO2(g) H2CO3(aq)
CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
MgCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq) Mg(HCO3)2(aq)
†Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv wkjv‡Z wRcmvg (CaSO4.2H2O) ev Abv`ª© CaSO4 _v‡K| G¸‡jv cvwb‡Z ¯^ígvÎvq `ªeYxq|
G Dcv`vb¸‡jv cvwb‡Z Dcw¯’Z _vK‡j cvwb Li nq| Avqib AvqbI Li cvwbi GKwU Dcv`vb|
imvqb 147
cvwb‡Z Dcw¯’Z K¨vjwmqvg Avqb, mvev‡bi (ˆRe Gwm‡Wi †mvwWqvg ev cUvwmqvg jeY) mv‡_ wb¤œiƒc wewµqv K‡i|
R-COONa + H2O R-COO- + Na+ R = CnH2n+1, †hLv‡b
mvevb w÷qv‡iU Avqb n = 12-18
2R-COO- + Ca2+ (R-COO)2Ca
w÷qv‡iU Avqb A`ªeYxq K¨vjwmqvg jeY
mvev‡bi †mvwWqvg Avqb `ªeYxq †mvwWqvg Kve©‡bU Drcbœ K‡i| †mvwWqv‡gi ¯’‡j mvev‡b cUvwmqvg _vK‡jI
mvevb GKB wewµqv †`q| Li cvwbi g¨vM‡bwmqvg ev Avqib mvev‡bi mv‡_ Abyiƒc wewµqv K‡i| d‡j
K¨vjwmqvg, g¨vM‡bwmqvg I Avqib avZzi nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU, †K¬vivBW I mvj‡dU jeY `ªexf~Z _vK‡j cvwb‡Z
mvev‡bi †dbv Drcbœ nq bv|
cvwb‡Z avZzmg~‡ni nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU jeY `ªexf~Z _vK‡j cvwbi LiZv A¯’vqx ai‡bi| cvwb‡K DËv‡c dzUv‡j
cvwbi A¯’vqx LiZv `~i nq| Acic‡¶ avZzmg~‡ni †K¬vivBW ev mvj‡dU jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z _vK‡j cvwbi LiZv
mn‡R `~ixf~Z Kiv hvq bv| cvwbi ¯’vqx LiZv `~i Kivi K‡qKwU c×wZ n‡jv:
1. †mvWv c×wZ 2. cvigywUU c×wZ 3. Avqb wewbgq †iwRb c×wZ BZ¨vw`
g„`y cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z K¨vjwmqvg, g¨vM‡bwmqvg, Avqib Avqb _v‡K bv| d‡j g„`y cvwb‡Z mvev‡bi cÖPzi †dbv nq|
mvaviYZ e× Rjvkq †hgb, cyKzi, †Wvevi cvwb g„`y nq| e„wói cvwb Lye fv‡jv g„`y cvwb| g„`y cvwb‡Z Zvc w`‡j
†Kv‡bv Zjvwb R‡g bv|
wk¶v_©xi KvR
x Li cvwb eënv‡ii myweav I Amyweavi Zzjbv Ki|
x wkí‡¶‡Î Li cvwb eënv‡i SuzwK I m¤¢ve¨ Avw_©K ¶wZ we‡kølY Ki|
x cyKzi, wUDeI‡qj Giƒc Ab¨vb¨ K‡qKwU Drm †_‡K cvwb msMÖn Ki| AZtci GB cvwb‡Z mvevb
eënvi K‡i nvZ ay‡q Drcbœ †dbvi cwigv‡Yi wfwË‡Z Li cvwb I g„`y cvwb wPwýZ Ki|
Bw½Z
Amyweav : KvcoKvPv - mvev‡bi †dbv Drcbœ nq bv I Zjvwb c‡o| eqjvi/Mig cvwbi cvBc- 1.Zvc w`‡j
Zjvwb c‡o; 2.cyiæZ¡ e„w× cvIqvq Zvc Kg/†ewk cÖ‡qvRb; 3.cyiæ‡Z¡i cwieZ©‡bi Kvi‡Y eqjvi ewWi
m¤úªmviY|
myweav : ùvZ I nvo - Li cvwbi Dcv`vb|
9.16 cvwb `~lY

eZ©gv‡b evsjv‡`‡k AwaKvsk gvbyl wUDeI‡q‡ji cvwb cvb K‡i| kni GjvKvq wmwU K‡c©v‡ikb ev †cŠimfv
f~Mf©¯’ cvwb Zz‡j ev b`xi cvwb cwi‡kvab K‡i Lvevi cvwb wn‡m‡e cvBcjvB‡bi gva¨‡g mieivn K‡i|
cvBcjvB‡b Î“wUi Kvi‡Y mieivn Kiv cvwb‡Z gqjv I bvbv †ivMRxevYy _v‡K| kn‡ii †jv‡Kiv GB cvwb
fv‡jvg‡Zv dzwU‡q ev DbœZgvb wdëv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ gqjv I RxevYygy³ K‡i cvb K‡i|
148 imvqb
evsjv‡`‡k b`x, Lvj-wej, cyKzi BZ¨vw` Rjvk‡qi cvwb bvbvfv‡e `~wlZ n‡”Q| M„n¯’vwj eR©¨ I gjg~Î e„wói
cvwb‡Z ay‡q GB mKj Rjvk‡q co‡Q| nvmcvZvj-eR©¨ I †ivMxi Kvco-†Pvco †avqvi gva¨‡g ev e„wói cvwb‡Z
ay‡q cvwb `~wlZ n‡”Q| Î“wUc~Y© †bŠhv‡bi †Zj PzB‡q cvwb `~wlZ n‡”Q| K…wl‡¶‡Î eëüZ mvi I KxUbvkK e„wói
cvwb‡Z ay‡q gy³ Rjvk‡q co‡Q| Avgv‡ì †`‡k wkí-KviLvbv¸‡jv †_‡K †Kv‡bviKg cÖwµqvKiY QvovB wkí
eR©¨ Rjvk‡q †djv n‡”Q| g¨v½vwbR, †µvwgqvg, K¨vWwgqvg BZ¨vw` `~lK c`v‡_©i AšÍf©y³| fvix avZzmg~n gvbe
†`‡n K¨vÝvi m„wó K‡i| e‡R©ï mvjwdDwiK GwmW cvwbi pH gvb n«vm K‡i| d‡j RjR Rx‡ei eskwe¯Ívi
Kg‡Z _v‡K| cvwb gqjv nq I `yM©Ü Qovq|
gvby‡li Kg©Kv‡Êi d‡j wewfbœ cÖvK…wZK `~lK c`v‡_©i gva¨‡g f~-Mf©¯’ cvwb I f~-DcwiZ‡ji cvwb `~wlZ n‡”Q|
†hgb, AMfxi bjK~‡ci mvnv‡h¨ AwZwi³ cvwb D‡Ëvj‡bi d‡j Ges AwZwi³ Lb‡bi d‡j f~-Mf©¯’ cvwb‡Z
Av‡m©wbK `~lY †`Lv w`‡q‡Q| evsjv‡`‡ki AwaKvsk GjvKvi wUDeI‡q‡ji cvwb‡Z MÖnY‡hvM¨ gvÎvi (0.01
wg.MÖv./wjUvi) †P‡q A‡bK †ewk cwigv‡Y Av‡m©wbK cvIqv hv‡”Q| Av‡m©wbK GKwU welv³ c`v_©| `xN©w`b
Av‡m©wbKhy³ cvwb cvb Ki‡j g„ZzÏ n‡Z cv‡i| nvZ-cv‡q ¶Z m„wói gva¨‡g GB msµg‡Yi cÖv_wgK j¶Y
cÖKvk cvq| eZ©gv‡b Rb¯^v¯’¨ cÖ‡KŠkj Awa`ßi Av‡m©wbK `~lYhy³ wUDeI‡q‡ji gy‡L jvj is K‡i w`‡q‡Q|
Av‡m©wbKhy³ cvwb w`‡q †mP †Ìqvi d‡j gy³ Rjvk‡qi cvwbI `~wlZ n‡”Q| Lv`¨P‡µ Av‡m©wbK hy³ n‡q hv‡”Q|
wk¶v_©xi KvR:
x †Zvgvi GjvKvi cvwb `~l‡Yi KviY wbY©q K‡i GKwU cÖwZ‡e`b ˆZwi Ki|
9.17 `~lY wbqš¿Y

Avgv‡ì †`‡k eo kn‡i eR©¨ †kvabvMv‡ii eë¯’v Av‡Q| hwÌ Zv cÖ‡qvR‡bi Zzjbvq AcÖZzj| cqtcÖYvjxi eR©¨
Ges cPbkxj M„n¯’vwj eR©¨ †_‡K ev‡qvM¨vm-we`y¨r Drcv`‡bi cvkvcvwk ˆRemvi cvIqv hvq| G wel‡q h_vh_
D‡`¨vM wb‡j cwi‡ek I cvwb `~lY n«vm cv‡e| MÖvgvÂ‡j †Lvjv cvqLvbvi cwie‡Z© wis j¨vwUªb eë¯’v wbwðZ Ki‡Z
n‡e| †QvU †QvU ev‡qvM¨vm cøv›U ¯’vcb K‡i gvbyl I cïcvwLi gjg~Î I cPbkxj M„n¯’vwj eR©¨ eënvi K‡i
ev‡qvM¨vm I ˆRemvi cvIqv hv‡e| hv Avgv‡ì R¡vjvwbmsKU n«vm I K…wl‡¶‡Î mv‡ii LiP Kgv‡Z mvnvh¨ Ki‡e|
ev‡qvM¨vm cøv›U m¤¢e bv n‡j evwoi GK †Kvbvq MZ© K‡i Zv‡Z AveR©bv †dj‡e Ges c‡P †M‡j ˆRemvi wn‡m‡e
eënvi Ki‡e|
cÖ‡Z¨K wkíKviLvbvq eR©¨ cwi‡kvabvMvi ¯’vcb eva¨Zvg~jK| †Kv‡bv Ae¯’v‡ZB wkíKviLvbvi eR©¨ mivmwi
Db¥y³ Rjvk‡q †djv hv‡e bv| G wel‡q †Zvgiv m‡PZb _vK‡e| cwi‡ek Awa`ßi‡K Z_¨ w`‡q mnvqZv Ki‡e|
g‡b ivL‡e evsjv‡`‡ki g‡Zv †`‡k msMwVZ Rbm‡PZbZv I RbgZB cvwb `~lY †iv‡ai me‡P‡q Kvh©Ki Dcvq|
9.18 cvwbi weï×Zvi cix¶v

eY© I MÜ ch©‡e¶Y: weï× cvwb eY©nxb, I MÜnxb ¯^”Q Zij c`v_©| G‡Z mvgvb¨ cwigvY LwbR jeY `ªexf~Z
_v‡K| †Kv‡bv LwbR jeY AwaKgvÎvq `ªexf~Z _vK‡j cvwb `~wlZ ejv hvq| mvaviY ch©‡e¶‡Y cvwb‡Z MÜ cvIqv
†M‡j ev †Nvjv‡U †`Lv †M‡j A_ev wdëvi †ccv‡i QuvKv n‡j Zjvwb ev Ae‡kl cvIqv †M‡j cvwb `~wlZ|
imvqb 149
cvwbi ZvcgvÎv: MÖx®§Kv‡j cvwbi ZvcgvÎv 30-35qC nq| KL‡bv Zv 40qC n‡Z cv‡i| †Kv‡bv Kvi‡Y cvwbi
ZvcgvÎv K‡qK wWwMÖ †ewk n‡j Zvc`~lY n‡q‡Q ejv hvq| we`y¨r‡K‡›`ªi hš¿cvwZ VvÊv Kivi cvwb ev eqjv‡ii
Mig cvwb mivmwi Rjvk‡q gy³ Kiv n‡j cvwbi Zvc`~lY nq| _v‡g©vwgUvi w`‡q cvwbi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q K‡i Zvc
`~lY kbv³ Kiv hvq|
cvwbi pH gvb: cvwbi pH gvb 4.5 †_‡K Kg Ges 9.5 A‡c¶v †ewk n‡j Zv Rx‡ei Rb¨ cÖvYbvkK| pH
†ccvi ev pH wgUvi eënvi K‡i pH gvb wbY©q Kiv hvq|
weIwW (BOD; Biological Oxygen Demand): BOD gv‡b ˆReivmvqwbK Aw·‡R‡bi Pvwn`v| †Kv‡bv
cvwb‡Z (BOD) gvb †ewk n‡j H cvwb `~wlZ| evqyi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z cvwb‡Z Dcw¯’Z mKj ˆRe e¯‘‡K fvO‡Z †h
cwigvY Aw·‡Rb cÖ‡qvRb Zv weIwW|
wmIwW (COD; Chemical oxygen Demand): COD gv‡b ivmvqwbK Aw·‡Rb Pvwn`v| cvwb‡Z †gvU
KZUzKz ivmvwbK `ªe¨ Av‡Q Zvnv eySv‡bvi Rb¨ (COD) gvb eënvi Kiv nq| we‡klfv‡e b`x-bvjv-wS‡ji
cvwb‡Z ˆRe `~lK (Organic Polutants) -Gi gvÎv †g‡c cvwbi ¸Yv¸Y we‡kølY Kiv nq| cvwbi COD gvb
†ewk n‡j cvwb`~l‡Yi gvÎv †ewk nq|
BOD I COD †K wgwjMÖvg/wjUvi ev wcwcGg (ppm: Parts per million) GK‡K cÖKvk Kiv nq|
1 ppm = cÖwZ wjUvi `ªe‡Y 1 wgwjMÖvg `ªe
9.19 cvwb weï×KiY

†K¬vwi‡bkb: cvwb‡K RxevYygy³ Kivi me‡P‡q mnR Dcvq n‡jv †K¬vwi‡bkb| cvwb‡Z wbw`©ó cwigvY weøwPs cvDWvi
†hvM Ki‡j Drcbœ †K¬vwib RxevYy‡K RvwiZ K‡i †g‡i †d‡j|
Ca(OCl)Cl + H2O Ca(OH)2 + 2[Cl]
RxevYy + 2[Cl] RvwiZ RxevYy

cvwb‡Z weøwPs cvDWvi †hvM Kivi ci †Qu‡K wb‡j cvwb cvb‡hvM¨ nq|
dzUv‡bv: cvwb‡K A‡bK¶Y (15-20 wgwbU) a‡i dzUv‡j RxevYygy³ nq| D‡jøL¨ Av‡m©wbKhy³ cvwb‡K dzUv‡j Zv
Av‡iv ¶wZKi n‡e|
w_Zv‡bv: GK evjwZ cvwb‡Z 1 PvgP wdUwKwi [K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O] ¸uov †hvM K‡i AvavNÈv †i‡L
w`‡j cvwbi mKj Ac`ªe¨ w_wZ‡q evjwZi Zjvq Rgv nq| AZtci Dci †_‡K cvwb Ab¨ cv‡Î †X‡j c„_K Kiv
nq| Gfv‡e A`ªeYxq `~lK `~i Kiv hvq|
QuvKb: eZ©gv‡b evRv‡i RxevYy, Av‡m©wbK I Ab¨vb¨ `~lY gy³ Ki‡Z wdëvi cvIqv hvq| GB wdëvi w`‡q †Qu‡K
wb‡q cvb‡hvM¨ weï× cvwb cvIqv hvq|
150 imvqb
A¨vmvBb‡g›U:
x†Zvgvi wb‡Ri pH †ccvi ˆZwi Ki|
iwOb kvK-mewR †hgb, jvj kvK, jvj euvavKwc, weU BZ¨vw` ev iwOb dzj †hgb, i³Rev, jvj †Mvjvc,
Wvwjqv Gi †h †Kv‡bv GKwU bvI| †QvU †QvU K‡i Kv‡Uv| nvjKv Auv‡P fv‡c wm× Ki| †h iwOb wbh©vm cvIqv
hv‡e Zv‡Z GK UzKiv wdëvi †ccvi WzevI| evZv‡m †i‡L ïwK‡q bvI| AZtci wPKb wPKb K‡i †K‡U bvI|
ˆZwi n‡jv †Zvgvi wb‡Ri pH †ccvi| GB †ccvi Rvbv pH gvb `ªe‡Y Wzwe‡q pH cwim‡ii Kvjvi PvU© ˆZwi
Ki| G fv‡e †Zvgvi c‡¶ m¤¢e meKqwU mewR ev dzj w`‡q pH †ccvi ˆZwi Ki| me‡P‡q DrK…ówU
eënv‡ii Rb¨ wbe©vPb Ki|
Abykxjbx
1. Pzbvcv_‡ii Dci jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW †hvM Ki‡j wb‡Pi †Kvb †hŠMwU Drcbœ n‡e?
K. CO2 L. H2
M. O2 N. SO2
2. wb‡Pi †KvbwU ¶vi?
K. †Kvgj cvbxq L. †jeyi im
M. wmiKv N. KvcoKvPv †mvWv
3. wb‡Pi †KvbwUi Dcw¯’wZi Rb¨ A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨v‡mi Rjxq `ªeY ¶vi?
K. NH4+ Avqb L. OH- Avqb
M. NH3 N. H2O
4. GKwU ARvbv avZzi mv‡_ bvBwUªK Gwm‡Wi wewµqvq eY©nxb `ªeY Drcbœ nq| Drcbœ `ªeYwU‡Z †mvwWqvg
nvBWª·vBW `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡¶c Drcbœ nq wKš‘ AwaK cwigvY †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY
†hvM Ki‡j Zv-I `ªexf~Z n‡q hvq| avZzwU-
K. Kcvi L. Avqib
M. †jW N. wRsK
5. GKwU B_vbwqK GwmW `ªe‡Yi pH -Gi gvb 4, pH -Gi gvb e„w× Kivi Rb¨ G‡Z †hvM Ki‡Z n‡eÑ
i. A¨v‡gvwbqv `ªeY
ii. Nb nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW
iii. KwVb g¨vM‡bwmqvg Kve©‡bU
imvqb 151

K. i I ii L. i I iii
M. ii I iii N. i, ii I iii
m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1.
X
NH4Cl
I
CaO
K. NO2 M¨v‡mi eY© Kx?

L. Pz‡bi cvwbi pH -Gi gvb 7 †_‡K †ewk bv Kg n‡e? e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. ÔXÕ M¨vmwUi Rjxq `ªe‡Yi GKwU ivmvqwbK ag© e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. Avqib je‡Yi Rjxq `ªe‡Yi g‡a¨ ÔXÕ M¨vm Pvjbv Ki‡j Kx NU‡e? mgxKiYmn wjL|
2. †U·UvBj wgj I Wvwqs wkí, is I mvjwdDwiK GwmWhy³ eR©¨ mivmwi wbKU¯’ Rjvk‡q †dj‡Q| d‡j H
mKj Rjvkq RjR cÖvYxi emev‡mi Abychy³ n‡q co‡Q|
K. †ZuZz‡j †Kvb GwmW _v‡K?
L. DÏxc‡Ki Rjvk‡qi pH gvb m¤ú‡K© †Zvgvi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. †U·UvBj wgj I Wvwqs wk‡íi `~lY wbqš¿Y cøv‡›U GwmW `~lY wbqš¿‡Y †hŠw³K civgk© `vI|
N. †U·UvBj wgj I Wvwqs wk‡íi Av‡kcv‡k GwmWe„wói m¤¢vebv wewµqvmn we‡kølY Ki|
`kg Aa¨vq
LwbR m¤ú` : avZz-AavZz
evsjv‡`‡ki †bÎ‡Kvbv †Rjvi `yM©vcyi Dc‡Rjvi weRqcyi, †Mvcvjcyi Ab¨Zg ch©Ub †K›`ª| GLv‡b bqbvwfivg
†j‡Ki cv‡k mv`v gvwUi cvnvo †`Lv hvq| †KIwjb ev A¨vjywgwbqvg mg„× GB gvwU wmivwgK KviLvbvq eën„Z
nq| ïi“‡Z Pxb †`‡ki †jv‡Kiv GB iKg gvwU eënvi Ki‡Zv e‡j GB gvwU‡K Pxbv gvwU ev Pvqbv †K¬ ejv nq|
mPivPi Kv‡jv ev a~mi Ges jvj gvwU †`Lv hvq| cÖwZ †¶‡Î gvwUi êwkó¨ wfbœ wfbœ| GB wfbœZvi KviY gvwU‡Z
wewfbœ Lwb‡Ri Dcw¯’wZ|
GB Aa¨v‡qi cvV †k‡l Avgiv- weRqcy‡ii mv`v gvwUi cvnvo

(1) LwbR m¤ú‡ì aviYv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) wkjv, LwbR I AvKwi‡Ki g‡a¨ Zzjbv Ki‡Z cvie|
(3) avZzmg~n wb®‹vk‡bi Dchy³ Dcvq wba©viY Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) avZzmsKi ˆZwii KviY e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(5) mvjdv‡ii Drm Ges G‡ì KwZcq cÖ‡qvRbxq †hŠM cÖ¯‘‡Zi wewµqv, ivmvqwbK a‡g©i eY©bv Ges M„‡n,
wk‡í I K…wl‡¶‡Î Zv eënv‡ii ¸i“Z¡ we‡kølY Ki‡Z cvie|
(6) LwbR `ª‡eï mmxgZv, h_vh_ eënvi I cybteënv‡ii ¸i“Z¡ we‡kølY Ki‡Z cvie|
(7) LwbR `ª‡eï eënv‡i mZK©Zv Ges msi¶‡Y AvMÖn cÖ`k©b Kie|
imvqb 153
10.1 LwbR m¤ú`

c„w_exi Dcwifv‡Mi gvwUi AveiY n‡jv f~Z¡K| f~Z¡‡K Dcw¯’Z ¸i“Z¡c~Y© †gŠjmg~‡ni kZKiv nvi cvB Pv‡U©
(wPÎ-10.1) Dc¯’vcb Kiv n‡jv| PvU©wU ch©v‡jvPbv K‡i wb‡Pi cÖkœ¸‡jvi DËi †Ìqvi †Póv Ki|
†Kvb `yBwU †gŠj f~Z¡‡Ki cÖavb Dcv`vb? g¨vM‡bwmqvg
†mvwWqvg 2%
3% Ab¨vb¨
f~Z¡‡Ki cÖavb Dcv`vb `yBwU avZz bv AavZz? cUvwmqvg 2%
3%
A¨vjywgwbqvg, Avqib, K¨vjwmqvg, cUvwmqvg, †mvwWqvg I K¨vjwmqvg Aw·‡Rb
46%
4%
g¨vM‡bwmqvg avZz‡K cÖK…wZ‡Z gy³ Ae¯’vq cvIqv m¤¢e wK Avqib
5%
bv? DË‡ii mc‡¶ hyw³ `vI? [avZzmg~‡ni ivmvqwbK A¨vjywgwbqvg
8%
wmwjKb
mwµqZv we‡ePbv Ki‡e|] 27%
†mvwWqvg I K¨vjwmqv‡gi †hŠ‡Mi bvg I ms‡KZ †jL, wPÎ 10.1 : f~Z¡‡Ki cÖavb cÖavb Dcv`vb
hv‡ì cÖK…wZ‡Z cvIqv hvq|
cÖK…wZ‡Z mwµq avZzmg~‡ni †hŠM cÖPzi cwigv‡Y cvIqv hvq| †hgb, evwj (†KvqvU©R; wmwjKb WvB A·vBW,
SiO2), Lvevi jeY (†mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW ; NaCl), Pzbvcv_i (K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU; CaCO3)| Acic‡¶ Kg
mwµq avZzi †hŠM Lye Kg cvIqv hvq| d‡j Kg mwµq avZz †hgb, wmjfvi (Ag), Kcvi (Cu), wRsK (Zn), wUb
(Sn) Ges †jW (Pb) BZ¨vw` g~jëvb| wbw®Œq avZz †hgb ¯^Y©‡K (Au) cÖK…wZ‡Z gy³ Ae¯’vq cvIqv †M‡jI Zv
cÖvq weij| G Rb¨ ¯^Y© AZ¨šÍ g~jëvb| cÖK…wZ‡Z cvIqv hvq Ggb 98wU †gŠ‡ji Pvi fv‡Mi wZb fvMB avZz|
avZzi KZ¸‡jv PgrKvi êwkó¨ Av‡Q| †h Rb¨ avZzi eënvi GZ e¨vcK| avZzi êwkó¨mg~n n‡jv-
K. NvZmnbxqZv (avZz‡K wcwU‡q †h †Kv‡bv AvKvi †Ìqv hvq)
L. bgbxqZv (avZz‡K wcwU‡q mi“ Zv‡i cwiYZ Kiv hvq)
M. D¾¡jZv (avZzi we‡kl `y¨wZ Av‡Q| Giv Av‡jv we”QziY K‡i)
N. cwievwnZv (avZzmg~n Zvc I we`y¨r my-cwievnx)
O. avZe kã (AvNv‡Z avZz Uzb Uzb kã K‡i)
P. MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK (avZz D”P MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK wewkó)
Q. NbZ¡ (avZzmg~‡ni NbZ¡ AvavZzi Zzjbvq †ewk)|
cÖK…wZ‡Z avZzi gZ AavZzmg~nI †hŠM wn‡m‡e Ae¯’vb K‡i| Z‡e †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv AavZz †hgb, mvjdvi gy³ †gŠj
wn‡m‡e cvIqv hvq|
10.2 wkjv (Rock)

AwaKvsk wkjv KZ¸‡jv k³ KYvi wgkÖ‡Y m„wó n‡q‡Q| wewfbœ LwbR c`v_© wgwkÖZ n‡q GB KYv¸‡jv ˆZwi
n‡q‡Q| wkjv memgq GK iKg _v‡K bv| AvenvIqvi mv‡_ mv‡_ A_©vr ZvcgvÎv, e„wó, Kzqvkv, So, evqy cÖevn
BZ¨vwì Kvi‡Y wkjv ¶qcÖvß nq| Pzbvcv_i (K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU) e„wói cvwb‡Z ay‡q mvM‡i hvq| †mLv‡b
Zjvwb R‡g Pzbv cv_i I †e‡j cv_i m„wó nq| Zjvwb wewfbœ ¯Í‡i Rgv nq| GRb¨ wkjv‡Z wewfbœ ¯Íi †`Lv
hvq| wUjv ev ce©ZQov‡ZI Zzwg wewfbœ ¯Íi †`L‡Z cv‡e| wm‡g›U RvZxq c`v_© K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU ¶z`ª
154 imvqb
KYv¸‡jv‡K k³ K‡i a‡i †i‡L cv_i ev wkjvq cwiYZ K‡i| GB wkjv cvjwjK wkjv| g„Z mvgyw`ªK cÖevj ev
wSbyK-kvgy‡Ki †Lvmv Zjvwb‡Z R‡g Pzbvcv_‡i cwiYZ nq| †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv wkjv f~M‡f©i A‡bK Mfx‡i _v‡K|
f~M‡f©i D”P Zv‡c wkjv M‡j hvq| GB MwjZ Ae¯’v‡K g¨vMgv e‡j| g¨vMgv VvÊv n‡j cybivq KwVb wkjvq cwiYZ
nq| GB wkjv‡K Av‡Mœq wkjv e‡j| GB wkjv¸‡jv‡Z A‡bK mgq g~jëvb LwbR m¤ú` cvIqv hvq| Avevi KL‡bv
Zv †KejB †e‡j cv_i|
10.3 `ªexf~Z Zjvwbi ¯Íi m„wói cix¶v
`yBwU 100 wg.wj. AvqZ‡bi weKvi bvI| weKvi
`ywU‡Z 70 wg.wj. cwigvY cvwb bvI| Gevi
GKwU weKv‡i cwi®‹vi evwj Ges AciwU‡Z GK
gywV gvwU †hvM Ki| `ywU weKv‡ii wgkÖY‡K
GKwU bvovwb KvwV w`‡q fvjfv‡e wgwk‡q `vI|
bvov‡bv eÜ K‡i weKvi `y‡Uv fv‡jvfv‡e j¶
Ki| weKvi `ywU ch©‡e¶‡Yi wfwË‡Z wP‡Îi
cvnvowUi MVb e¨vL¨v Ki|
10.4 LwbR (Mineral) wPÎ 10.2 : wkjv MV‡bi cix¶v ¯Í‡i ¯Í‡i web¨¯Í Pxbv gvwUi cvnvo
g~jëvb avZz I AavZzmg~n c„w_exi me©Î
weivwRZ _vK‡jI f~c„‡ô ev f~M‡f© †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv wkjv¯Z‚‡c cÖPzi cwigv‡Y †hŠM A_ev gy³ †gŠj wn‡m‡e g~jëvb
avZz ev AavZz cvIqv hvq| G¸‡jv‡K LwbR e‡j| LwbR c`v_© wewfbœ A‡_© wewfbœ cÖKv‡ii| †gŠj I †hŠM we‡ePbvq
LwbR c`v_© `yB cÖKvi| h_v : †gŠwjK LwbR I †hŠwMK LwbR|
†gŠwjK LwbR : ¯^Y©, nxiv, MÜK, BZ¨vw` c`v_©‡K cÖK…wZ‡Z †gŠwjK c`v_© i~‡c cvIqv hvq| G Rb¨ G¸‡jv
†gŠwjK LwbR|
†hŠwMK LwbR : †gŠwjK LwbR ev` w`‡j evwK mKj LwbR †hŠwMK LwbR| G‡ì‡K †hŠM wn‡m‡e cvIqv hvq|
D`vniY : M¨v‡jbv (PbS), e·vBU (Al2O3.2H2O)
†fŠZ Ae¯’v we‡ePbvq LwbR wZb cÖKvi| h_v, 1. KwVb LwbR, 2. Zij LwbR I 3. M¨vmxq LwbR|
KwVb LwbR : KwVb Ae¯’vq cvIqv hvq| †hgb, g¨vM‡bUvBU , e·vBU , mvjdvi ev MÜK BZ¨vw`|
Zij LwbR : gvK©vwi ev cvi` , †c‡Uªvwjqvg|
M¨vmxq LwbR : cÖvK…wZK M¨vm|
10.5 LwbR m¤ú‡ì Ae¯’vb (Position of mineral resources)

c~‡e© f~Mf©‡K LwbR c`v‡_©i Drm wn‡m‡e Kíbv Kiv n‡Zv| wKš‘ G aviYv‡K Avi mwVK ejv hv‡”Q bv|
†bÎ‡Kvbvi weRq cy‡ii mv`v gvwU ev †KIwjb f~c„‡ô wUjv i~‡c we`¨gvb| K·evRvi mgy`ª DcK~‡ji evwj †_‡K
wRiKb-wRi‡Kvwbqv‡gi AvKwiK, i“UvBj-UvBUvwbqv‡gi AvKwiK Ges †gvbvRvBU-†_vwiqv‡gi AvKwiK BZ¨vw`
g~jëvb LwbR AvniY Kiv nq| †jvnv ev Avqi‡bi LwbR-†ngvUvBU, A¨vjywgwbqv‡gi LwbR-e·vBU ev Kqjvi
g‡Zv LwbR f~Z¡‡K cvIqv hvq| Avevi A‡bK LwbR Avni‡Yi Rb¨ MZ© Luy‡o f~Z¡‡Ki A‡bK Mfx‡i †h‡Z nq|
imvqb 155
10.6 AvKwiK (Ore)

mKj LwbR †_‡K jvfRbKfv‡e avZz wb®‹vkb Kiv hvq bv| †h mKj LwbR †_‡K jvfRbKfv‡e avZz wb®‹vkb
Kiv hvq Zv‡K AvKwiK e‡j| cÖK…wZRvZ AvKwi‡Ki êwkó¨ n‡jv G‡ì ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb mywbw`©ó| †hgb,
g¨vM‡bUvBU me©`vB weï× _v‡K Avevi e·vB‡U me©`vB Av`©ªZv _v‡K| Lwb‡Z AvKwi‡Ki mv‡_ evwj, cv_i,
Kv`vgvwU I Ab¨vb¨ AcÖ‡qvRbxq c`v_©, Ac`ªe ev †fRvj wn‡m‡e _v‡K| GB Ac`ªe‡K LwbRgj e‡j|
10.7 avZz wb®‹vkb
AwaKvsk avZzi AvKwiK cÖK…wZ‡Z wewfbœ avZe †hŠM wn‡m‡e _v‡K| wewfbœ avZe †hŠ‡M avZzmg~n Mn+ Avqb
wn‡m‡e _v‡K| †hLv‡b n avZzi †hvR¨Zv| GB avZe Avqb‡K weRvwiZ K‡i, AvKwiK †_‡K cÖ‡qvRbxq avZz
wb®‹vkb Kiv nq| AvKwiK †_‡K avZz wb®‹vkb mvaviYZ
cuvPwU av‡c m¤úbœ nq| h_v- 1. AvKwiK weP~Y©b 2.
AvKwi‡Ki NbxKiY, 3. NbxK…Z AvKwiK‡K A·vB‡W
iƒcvšÍi, 4. avZe A·vBW‡K gy³ avZz‡Z iƒcvšÍi Ges 5.
avZz we‡kvab| Z‡e AvKwi‡Ki êwkó¨ Abymv‡i avZz
wb®‹vk‡bi avc wba©viY Kiv nq| mKj AvKwi‡Ki Rb¨
mKj avc cÖ‡qvRb nq bv|
1. AvKwiK weP~Y©b
cÖK…wZ‡Z AwaKvsk AvKwiK wekvj wekvj wkjv LÊ wn‡m‡e wPÎ 10.3 : AvKwiK weP~Y©b
cvIqv hvq| GB wekvj wkjv LÊ‡K †f‡O ¶z`ª ¶z`ª KYvq
iƒcvšÍi Kiv nq hv‡Z cieZ©x‡Z ivmvqwbK wewµqv msMVb mnR nq| G Rb¨ cÖ_‡g †Rv µvkv‡i AvKwiK‡K †QvU
†QvU UzKiv Kiv nq Ges cieZ©x‡Z ej µvkv‡i cvDWv‡i cwiYZ Kiv nq|
2. AvKwi‡Ki NbxKiY
weP~wY©Z AvKwi‡Ki g‡a¨ gvwU, evwj, cv_i, Pzbvcv_i
Ges KwZcq AavZz †fRvj wn‡m‡e _v‡K| G¸‡jv‡K
LwbRgj e‡j| AvKwiK †_‡K LwbRgj `~i Kivi
K‡qKwU c×wZ wb‡P eY©bv Kiv n‡jv|
K. AwfKl© e‡ji mnvqZvq c„_KxKiY: avZzi AvKwiK
Ges gvwU, evwj, cv_i, Pzbvcv_i, KwZcq AavZz BZ¨vw`
LwbRg‡ji Av‡cw¶K ¸i“Z¡ wfbœ wfbœ| weP~wY©Z AvKwi‡K wPÎ 10.4 : avZz wb®‹vk‡b AwfKl© e‡ji
cvwb †hv‡M Av‡jvwoZ Kiv nq ev Pjgvb cvwbi avivq eënvi (avZz wb®‹vk‡bi mgq AvKwiK Gi
†aŠZ Kiv nq| G‡Z nvjKv LwbRgj¸‡jv ay‡q P‡j hvq g‡a¨ hvwš¿K Dcv‡q cvwb cÖevwnZ Kiv nq)
Ges LwbR Nbxf~Z nq|
L. †Zj †dbv fvmgvb c×wZ: GB c×wZwU mvaviYZ
mvjdvBW AvKwiK NbxKi‡Y eëüZ nq| mvjdvBW AvKwiK mn‡R †Zj wm³ nq| weP~wY©Z AvKwiK GKwU eo
Mvgjvq wb‡q G‡Z cvwb †hvM K‡i Aí cwigv‡Y Dchy³ †Zj wgkv‡bv nq| AZtci cvwb‡Z evqy cÖev‡ni mvnv‡h¨
Av‡jvob m„wó Kiv nq| mvjdvBW AvKwiKmg~n †Zj wm³ n‡q cvwbi Dc‡i †dbvi g‡Zv †f‡m D‡V| †dbvmn
AvKwiK c„_K K‡i †bIqv nq| LwbRgj cv‡Îi Zjvq c‡o _v‡K|
156 imvqb
†Zj †dbv fvmgvb cªYvjxi cix¶v :
c×wZ
DcKiY:
1. GK †¯úPzjv LwbR ¸u‡ovi mv‡_
x evwj mgcwigvY evwj †gkvI|
wgkÖYwU‡K eo †U÷wUD‡e wb‡q
x †K‡ivwmb ˆZjv³ ¯—i cvwb w`‡q A‡a©K c~Y© Ki|
x †¯úPzjv 2. †U÷wUD‡ei gy‡L wQwc jvwM‡q
SuvKvI| evwj Ges LwbR wK
x Zij/¸uov mvevb c„_K n‡q‡Q?
x IqvP Møvm 3. †U÷wUD‡e GKUz Zij/¸uov
mvevb Ges K‡qK‡duvUv
x wQwcmn GKwU eo †U÷wUDe
†K‡ivwmb †hvM Ki|
x †Pj‡KvcvBivBU, M¨v‡jbv ev 4. †U÷wUD‡ei gy‡L wQwc jvwM‡q cybivq
†ngvUvBU AvKwiK ¸u‡ov wPÎ 10.5 : †Zj †dbv fv‡jv K‡i SuvKvI|
fvmgvb cÖYvjx 5. †¯úPzjv w`‡q wKQzUv †dbv IqvP Møv‡m wb‡q
cix¶v Ki G‡Z LwbR Av‡Q wK bv?
6. evwj Zjvwb‡Z c‡o _v‡K wKš‘ LwbR
†U÷ wUD‡ei Dc‡ii As‡k fvmgvb _v‡K|
ggšÍe¨ Ki
Kxfv‡e IqvP Møv‡m †dbv †_‡K ï®‹ AvKwiK cvIqv hv‡e?
AvKwi‡Ki mv‡_ wgwkÖZ evwji †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b n‡e wK?
Kxfv‡e Ki‡j cix¶vwU Av‡iv fv‡jv fv‡e m¤úbœ Kiv hv‡e?
M. †PŠ¤^Kxq c„_KxKiY : AvKwiK ev LwbRg‡ji †Kv‡bv
GKwUi hw` †PŠ¤^K ag© _v‡K Zvn‡j GB c×wZ eënvi Kiv
nq| G‡Z GKwU cøvw÷‡Ki ˆZwi †e‡ëi Dci w`‡q P~wY©K…Z
AvKwiK Pvjbv Kiv nq| †e‡ëi evwn‡ii w`‡Ki PvKwZwU A‡PŠ¤^Kxq †PŠ¤^Kxq
Dcv`vb Dcv`vb
†PŠ¤^K ag© wewkó| †µvgvBU; FeO.Cr2O3, Djd«vgvBU;
FeWO4, i“UvBj; TiO2 BZ¨vw` †PŠ¤^K ag© wewkó wPÎ 10.6 : †PŠ¤^Kxq c„_KxKiY
AvKwiK|
N. ivmvqwbK c×wZ : AvKwi‡Ki êwk‡óï wfwË‡Z G c×wZ cÖ‡qvM Kiv nq| G c×wZ‡Z GKwU Dchy³
`ªve‡K AvKwi‡Ki Kvw•¶Z Dcv`vb‡K `ªexf~Z Kiv nq| `ªeY‡K †Qu‡K wb‡q LwbRgj c„_K Kiv nq| AZtci
`ªeY †_‡K Dchy³ c×wZ‡Z NbxK…Z AvKwiK msMÖn Kiv nq| †hgb, A¨vjywgwbqv‡gi AvKwiK e·vB‡Ui mv‡_
Avqib A·vBW, UvBUvwbqvg A·vBW, evwj BZ¨vw` wgwkÖZ _v‡K| e·vBU‡K †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY †hv‡M
1500-2000oC ZvcgvÎvq DËß Kiv n‡j e·vBU `ªexf~Z nq Ges Avqib A·vBW, UvBUvwbqvg A·vBW BZ¨vw`
`ªexf~Z nq bv| `ªeYwU †Qu‡K LwbRgj ev` †Ìqv nq|
Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H 2O
imvqb 157
cwikÖ“Z‡K cvwb †hv‡M DËß Ki‡j A¨vjywgwbqvg nvBWª·vBW Aatw¶ß nq| D”P ZvcgvÎvq DËß Ki‡j
A¨vjywgwbqvg nvBWª·vBW A¨vjywgbvq i~cvšÍwiZ nq|
NaAlO2 + 2H2O Al(OH)3 + NaOH
2Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3H2O
3. NbxK…Z AvKwiK‡K A·vB‡W iƒcvšÍi
NbxK…Z AvKwiK‡K f¯§xKiY ev AcRviY c×wZ‡Z avZzi A·vB‡W cwiYZ Kiv nq|
K. f¯§xKiY: NbxK…Z AvKwiK‡K Mjbvs‡Ki †P‡q Kg ZvcgvÎvqvq evqyi Abycw¯’wZ‡Z DËß Kiv nq| Gi
d‡j AvKwiK †_‡K ˆRe Dcv`vb I Rjxqev®ú `~ixf~Z nq| G cÖwµqvq avZzi Av`©ªA·vBW ev Kve©‡bU, avZe
A·vB‡W cwiYZ nq|
CaCO3 (Pzbv cv_i) CaO + CO2
Al2O3.2H2O (e·vBU) Al2O3 + 2H2O
2Fe2O3.3H2O (wj‡gvbvBU) 2Fe2O3 + 6H2O

L. ZvcRviY : mvaviYZ mvjdvBW AvKwi‡Ki ZvcRviY Kiv nq| mvjdvBW AvKwiK‡K evqy cÖev‡ni Dcw¯’wZ‡Z
MjbvsK ZvcgvÎvi wbgœ ZvcgvÎvq DËß Kiv nq| LwbRgj †hgb, mvjdvi, Av‡m©wbK, dmdivm BZ¨vw` DØvqx
A·vBW i~‡c `~ixf~Z nq|
2ZnS (wRsK †eøÛ) + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2
2PbS (M¨v‡jbv) + 3O2 2PbO + 2SO2
(mveavbZv: Drcbœ mvjdvi WvBA·vBW Rjxqev‡®úi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i Gwm‡W cwiYZ n‡q GwmW e„wói m„wó
Ki‡Z cv‡i|)
†Uwej : avZzi ivmvqwbK mwµqZv Ges avZe Avqb †_‡K avZz Drcv`b †KŠkj|
avZe Avqb avZz Drcv`b †KŠkj
+
wjw_qvg Li
cUvwmqvg K+
K¨vjwmqvg Ca2+
MwjZ AvKwiK ev je‡Yi Zworwe‡kølY
†mvwWqvg Na+
g¨vM‡bwmqvg Mg2+
A¨vjywgwbqvg Al3+
g¨v½vwbR Mn2+
avZzi µgea©gvb mwµqZv
wRsK Zn2+ †KvK Kqjv ev Kve©b g‡bv·vB‡Wi mvnv‡h¨

†µvwgqvg Cr2+, Cr3+ weRviY
Avqib ev †jvnv Fe2+, Fe3+
†jW ev wmmv Pb2+
Kcvi ev Zvgv Cu2+
wmjfvi ev i“cv Ag+ †gŠj wn‡m‡e cvIqv hvq A_ev mvjdvBW ev
gvK©vwi ev cvi` Hg2+ Kve©‡bU AvKwi‡Ki ZvcRviY
cøvwUbvg Pt2+
†Mvì ev ¯^Y© Au+
avZe Avq‡bi B‡jKUªb MÖnY Kivi cÖeYZvi wfwË‡Z mwµqZv wmwiR
158 imvqb
4. avZe A·vBW‡K gy³ avZz‡Z iƒcvšÍi

nvRvi eQi Av‡Mi gvbyl ivmvqwbK wewµqvi aviYv QvovB avZz AvniY Ki‡Z m¶g n‡qwQj| AvKw¯§Kfv‡e gvbyl
avZz †c‡q wM‡qwQj| aviYv Kiv nq AvKwiK mg„× †Kv‡bv wkjv‡K Av¸‡b wb‡¶c K‡iwQj Ges ciewZ©‡Z avZz
†c‡qwQj| G Kv‡R gvby‡li `ywU wRwbm cÖ‡qvRb n‡qwQj| h_v- Av¸b I Kqjv ev Kve©b| †R‡b ivL A‡bK avZzi
AvKwiK avZe A·vBW Ges GB avZe A·vBW‡K Kve©bmn Zvc w`‡j avZz gy³ nq, GB cÖwµqv‡K Kve©b weRviY
e‡j| Kve©b Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ hy³ n‡q Kve©b WvB A·vBW MVb K‡i|
†hgb,
M2On + nC o0nCO
M2On + nCO o2M + nCO2 (GLv‡b n= avZzi †hvR¨Zv)
†hgb,
2PbO(s) + C(s) 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
G cÖwµqv‡K †¯§wës ev AvKwiK Mwj‡q avZz wb®‹vkb ejv nq| G‡Z AvKwi‡Ki avZe Avqb weRvwiZ nq| KviY,
GLv‡b avZzi Avqb B‡jKUªb MÖnY K‡i‡Q| myZivs avZz wb®‹vkb GKwU weRviY cÖwµqv| †jW ev wmmv Avq‡bi
weRviY wewµqvwU wb¤œi~c:
Pb2+ + 2e- Pb(s)
Kcvi ev Zvgv, Avqib ev †jvnv, wRsK ev `¯Ív, g¨v½vwbR Ges †µvwgqvg avZz‡K GB c×wZ‡Z wb®‹vkb Kiv hvq|
GQvovI AwaK mwµq avZzmg~‡ni A·vBW ev Ab¨ avZe †hŠM †_‡K avZz gy³ Kivi Rb¨ Zwor we‡kølY c×wZ eënvi
Kiv nq| Zwor we‡køl‡Yi g~jbxwZ: M2On o2Mn+ + nO2-
MXn oMn+ + nX-
Mn+ + ne-oM
wk¶v_©xi KvR : †jW ev wmmvi A·vBW †_‡K avZe †jW wb®‹vkb| avZe †jW
DcKiY
x njy` e‡Y©i †jW A·vBW
x GK UzKiv mv`v KvMR
x eyb‡mb evb©vi/w¯úwiU j¨v¤ú
x w`qvkjvB‡qi KvwV wPÎ 10.7 : †j‡Wi †hŠM
mZK©Zv
†jW, †jW A·vBW I Gi ev®ú welv³ c`v_©| G‡K Lvwj nv‡Z ¯úk© Ki‡e bv| Gi ev®ú k¦vm-cÖk¦v‡mi mv‡_ †U‡b wb‡e bv|
c×wZ
1. cÖ_‡g evb©v‡ii wkLvwU †QvU K‡i bvI|
2. GKwU w`qvkjvB‡qi KvwV Ggbfv‡e †cvovI †hb evi“‡ì †Kv‡bv Ae‡kl bv _v‡K|
3. w`qvkjvB‡qi KvwVi Kqjv n‡q hvIqv AskwU cvwb‡Z wfwR‡q GKUz †jW A·vBW hy³ Ki|
4. w`qvkjvB‡qi KvwVi †jW A·vBW hy³ gv_vwU evb©v‡ii Av¸‡b ai Ges D¾¡j a~mi e‡Y©i MwjZ †j‡Wi †QvÆ
we›`y m„wó nq wK bv Zv j¶ Ki|
imvqb 159
5. w`qvkjvB‡qi KvwVwU VvÊv n‡Z `vI| G‡K GKwU mv`v KvM‡Ri Dc‡i †i‡L †jW KYv Ly‡R †ei Ki|
cÖ‡qvR‡b GKwU AvZwm KvP (†jÝ) eënvi Ki| ch©‡e¶‡Y hw` †Kv‡bv †jW bv cvIqv hvq Zv n‡j 2-5
av‡ci KvR¸‡jv cybivq Ki|
gšÍe¨ Ki :
1. w`qvkjvB‡qi KvwVi †cvov AskwU cvwb‡Z †fRv‡bvi KviY e¨vL¨v Ki|
2. G‡Z †Kv‡bv ivmvqwbK wewµqv n‡q‡Q wK bv? †Zvgvi DË‡ii c‡¶ hyw³ `vI|
3. wmmv ev †jW gy³ Kivi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq Kve©b †Kv_v †_‡K G‡jv?
4. K_vq I AvYweK ms‡KZ eënvi K‡i wewµqvwUi ivmvqwbK mgxKiY wjL|
5. Kcvi, Avqib ev wRsK A·vBW wb‡q cix¶vwU Ki‡j GKB iKg dj cvIqv hv‡e wK bv| †Zvgvi DË‡ii
c‡¶ hyw³ `vI|
AvKwi‡K avZe Avqb I A¨vbvq‡bi eÜb kw³i Dci wbf©i K‡i avZz gy³ Ki‡Z Mjb ev weRviY cÖ‡qvRb n‡e|
mwµq avZzmg~‡ni †¶‡Î kw³kvjx eÜb we`¨gvb _v‡K| wbw®Œq avZz¸‡jv gy³ Ae¯’vq _v‡K d‡j GB avZz
wb®‹vk‡b weRviY cÖ‡qvRb nq bv| †hgb, Au, Ag I Pt| G Rb¨ cÖv‰MwZnvwmK Kvj †_‡K ¯^Y© I i~cvi
(wmjfvi) eënvi j¶ Kiv hvq| †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv avZz cÖvq wbw®Œq, †h¸‡jvi mvjdvBW AvKwi‡Ki ZvcRviY K‡i
avZz gy³ Kiv hvq| †hgb, Zvgv | G‡Z mvjdvBW Avqb RvwiZ n‡q mvjdvi WvB A·vBW Ges Kcvi Avqb
weRvwiZ n‡q Kcvi ev Zvgvq i~cvšÍwiZ nq|
Cu2S(s) (Pvj‡KvmvBU) + O2(g) 2Cu + SO2
wewµqvwU GKvwaK av‡c m¤úbœ nq| †hgb,

2Cu2S(s) (Pvj‡KvmvBU) + 3O2(g) 2Cu2O + 2SO2
RviY wewµqvq Drcbœ wKDcÖvm A·vBW ARvwiZ wKDcÖvm mvjdvB‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i Kcvi avZz gy³ K‡i| GB
cÖwµqv‡K ¯^weRviY e‡j|
Cu2S + 2Cu2O 6Cu + SO2
mwµq avZyi mvjdvBW AvKwi‡Ki ZvcRvi‡Y avZz gy³ bv n‡q avZzi A·vB‡W cwiYZ nq|
2NiS(s) + 3O2 2NiO(s) + 2SO2
Drcbœ avZzi A·vBW‡K †KvK Kqjv ev Kve©b g‡bv·vBW mn‡hv‡M weRvwiZ K‡i avZz gy³ Kiv nq|
2ZnO(s) + C 2Zn + CO2 ; Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
†Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv avZz wb®‹vk‡b †KvK Kqjv ev Kve©b cwinvi Kiv Avek¨K| G †¶‡Î weRviKiƒ‡c H2, Fe ev Al
eënvi Kiv nq|
WO3(g) + 3H2(g) W(s) + 3H2O(g)
AwaK mwµq avZzmg~n‡K G¸‡jvi MwjZ je‡Yi Zworwe‡kølY K‡i avZz gy³ Kiv nq| †hgb, Al, Na BZ¨vw`|
160 imvqb
5. avZz we‡kvab
avZyi AvKwi‡Ki mv‡_ †kl ch©šÍ wKQz LwbRgj †_‡K hvq| GB LwbRgj `~i Kivi Rb¨ AvKwi‡Ki mv‡_ d¬v· ev
weMvjK †hvM Kiv nq| D”P ZvcgvÎvq AvKwi‡Ki avZe A·vBW weRvwiZ n‡q avZz gy³ nq Ges d¬v·,
LwbRg‡ji mv‡_ hy³ n‡q avZzgj Drcbœ K‡i| avZzgj MwjZ avZz‡Z `ªexf~Z nq bv| A‡c¶vK…Z nvjKv e‡j
avZzgj mn‡RB MwjZ avZz †_‡K c„_K Kiv hvq| G cÖwµqv‡K weMjb e‡j|
LwbRgj¸‡jv GwmW ev ¶vi ag©wewkó nq| GwmW ag©wewkó LwbRgj `~i Kivi Rb¨ ¶vi ag©wewkó d¬v· Ges
¶vi ag©wewkó LwbRgj `~i Kivi Rb¨ GwmW ag©wewkó d¬v· †hvM Kiv nq| †hgb,
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
¶viKxq d¬v· GwmwWK LwbRgj K¨vjwmqvg wmwj‡KU
MnO + SiO2 MnSiO3
¶viKxq LwbRgj GwmwWK d¬v· g¨v½vwbR wmwj‡KU
FeO(s) + SiO2 FeSiO3
¶viKxq LwbRgj GwmwWK d¬v· †divm wmwj‡KU
Zwor we‡kvab:
weMjb cÖwµqvq cÖvß avZz‡K Av‡iv weï× Kivi Rb¨ Zwor we‡kvab
(+) e¨vUvwi (-)
Kiv nq| †hgb, weMjb cÖwµqvq Drcbœ Kcvi ev Zvgv 98% weï× weï× Kcvi
Aweï× Kcvi
nq| G‡K Zworwe‡kølY Ki‡j 99.9% weï× Kcvi ev Zvgv cvIqv
hvq| Zworwe‡køl‡Y we`y¨r kw³ eënvi K‡i ivmvqwbK wewµqv msMVb
Kiv nq| G‡Z Aweï× Kcv‡ii †gvUv cvZ ˆZwi K‡i we`y¨r Dr‡mi CuSO4 `ªeY
abvZ¥K cÖv‡š—i mv‡_ Ges weï× Kcv‡ii GKwU cvZjv cvZ FYvZ¥K wPÎ 10.8 : Kcv‡ii Zwor we‡kvab
cÖv‡š—i mv‡_ hy³ Kiv nq| Kcvi mvj‡dU `ªeY I mvjwdDwiK
Gwm‡Wi wgkÖ‡Y c~Y© GKwU U¨vsK ev U¨v‡ei g‡a¨ `ywU cvZ‡KB †Wvev‡bv nq| GB `ªe‡Yi †fZi w`‡q we`y¨r cÖevn
Pvjbv Ki‡j Aweï× Kcvi `ªexf~Z nq Ges weRviY wewµqvq weï× Kcvi cvZjv cv‡Z Rgv nq|
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s)
Aweï× Kcv‡ii Ac`ªe¨My‡jv U¨vsK ev U¨v‡ei Zjvq Mv` wn‡m‡e Rgv nq| GB Mv‡ì g‡a¨ cÖvq wbw®Œq avZz
†hgb ¯^Y© I i~cv _v‡K hv cybi“×vi Kiv nq| GB cÖwµqvq h‡_ó we`y¨r cÖ‡qvRb nq|
AwaK mwµq avZz †hgb wjw_qvg, cUvwmqvg, K¨vjwmqvg, †mvwWqvg, g¨vM‡bwmqvg Ges A¨vjywgwbqvg avZzi jeY
ev AvKwi‡Ki Zworwe‡køl‡Y avZz gy³ nq| G Rb¨ jeY ev AvKwiK‡K Mjv‡bvi cÖ‡qvRb nq|
wk¶v_©xi KvR :
1. †mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi MjbvsK 801 oC| †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW 40-42% Ges K¨vjwmqvg †K¬vivBW 58-
60% wgkÖ‡Yi MjbvsK cÖvq 600 oC| Dch©y³ welqwU we‡ePbvq wb‡q †mvwWqvg avZz wb®‹vk‡bi GKwU
†KŠkj eY©bv Ki| G Rb¨ †h welqmg~n Zzwg we‡ePbv Ki‡e Zv n‡jv-
imvqb 161
x weMj‡bi LiP
x wgkÖY eënvi Ki‡j †mvwWqvg I K¨vjwmqvg Dfq avZz GK‡Î gy³ n‡e wK bv?
x wewµqvq Drcv`mg~‡ni cwi‡ek `~lY|
2. A¨vjywgwbqvg A·vB‡Wi MjbvsK 2050 oC| A¨vjywgwbqvg A·vBW Ges µv‡qvjvBU Na3AlF6 wgkÖ‡Yi
MjbvsK 800-1000 oC Gi g‡a¨| Dch©y³ welqwU we‡ePbvq wb‡q A¨vjywgwbqvg avZz wb®‹vk‡bi GKwU
†KŠkj eY©bv Ki| G Rb¨ †h welqmg~n Zzwg we‡ePbv Ki‡e Zv n‡jv-
x weMj‡bi LiP
x wgkÖY eënvi Ki‡j †mvwWqvg I A¨vjywgwbqvg Dfq avZz GK‡Î gy³ n‡e wK bv?
x wewµqvq Drcv`mg~‡ni cwi‡ek `~lY| †jvnvi AvKwiK,
Kvc I †Kvb
†KvK, Pzbvcv_i
3. Kcvi wb®‹vk‡bi mgq DcRvZ M¨vm cwi‡e‡ki
Kx ¶wZ Ki‡e? G ¶wZ [GwmW e„wó] †_‡K cwiÎv‡Yi
Dcvq e¨vL¨v Ki| cwi‡e‡ki ¶wZ cÖwZ‡iva K‡i GB
B¯úv‡Zi AveiY
DcRvZ M¨vm‡K jvfRbK Kv‡R eënvi Dcvq m¤ú‡K©
†Zvgvi gZvgZ `vI| AwMœmn BU
Mig evqy
4. wPÎwU j¶ Ki Ges cÖkœMy‡jvi DËi `vI|
Pzwjø‡Z msMwVZ m¤¢ve¨ wewµqvmg~n fvlvq I AvYweK evqy MwjZ Avqib MwjZ avZzgj
ms‡K‡Zi mvnv‡h¨ wjL| [we‡ePbv Ki‡e: AvKwi‡Ki
mv‡_ LwbRgj wn‡m‡e wmwjKb WvB A·vBW Dcw¯’Z wPÎ 10.9 : evZ¨vPzwjø‡Z Avqib wb®‹vkb
Av‡Q; wewµqvi Drcv` wewµqvq Dcw¯’Z Ab¨vb¨ wewµqK ev Drcv‡ì mv‡_ wewµqv Ki‡Z cv‡i|]
5. †Uwe‡j Dc¯’vwcZ AvKwiK †_‡K avZz wb®‹vk‡bi m¤¢ve¨ wewµqv †Uwe‡j Dc¯’vcb Ki| †Zvgvi DË‡ii
¯^c‡¶ hyw³ gšÍe¨ Kjv‡g Dc¯’vcb Ki|
avZz AvKwiK wb®‹vk‡bi wewµqv gšÍe¨

gvK©vwi wmbœvevi HgS
wRsK †eø Û ZnS
wRsK
K¨vjvgvBb ZnCO3
†jW M¨v‡jbv PbS
g¨vM‡bUvBU Fe3O4
Avqib †ngvUvBU Fe2O3
wj‡gvbvBU Fe2O3.3H2O
Kcvi cvBivBU CuFeS2
Kcvi
Pvj‡KvmvBU Cu2S
A¨vjywgwbqvg e·vBU Al2O3.2H2O
†mvwWqvg mvM‡ii cvwb NaCl
K¨vjwmqvg Pzbvcv_i CaCO3
162 imvqb
10.8 wbe©vwPZ msKi avZz

gvbyl cÖ_‡g Kcvi avZz wb®‹vkb K‡iwQj| †m mgq Zviv Mnbv, A¯¿ Ges hš¿cvwZ ˆZwi‡Z Kcvi eënvi KiZ|
mf¨Zvi BwZnv‡m wLªóc~e© 5000 †_‡K 3000 ch©šÍ mgq Kvj‡K Zv¤ª hyM ejv nq| Kcvi ev Zvgv big weavq
Zvgv w`‡q ˆZwi A¯¿ I hš¿cvwZ †ewk Kvh©Ki wQj bv| Kcv‡ii mv‡_ mvgvb¨ cwigv‡Y avZe wUb wgkv‡j Kcv‡ii
KvwVb¨ eûjvs‡k e„w× cvq| GB wgkÖY Avwe®‹vi wQj hyMvšÍKvix NUbv| Kcvi I wU‡bi wgkÖ‡Y Drcbœ avZz msKi
n‡jv †eªvÄ| wLªóc~e© 3000 †_‡K 1000 ch©šÍ mgq Kvj‡K †eªvÄ hyM ejv nq|
MwjZ Ae¯’vq GKvwaK avZz‡K wgwkÖZ K‡i avZz msKi ˆZwi Kiv nq| avZz A‡c¶v avZz msKi A‡bK †ewk
eënvi Dc‡hvMx| †hgb, avZe †jvnv Ges AavZz Kve©‡bi wgkÖY n‡jv w÷j| GwU‡K avZz msKi wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv
Kiv hvq| †jvnv A‡c¶v w÷‡ji eënvi Dc‡hvwMZv A‡bK †ewk| GQvov †jvnvi mv‡_ Kve©b, wb‡Kj I †µvwgqvg
wgwk‡q gwiPvwenxb B¯úvZ (†÷Bb‡jm w÷j) cvIqv hvq| wb‡Kj w÷‡ji KvwVb¨ e„w× K‡i Ges †µvwgqvg gwiPv
cÖwZ‡iva K‡i| LvwU ¯^Y© big weavq Zvi mv‡_ Kcvi A_ev i“cv wgwkÖZ msKi, Mnbv ˆZwi‡Z eëüZ nq| wb‡Pi
†Uwe‡j K‡qKwU msKi avZzi Dcv`vb I eënvi D‡jøL Kiv n‡jv-
avZz msKi Dcv`vb I mshyw³ eënvi
w÷j †jvnv 99% †i‡ji PvKv I jvBb, BwÄb, RvnvR, hvbevnb, †µBb, hy×v¯¿,
Kve©b 1% Qzwi, KuvwP, Nwoi w¯úªs, Pz¤^K, K…wlhš¿cvwZ BZ¨vw`|
†jvnv 74%
gwiPvwenxb B¯úvZ Qzwi, KvUvPvgP, cvKN‡ii wm¼, imvqb wk‡íi wewµqv cvÎ,
†µvwgqvg 18% A‡¯¿vcPv‡ii hš¿cvwZ BZ¨vw`|
(†÷Bb‡jm w÷j)
wb‡Kj 8%
Kcvi 65% AjsKvi, KjKâvi weqvwis, ê`y¨wZK myBP, ìRvi nvZj, †WM
wcZj (eªvm) wRsK 35% cvwZj BZ¨vw`|
Kcvi 90%
Kvmv (†eªvÄ) avZz Mjv‡bv, hš¿vsk, _vjv, Møvm BZ¨vw`|
wUb 10%
A¨vjywgwbqvg 95%
Wzivjvwgb Kcvi 4% D‡ovRvnv‡Ri ewW, evB mvB‡K‡ji cvU©m BZ¨vw`
g¨vM‡bwmqvg,
g¨v½vwbR I
†jvnv 1%
24 K¨v‡iU; 100% ¯^Y©
21 K¨v‡iU; 87.5% ¯^Y©
12.5% Kcvi mn
¯^Y© Ab¨vb¨ avZz AjsKvi ˆZwi‡Z eëüZ nq
22 K¨v‡iU;
91.67% ¯^Y©,
8.33% Kcvi
mn Ab¨vb¨ avZz
KwZcq avZz I msKi avZyi ¶q nIqvi j¶Y I KviY

avZzi ¶q nIqvi mvaviY c×wZ n‡jv gwiPv cov| †Kv‡bv avZz ev avZz msKi cwi‡e‡ki Dcv`vb, †hgb-
Aw·‡Rb I cvwb mv‡_ ivmvqwbK wµqvq ¶q nq| GB ¶q nIqvi nvi wbf©i K‡i avZzi mwµqZvi Dci|
imvqb 163
mvaviYZ mwµq avZzmg~n `ª“Z ¶q nq| bZzb Zvgvi (Kcv‡ii) eY© †Mvjvwc ev Zvgv‡U| wKQzw`b †i‡L w`‡j
Kcv‡ii eY© ev`vwg n‡q hvq| KviY, Gi Dc‡i Kcvi A·vB‡Wi AveiY ˆZwi nq| Zzwg wbðqB Zvgv I wcZ‡ji
ˆZwi cvwZj (†WM) ev gmwR`-gw›`‡ii bK&kv †`‡LQ| wKQzw`b cwi®‹vi bv Kiv n‡j G¸‡jvi Mv‡q meyR e‡Y©i
Zv¤ªg‡ji AveiY m„wó nq| GwU GK cÖKvi Kcvi jeY| Gi Dcv`vb cwi‡e‡ki Dci wbf©i K‡i| Zv¤ªgj
mvaviYZ Kcvi (II) Kve©‡bU Ges Kcvi (II) nvBWª·vB‡Wi wgkÖY [CuCO3.Cu(OH)2]| Zv¤ªgj ˆRe Gwm‡W
`ªexf~Z nq| ZvB ˆRe GwmW mg„× dj (†ZuZzj, Kvgiv½v) Øviv wcZ‡ji ˆZwi mvgMÖx‡K cwi®‹vi Ki‡j Zv¤ªgj
`~ixf~Z n‡q †mvbvwj †mŠ›`h© wd‡i cvq| ¯^Y© (Au) I cøvwUbvg (Pt) wbw®Œq| nvRvi eQ‡iI G¸‡jvi ¶q nq
bv|
†jvnv ev w÷j wKQzw`b †i‡L w`‡j Gi Dci Rs ev gwiPv a‡i| gwiPv wek¦e¨vcx GK eo ai‡bi mgm¨v| gwiPvi
Kvi‡Y †jvnv ev w÷‡ji ˆZwi KvVv‡gv cwieZ©‡b cÖwZ eQi mviv c„w_ex‡Z cÖvq 1 wewjqb Av‡gwiKvb Wjvi e¨q nq|
gwiPv n‡jv jvj‡P ev`vwg e‡Y©i f½yi e¯‘| GwU g~jZ Av`ª© Avqib (III) A·vBW [Fe2O3.nH2O]| †jvnv ev
w÷‡j gwiPv aivi Rb¨ cvwb I Aw·‡Rb `y‡UvB cÖ‡qvRb| Gi GKwUI hw` Abycw¯’Z _v‡K Zv n‡j gwiPv a‡i bv|
gwiPv m„wói cix¶v
1 2 3 4
evqy dzUv‡bv cvwb evqy evqy
†Z‡ji ¯—i
dzUv‡bv cvwb VvÊv cvwb
†jvnvi ZviKvUv
Abv`ª© CaCl2
(cvwbi `ªexf~Z Aw·‡Rb Acmvi‡Yi Rb¨ cvwb dzUv‡bv nq)
wPÎ 10.10 : †jvnvq gwiPv m„wói cix¶v
x PviwU †U÷wUDe bvI Ges 1 †_‡K 4 b¤î w`‡q wPwýZ Ki|

x †U÷wUDe¸‡jv‡Z wP‡Îi b¨vq eë¯’v Ki|
x 3bs †U÷wUD‡ei cvwb‡K 1wgwbU dzwU‡q cvwbi Dci 1 wgwj ivbœvi †Zj ev Awjf A‡qj †hvM Ki| †Z‡ji
evavi Kvi‡Y †fZ‡i evqy cÖ‡ek Ki‡Z cvi‡e bv|
Gfv‡e †U÷wUDe¸‡jv‡K GK mßvn †i‡L `vI Ges ch©‡e¶Y Ki|
we.`ª. gwiPv cÖwZ‡iv‡a †jvnvi Dci M¨vjfvbvBwRs Kiv nq| DbœZ †`‡k ê`y¨wZK c×wZ‡Z †jvnvi wm‡Ui
Dci wRsK I wU‡bi cÖ‡jc †Ìqv nq| G‡K B‡jK‡Uªv‡cøwUs ejv nq|
164 imvqb
x †Zvgvi Rvbvg‡Z M¨vjfvbvBwRs e¨ZxZ Avi †Kvb †Kvb c×wZ‡Z gwiPv cÖwZ‡iva Kiv nq? cix¶vi
ch©‡e¶‡Yi wfwË‡Z c×wZ¸‡jvi Kvh©KwiZv e¨vL¨v Ki|
10.9 avZz cybcÖwµqvRvZKiY
c„w_ex‡Z cÖwZwU †gŠwjK c`v‡_©i cwigvY wbw`©ó| bZzb K‡i †Kv‡bv †gŠwjK c`v_© m„wó Kiv m¤¢e bq| myZivs
cÖwZwU LwbR c`v_©B Amxg bq, mmxg| eZ©gvb nv‡i avZz eënvi Ki‡Z _vK‡j G ch©šÍ c„w_ex‡Z Avwe®‹…Z avZzi
LwbR AvMvgx 120-150 eQ‡i †kl n‡q hv‡e| myZivs ¯^í gvÎvq avZz AvniY Ki‡j Zv eûw`b a‡i cvIqv hv‡e|
ZvQvov avZzi cybcÖwµqvRvZKiY cwi‡ekMZ mgm¨vi mgvav‡b AZ¨šÍ ¸i“Z¡c~Y©| G†Z A_© I R¡vjvwb mvkÖq nq|
A¨vjywgwbqvg wb®‹vk‡b cÖ‡qvRbxq R¡vjvwbi gvÎ 5% LiP K‡i mgcwigvY A¨vjywgwbqvg avZz cybcÖwµqvRvZ Kiv
hvq| cÖavbZ A¨vjywgwbqvg, Avqib, Kcvi, wRsK, †jW BZ¨vw` cybcÖwµqvRvZKiY Kiv nq| hy³iv‡óªi eëüZ
†gvU Kcv‡ii 21% cybcÖwµqvRvZK„Z| BD‡iv‡ci eëüZ A¨vjywgwbqv‡gi 60% cybcÖwµqvRvZK„Z| wWªsKm&
K¨vb, `y‡ai wUb, ivbœvi nvwo cvwZj, wewfbœ cwiZ¨³ hš¿vsk, cwiZ¨³ Mvwoi Ask †_‡K avZz cybcÖwµqvKiY
Kiv hvq| Jla †Kv¤úvwbi U¨ve‡j‡U A¨vjywgwbqvg avZzi w÷ªc _v‡K| G¸‡jv cybcÖwµqvRvZ K‡i A¨vjywgwbqvg
avZz cvIqv m¤¢e|
A¨vmvBb‡g›U: eR©¨ †djvi RvqMv, cwi‡ek mgm¨v I Avw_©K welq we‡ePbvq †Zvgvi wb‡Ri GjvKvq †Kvb †Kvb
avZy cybcÖwµqvRZKiY jvfRbK Zv AbymÜvb Ki| eR©¨ Kxfv‡e web¨¯Í Ki‡j cybcÖwµqvRvZKiY mnR n‡e|
10.10 LwbR AavZz

cÖvK…wZK LwbRmg~n †_‡K †Kej avZzB bq AavZzmg~nI cvIqv
hvq| Kve©‡bi LwbR Kqjv, wmwjK‡bi LwbR wmwjKv, Pvc mn evqy
mvjdvi, evqy
dmdiv‡mi LwbR dm‡dU Ges mvjdv‡ii LwbR Ab¨Zg|
I cvwb
LwbR c`v_© Rxevk¥ Aa¨v‡qi mv‡_ †ewk m¤úK©hy³ weavq civZß cvwb
Kve©b‡K †mLv‡b Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡q‡Q| ¸i“Z¡ we‡ePbvq GLv‡b gvwU

ïay mvjdvi LwbR wel‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv| cv_i
K. mvjdvi :
cÖK…wZ‡Z G‡K gy³ Ae¯’vq cvIqv hvq e‡j G‡K Lwb †_‡K
mivmwi AvniY Kiv nq| mvjdv‡ii Lwb gvwUi A‡bK Mfx‡i
_v‡K| Lwb †_‡K Avni‡Yi Rb¨ wZbwU GK‡Kw›`ªK bj mvjdvi mvjdvi
I K¨vjmvBUm
¯Í‡ii Mfx‡i cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv nq| me©ewnt¯’ bj w`‡q D”P Pv‡c
weMwjZ mvjdvi
1800C ZvcgvÎvq Rjxqev®ú cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv nq| mvjdv‡ii
wkjv ¯—i
MjbvsK 1190C d‡j mvjdvi Rjxqev‡®úi ms¯ú‡k© M‡j hvq|
†K›`ªxq bjwU w`‡q D”P Pv‡c Mig evqy cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv nq|
wPÎ 10.11 : d«vk c×wZ‡Z mvjdvi D‡Ëvjb
Pv‡ci cÖfv‡e MwjZ mvjdvi gvSLv‡bi bjwU w`‡q †ewi‡q
Av‡m| G‡K d«vk (Frasch
) c×wZ ejv nq|
imvqb 165
mvjdv‡ii eënvi
mvjdvi Ab¨Zg ¸i“Z¡c~Y© †gŠj| imvqb wk‡íi cÖavb KuvPvgvj mvjwdDwiK GwmW mvjdvi †_‡K cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq|
ivevi fjKvbvwRs, mvjdvWªvM, w`qvkjvB, evi“` I d‡UvMÖvwd‡Z eëüZ nvB‡cvmn wewfbœ Avek¨Kxq †hŠM
cÖ¯‘wZ‡Z mvjdvi eëüZ nq|
mvjdv‡ii †hŠM : mvjdv‡ii K‡qKwU ¸i“Z¡c~Y© †hŠM wb‡P Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|
L. mvjdvi WvB A·vBW:
mvjdvi WvBA·vBW AZ¨šÍ myw¯’Z †hŠM| mvjdvi‡K evqyi Aw·‡R‡bi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z †cvov‡j mvjdvi WvB A·vBW
cvIqv hvq|
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
SuvSv‡jv MÜhy³ mvjdvi WvBA·vBW AZ¨šÍ welv³ M¨vm| mvjdvi hy³ Kqjv, Acwi‡kvwaZ †c‡Uªvwjqvg †Zj
Aw·‡R‡b †cvov‡j mvjdvi WvBA·vBW Drcbœ nq| cvwbi mv‡_ hy³ n‡q GwU mvjwdDivm GwmW Drcbœ K‡i|
GB M¨vm GwmW e„wói Ab¨Zg KviY| GwU GKwU cÖavb evqy `~lK c`v_©| Gic‡iI mvjdvi WvB A·vBW AZ¨šÍ
¸i“Z¡c~Y© †hŠM| Gi cÖavb eënvi mvjwdDwiK GwmW Drcv`‡b| ZvQvov GwU RxevYy I KxUbvkK wn‡m‡e, weiÄK
wn‡m‡e Ges djg~‡ji cPb †iv‡a eëüZ nq| wcuqv‡R i‡q‡Q mvjdv‡ii †hŠM| wcuqvR KvUvi mgq GB †hŠM
we‡hvwRZ n‡q mvjdvi WvB A·vBW (SO2) Drcbœ K‡i hvnv †Pv‡Li cvwbi ms¯ú‡k© mvjwdDivm Gwm‡W (H2SO3)
cwiYZ nq Ges †Pv‡L R¡vjv K‡i|
avZe
M. mvjwdDwiK GwmW: jeY mvi
w÷j 4.0% 2.0%
mvjwdDwiK GwmW mKj ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï g‡a¨ me‡P‡q †ewk cwigv‡Y Drcv`b
Drcv`b I eëüZ nq| GKwU †`‡k mvjwdDwiK GwmW Drcv`b I 1.5% Ab¨vb¨
19.5% ivmvqwbK
eënv‡ii cwigvY‡K H †`‡ki A_©‰bwZK w¯’wZkxjZv ev wkívq‡bi `ªe¨
WvB 21.0%
K…wÎg
gvb`Ê wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv Kiv nq| cÖwZ eQi wek¦e¨vcx K‡qK wgwjqb 5.5% myZv
6.0% iÄK
Ub mvjwdDwiK GwmW Drcv`b Kiv nq| GB GwmW imvqb wk‡í eû mvevbI c`v_©
cøvw÷K wWUvi‡R›U 19.0%
`ªe¨ Drcv`‡b KuvPvgvj wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq| 2.5% 19.0%
mvjwdDwiK GwmW Drcv`‡b ¯úk© c×wZ wPÎ 10.12 : mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi eënvi
mvaviY Ae¯’vq mvjdvi WvB A·vBW evZv‡mi Aw·‡Rb Øviv RvwiZ nq bv| ¯úk© †P¤^v‡i 400-4500C
ZvcgvÎvq cøvwUbvg P~Y© ev f¨vbvwWqvg †c›UvA·vBW cÖfve‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z Aw·‡Rb Øviv RvwiZ n‡q mvjdvi UªvB
A·vBW Drcbœ K‡i|
440-500OC, Pt/V2O5
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g), 'H = -198 kJ
166 imvqb
GwU GKwU DfgyLx wewµqv| jv kv‡Zwjq bxwZ eënvi K‡i GB wewµqvi mvg¨ve¯’vq SO3 Gi cwigvY e„w× Kiv hvq|
m¤§yLvwfgyLx wewµqvwU Zv‡cvrcv`x| myZivs wewµqvi ZvcgvÎv Kg n‡j Drcv` †ewk n‡e| Avevi Kg ZvcgvÎvq
wewµqvi MwZ Kg _v‡K| GLv‡b 450 oC AZ¨vbyKzj ZvcgvÎv| G ZvcgvÎvq A_©‰bwZKfv‡e jvfRbK cwigv‡Y SO3
Drcbœ nq| wewµqvwU‡Z evg †_‡K Wvb w`‡K AYyi msL¨v Kg| D”P Pvc GB wewµqvi Rb¨ AbyK~j n‡jI wewµqvwU
¯^vfvweK evqy Pv‡c msMwVZ Kiv nq| G‡Z cÖvq 96% mvjdvi WvB A·vBW I Aw·‡Rb mvjdvi UªvB A·vB‡W cwiYZ
nq| m¤§yLvwfgyLx wewµqvq Drcbœ Zvc wewµqK M¨vm‡K DËß K‡i| G‡Z Zvckw³ A_©vr A‡_©i mvkÖq nq|
mvjdvi UªvB A·vB‡Wi mv‡_ cvwb †hvM Kiv n‡j mvjwdDwiK GwmW Drcbœ nq| wKš‘ G †¶‡Î mgm¨v n‡jv
mvjdvi UªvB A·vBW evZv‡mi Rjxqev‡®úi mv‡_ hy³ n‡q mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi Nb Kzqvkv m„wó K‡i, hv Nbxf~Z
Kiv AZ¨šÍ KwVb|
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(l)
ZvB SO3 †K 98% H2SO4 G †kvlY K‡i a~gvqgvb (fuming) mvjwdDwiK GwmW Drcbœ Kiv nq| a~gvqgvb
mvjwdDwiK GwmW‡K Iwjqvg ejv nq| Iwjqvg‡K cvwbi mv‡_ wgwkÖZ K‡i cÖ‡qvRbgZ jNy Kiv nq|
H2SO4(l) + SO3(g) H2S2O7(l)
Iwjqvg
weï× mvjwdDwiK GwmW Nb ˆZjv³ Zij c`v_© hv cvwb‡Z mKj Abycv‡Z wbiæ`K : cvwb †kvlYKvix
wgkÖYxq| mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡W cvwb †hvM Ki‡j cÖPzi Zvc m„wó K‡i I we‡ùvwiZ c`v_©| wbiæ`K cÖ‡qvR‡b
nq| G Rb¨ µgvMZ bvov‡bv Ae¯’vq cvwb‡Z †duvUvq †duvUvq mvjwdDwiK GwmW †hŠM †_‡K eÜb fvOvi
†hvM K‡i jNy Kiv nq| jNyKiY cvÎ †ewk Mig n‡q †M‡j GwmW †gkv‡bv eÜ gva¨‡g cvwb Drcbœ K‡i Zv
ivL‡Z nq Ges VvÊv n‡j cybivq †hvM Kiv nq| GwmW jNyKiY cvÎ‡K VvÊv cvwbi †kvlY K‡i|
Dci ivL‡j cvÎ Kg Mig nq|
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l)
mvjwdDwiK GwmW; GwmW, RviK I wbi“`K wn‡m‡e ivmvqwbK wewµqvq Ask †bq|
wk¶v_©xi KvR :
x GKwU †U÷wUD‡e 2-3 mL Pz‡bi cvwb wb‡q G‡Z K‡qK †duvUv jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW †hvM Ki|
fv‡jvfv‡e ch©‡e¶Y Ki| cwieZ©‡bi KviY e¨vL¨v Ki Ges m¤¢ve¨ wewµqvwU †jL|
x GKwU †U÷wUD‡e GK wPgwU cUvwmqvg Av‡qvWvBW KI wb‡q G‡Z K‡qK †duvUv Nb mvjwdDwiK GwmW
†hvM Ki| fv‡jvfv‡e ch©‡e¶Y Ki| cwieZ©‡bi KviY e¨vL¨v Ki Ges m¤¢ve¨ wewµqvwU †jL|
x GKwU †U÷wUD‡e GK Pv PvgP wPwb (C12H22O11) wb‡q G‡Z K‡qK †duvUv Nb mvjwdDwiK GwmW †hvM
Ki| fv‡jvfv‡e ch©‡e¶Y Ki| cwieZ©‡bi KviY e¨vL¨v Ki Ges m¤¢ve¨ wewµqvwU †jL| GB cix¶vwU
mveav‡b Ki‡Z n‡e|
x Dc‡ii cix¶v wZbwUi †KvbwU‡Z mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi †Kvb ag© (GwmW, RviK I wbi“`K) cÖKvk K‡i
Zv e¨vL¨v Ki|
x mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi eënvi cÖKvkKvix cvB Pv‡U©i (wPÎ: 10.12) Z‡_ï wfwË‡Z evsjv‡`‡k
mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi A_©‰bwZK ¸i“Z¡ we‡kølY Ki|
imvqb 167
Abykxjbx
1. †Uwe‡ji †Kvb †iKW©wU mvaviYZ avZzi êwkó¨ cÖKvk K‡i?
MjbvsK ùzUbvsK NbZ¡ MjbvsK ùzUbvsK NbZ¡
K. 1539 2887 7.86 L. - 219 183 .002
M. - 113 45 0.79 N. 117 444 1.96
DÏxcK †_‡K 2 I 3 bs cÖ‡kœi DËi `vI
GK`j wk¶v_x© gwiPvi AbymÜvb KiwQj| Zviv evg †_‡K µgvš^‡q PviwU †U÷wUD‡e PviwU †jvnvi †c‡iK ivLj
Ges wb‡Pi wPÎvbyhvqx eë¯’v wbj|
1 2 3 4
evqy dzUv‡bv cvwb evqy Aw·‡Rb
†Z‡ji ¯—i
dzUv‡bv cvwb VvÊv cvwb
†jvnvi ZviKvUv
Abv`ª© CaCl2
2. †Kvb †U÷wUDewU‡Z me‡P‡q †ewk gwiPv ai‡e?

K. cÖ_g L. wØZxq
M. Z…Zxq N. PZz_©
3. cix¶vwUi wfwË‡Z †h wm×všÍmg~n MÖnY Kiv hvq-
i. gwiPv aivi Rb¨ Aw·‡Rb Avek¨K
ii. jeY cÖfveK wn‡m‡e KvR Ki‡Q
iii. †Kej Aw·‡Rb Dcw¯’Z _vK‡jB gwiPv a‡i bv
4. wMwb †mvbvi †Kvb bgybvwU m‡e©v”P `„p?
K. 18 K¨v‡iU L. 21 K¨v‡iU
M. 22 K¨v‡iU N. 24 K¨v‡iU
168 imvqb
5. jNyKi‡Y cvwb‡Z †duvUvq †duvUvq mvjwdDwiK GwmW †hvM Kivi KviY mvjwdDwiK GwmW-
i. Gi nvB‡Wªkb Zvc AZ¨waK
ii. GKwU wØ¶viKxq GwmW
iii. ¶qKviK c`v_©
K. i L. i I ii
6. SO3 †K 98% mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡W †kvlY K‡i cvwb †hv‡M cÖ‡qvRbgZ jNy Kiv nq, KviY mvjwdDwiK
GwmW-
i. Rjxqev‡®úi mv‡_ Nb Kzqvkv m„wó K‡i
ii. cvwb †hv‡M cÖPzi Zvc wbM©Z K‡i
iii. GKwU wbi“`K c`v_©
K. i L. i I ii
m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1. K¨vjvgvB‡bi ZvcRvi‡Y Drcbœ ZnO †K wP‡Îi b¨vq wiU‡U© wb‡q wRsK avZz AvniY Kiv nq| Drcbœ
avZz‡K Zworwe‡køl‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ Av‡iv weï× Kiv nq|
†cøvjs (†QvU kxZK)
wRsKA·vBW I kxZK
†Kv‡Ki wgkªY
K. K¨vjvgvB‡bi ivmvqwbK ms‡KZ wjL|

L. ZvcRvi‡Yi e¨vL¨v `vI|
M. wiU‡U© msNwVZ g~j wewµqvwU e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. DÏxc‡Ki avZz †Kej Zworwe‡kølY cÖwµqvq wb®‹vkb bv K‡i wZb av‡c Kivi KviY g~j¨vqb Ki|
imvqb 169
2. GKwU Lwb‡Z e·vBU I K¨vjvgvBb wgwkÖZ wKQz Lwb‡Ri Aw¯ÍZ¡ cvIhv †Mj| W. Ugv‡mi †bZ…‡Z¡ GK`j
imvqbwe` D³ LwbR †_‡K `yÕwU wfbœ c×wZ‡Z avZz `yÕwU wb®‹vkb Ki‡jb|
K. LwbR Kv‡K e‡j?
L. ÒmKj LwbRB AvKwiK bqÓ e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. wØZxq AvKwiKwUi we‡hvR‡b cÖvß A·vBWØ‡qi cÖKw… Z e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. wfbœ c×wZ‡Z avZz `yÕwU wb®‹vk‡bi KviY hyw³mn wjL|
GKv`k Aa¨vq
LwbR m¤ú`- Rxevk¥
evsjv‡`k †c‡Uªvwjqvg K‡cv©‡ikb m¤úªwZ ˆKjvkwUjv I ˆRšÍvq †Zj †¶Î Avwe®‹v‡ii †NvlYv w`‡q‡Q| B‡Zvc~‡e©
nwicy‡i †Zj Avwe®‹v‡ii †NvlYv w`‡jI Kvh©Z Zv wQj GKwU M¨vm †¶Î| †mLv‡b M¨v‡mi mv‡_ wKQz †Zj cvIqv
hvq| evsjv‡`‡ki c~e©vÂ‡j cÖvK…wZK M¨vm Ges DËivÂ‡j Kqjvi D‡jøL‡hvM¨ cwigvY gIRy` Av‡Q| g„Z Dw™¢` I
cÖvYx 200 wgwjqb ev Zvi‡P‡q †ewk eQi gvwUi wb‡P †_‡K D”P Zvc I Pv‡c Kqjv, cÖvK…wZK M¨vm ev LwbR †Z‡j
cwiYZ nq e‡j G¸‡jv‡K Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwb ejv nq| Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwb we`y¨r, ivmvqwbK mvi, †c‡Uªv‡KwgK¨vj wk‡í
Ges R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq| cwigvYMZ mxgve×Zv Ges Gi Dci †`‡ki mKj bvMwi‡Ki AwaKvi
we‡ePbvq GB cÖvK…wZK m¤ú‡ì myôz eënvi wbwðZ Kiv cÖ‡qvRb|
SGFL
evsjv‡`k cÖ_g
†Zj K‚c
mv½y M¨vm‡¶Î m¤¢ve¨ ˆKjvmwUjv †Zj‡¶Î eocyKzwiqv Kqjv Lwb

(1) Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwbi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) †c‡Uªvwjqvg‡K ˆRe †hŠ‡Mi wgkÖY wn‡m‡e e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(3) †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi eënvi e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi aviYv I †kÖwYwefvM e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(5) m¤ú„³ I Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve‡©bi cÖ¯‘wZi wewµqv I ag© e¨vL¨v Ges G‡ì g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Ki‡Z cvie|
(6) cøvw÷K `ªe¨ I Zš‘ ˆZwii ivmvqwbK wewµqv Ges Gi eënvi eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(7) cwi‡e‡ki Ici cøvw÷K `ªe¨ Aceënv‡ii Kzdj D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvie|
(8) cÖvK…wZK M¨vm, †c‡Uªvwjqvg Ges Kqjv eënv‡ii myweav-Amyweav I eënv‡ii †KŠkj e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(9) nvB‡WªvKve©b †_‡K A¨vj‡Kvnj, A¨vjwWnvBW I ˆRe Gwm‡Wi cÖ¯‘wZi †KŠkj e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(10) A¨vj‡Kvnj, A¨vjwWnvBW I ˆRe Gwm‡Wi eënvi e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(11) cwi‡e‡ki Dci cøvw÷K `ª‡eï cÖfve m¤úwK©Z AbymÜvbg~jK KvR Ki‡Z cvie|
(12) cix¶vi gva¨‡g ˆRe I A‰Re †hŠ‡Mi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ K‡i †`Lv‡Z cvie|
(13) Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwbi mwVK eënvi m¤ú‡K© m‡PZbZv cÖ`k©b Kie|
imvqb 171
11.1 Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwb

Kqjv, †Zj I cÖvK…wZK M¨vm Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwbi D`vniY| cÖv‰MwZnvwmK Kv‡j Dw™¢` I Rjvf~wgi cÖvYx cÖvK…wZK
wech©‡q Kuv`vgvwUi wb‡P Pvcv c‡o| G Kvu`vgvwUi ¯Íi g„Z Dw™¢` I cÖvwY‡`‡ni, evqyi Dcw¯’wZRwbZ ¶q †iva
K‡i| f~-cÖK…wZ I Rjevqyi cwieZ©‡b Dw™¢` I cÖvwY‡`n
Rjvf~wg I evjy¯Í‡ii wb‡P wQ`ªwenxb wkjvL‡Ûi `ywU ¯Í‡ii
gv‡S AvUKv c‡o| D”P Zvc I Pv‡c evqyi Abycw¯’wZ‡Z
Dw™¢` I cÖvwY‡`n nvRvi nvRvi eQ‡i cwiewZ©Z n‡q Rxevk¥
R¡vjvwb‡Z cwiYZ nq| Dw™¢`‡`n gvwUi wb‡P cwiewZ©Z n‡q wkjv ¯—i
Kqjvq iƒcvšÍwiZ nq| Aciw`‡K Rjvf~wgi ¶z`ª cÖvwYmËv
GKB cÖwµqvq †Zj ev †c‡Uªvwjqv‡g cwiYZ nq| cwieZ©b Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwb
cÖwµqv Ae¨vnZ _vK‡j †Zj ev †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi Dc‡i M¨vmxq wPÎ 11.1 : f~-M‡f© Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwb
Dcv`vb Rgv nq hv cÖvK…wZK M¨vm bv‡g cwiwPZ|
cÖvq mKj R¡vjvwbi g~j Dcv`vb Kve©b I Kve©b †hŠM| Kqjv, †c‡Uªvwjqvg
KvR : ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b eën„Z
R¡vjvwbi GKwU ZvwjKv ˆZwi Ges cÖvK…wZK M¨vm‡K R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq| Kqjv Kve©‡bi
Ki| G¸‡jv‡K R¡vjvwb ejv nq GKwU iƒc| †c‡Uªvwjqvg g~jZ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi wgkÖY, G‡Z nvB‡WªvKve©b Qvov
†Kb? eëüZ R¡vjvwb¸‡jvi g‡a¨ wKQz ˆRe †hŠM _v‡K| nvB‡WªvKve©b n‡jv Kve©b I nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi †hŠM|
†Kvb¸‡jv Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwb bq?
cÖvK…wZK M¨v‡mi cÖavb Dcv`vb wg‡_b (80%)| GQvovI cÖvK„wZK M¨v‡m
_v‡K B‡_b (7%), †cÖv‡cb (6%), weD‡Ub I AvB‡mv weD‡Ub (4%), †cb‡Ub (3%) wKš‘ evsjv‡`‡k G ch©šÍ
cvIqv cÖvK„wZK M¨v‡mi 99.99% wg‡_b| G mKj R¡vjvwb‡K Aw·‡R‡bi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z †cvov‡j ev `nb Ki‡j
Zvckw³ cvIqv hvq|
C + O2 CO2 + Zvc R¡vjvwb I Aw·‡R‡bi `n‡b
Drcv` I kw³ cvIqv hvq| G
1
C + O2 CO + Zvc kw³‡K wewfbœ Kv‡R †hgb;
2 we`y¨r Drcv`‡b, gUi BwÄb
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Zvc Pvjv‡Z, wegvb Pvjv‡Z, ivbœvi
Kv‡R, wk‡í ivmvqwbK wewµqv
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O + Zvc m¤úbœ Ki‡Z eënvi Kiv nq|
R¡vjvwb eY© †fŠZ Ae¯’v cÖavb Dcv`vb

Kqjv Kv‡jv KwVb Kve©b
†c‡Uªvwjqvg Kv‡jv-ev`vwg Nb Zij nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi wgkÖY
cÖvK…wZK M¨vm eY©nxb M¨vm wg‡_b
QK 11.1: Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwbi eY©, †fŠZ Ae¯’v I cÖavb Dcv`vb|
Lwb †_‡K AvnwiZ Kqjv‡K (Coal) Zvc w`‡j wewfbœ DØvqx †hŠM M¨vm wn‡m‡e wbM©Z nq| M¨vm wbM©Z nIqvi
ci cÖvß Ae‡kl‡K †KvK (Coke) e‡j|
172 imvqb
11.2 †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi Dcv`vbmg~n

O
Acwi‡kvwaZ †Zj (Crude Oil) ev †c‡Uªvwjqvg (Zij 20 C †c‡Uªvwjqvg M¨vm (LPG)
†mvbv) g~jZ nvB‡WªvKve©b I Ab¨vb¨ wKQz ˆRe †hŠ‡Mi O

70 C M¨v‡mvwjb
wgkÖY| Acwi‡kvwaZ †Zj‡K eënvi Dc‡hvMx Kivi Rb¨ 120 CO
b¨vc_v
Gi wewfbœ Ask‡K AvswkK cvZb c×wZ‡Z c„_K Kiv nq|
O
170 C †K‡ivwmb
G cÖwµqv‡K cwi‡kvab (5H¿QLQJ) e‡j| evsjv‡`‡k
PÆMÖv‡gi B÷vY© widvBbvwi‡Z †Zj cwi‡kvab Kiv nq| Acwi‡kvwaZ 270 C
O wW‡Rj †Zj
†Zj
†c‡Uªvwjqv‡g we`¨gvb wewfbœ Dcv`v‡bi ùzUbvsK wfbœ wfbœ
nq| ùzUbvs‡Ki Dci wfwË K‡i †Zj cwi‡kvabvMv‡i jyweª‡KwUs †Zj
O
340 C
c„_KxK…Z wewfbœ As‡ki bvg cq©vqµ‡g †c‡Uªvwjqvg M¨vm,
R¡vjvwb †Zj
†c‡Uªvj (M¨v‡mvwjb), b¨vc_v, †K‡ivwmb, wW‡Rj †Zj, weUywgb
340OC
jyweª‡KwUs †Zj I weUzwgb|
wPÎ 11.2 : †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi AvswkK cvZb
11.3 †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi wewfbœ As‡ki eënvi
†c‡Uªvwjqvg ev Acwi‡kvwaZ †Zj‡K 400 oC ZvcgvÎvq DËß K‡i AvswkK cvZb Kjv‡gi wbgœcÖvšÍ w`‡q cÖ‡ek
Kwi‡q Kjv‡gi wewfbœ ZvcgvÎv AÂj †_‡K †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi wewfbœ Ask msMÖn Kiv nq| Ask Kjv‡gi g‡a¨
20 oC ZvcgvÎvi wb‡P †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi †h Ask M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq _v‡K Zvi bvg †c‡Uªvwjqvg M¨vm| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡g
kZKiv 2 fvM †c‡Uªvwjqvg M¨vm _v‡K| G As‡ki nvB‡WªvKve©‡b 1 †_‡K 4 ch©šÍ Kve©b msL¨v _v‡K| ïi“‡Z G
M¨vm‡K evqy‡Z Db¥y³ K‡i †Ìqv n‡Zv| eZ©gv‡b G‡K Zijxf~Z I wmwjÛv‡i fwZ© K‡i LPG M¨vmiƒ‡c ivbœvi
Kv‡R Ges cÖ‡qvRbxq Zvc Drcv`‡b eënvi Kiv nq|
Ask Kjv‡gi 21-70 oC ZvcgvÎv AÂj †_‡K c„_KxK…Z Ask‡K †c‡Uªvj (M¨v‡mvwjb) e‡j| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡g kZKiv
5 fvM †c‡Uªvj _v‡K| G As‡ki nvB‡WªvKve©‡b 5 †_‡K 10 ch©šÍ Kve©b msL¨v _v‡K| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi GB Ask‡K
†c‡Uªvj BwÄ‡bi (cÖvB‡fU Kvi, gvB‡µvevm) R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq|
Ask Kjv‡gi 71-120 oC ZvcgvÎv AÂj †_‡K c„_KxK…Z Ask‡K b¨vc_v e‡j| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡g kZKiv 10 fvM
b¨vc_v _v‡K| G As‡ki nvB‡WªvKve©‡b 7 †_‡K 14 ch©šÍ Kve©b msL¨v _v‡K| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi GB Ask‡K R¡vjvwb I
†c‡Uªv‡KwgK¨vj wk‡í wewfbœ ivmvqwbK †hŠM I eënvh© `ªe¨ cÖ¯‘wZ‡Z eënvi Kiv nq|
†c‡Uªvwjqvg
Jla
b¨vc_v Møvw÷K evjwZ
†c‡Uªvwjqvg R¡vjvwb
wk‡í eënvi wn‡m‡e eënvi
(10%) (90%)
K…wl mvi
Ab¨vb¨ ˆRe
nvB‡WªvKve©b †hŠM
ivev‡ii PvKv
cøvw÷K, †gwWwmb, K…wÎg ivevi, K…wl
mvi, †cw÷mvBW
wPÎ 11.3 : b¨vc_vi eënvi‡¶Î

imvqb 173
Ask Kjv‡gi 121-170 oC ZvcgvÎv AÂj †_‡K c„_KxK…Z Ask‡K †K‡ivwmb e‡j| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡g kZKiv 13
fvM †K‡ivwmb _v‡K| G As‡ki nvB‡WªvKve©‡b 11 †_‡K 16 ch©šÍ Kve©b msL¨v _v‡K| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi GB Ask‡K
†RU BwÄ‡bi R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq|
171-270 oC ZvcgvÎv AÂj †_‡K c„_KxK…Z Ask‡K wW‡Rj †Zj e‡j| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡g kZKiv 20 fvM wW‡Rj
†Zj _v‡K| G As‡ki nvB‡WªvKve©‡b 16 †_‡K 20 ch©šÍ Kve©b msL¨v _v‡K| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi GB Ask‡K wW‡Rj
evm BwÄ‡bi Ges Rvnv‡Ri R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq|
271-340 oC ZvcgvÎv AÂj †_‡K †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi `yB Ask, jyweª‡KwUs †Zj I R¡vjvwb †Zj c„_K nq| cÖ_g
c„_KxK…Z Ask‡K jyweª‡KwUs †Zj e‡j| G As‡ki nvB‡WªvKve©‡b 20 †_‡K 35 ch©šÍ Kve©b msL¨v _v‡K|
†c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi GB Ask‡K BwÄ‡bi wc”QjKviK wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq| GB ZvcgvÎv AÂ‡j c„_KxK…Z
†c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi Aci Ask‡K R¡vjvwb †Zj e‡j| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi GB Ask‡K Rvnv‡Ri R¡vjvwb Ges evmv evwoi
R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq|
340 oC ZvcgvÎvq c„_K Kivi ci Aewkó Ask‡K weUzwgb e‡j| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡g kZKiv 50 fvM jyweª‡KwUs †Zj
I weUzwgb _v‡K| weUzwgb As‡ki nvB‡WªvKve©‡b Kve©b msL¨v 70 †_‡K †ewk _v‡K| †c‡Uªvwjqvg †_‡K cÖvß
weUzwgb Ask‡K iv¯Ív ˆZwi‡Z eënvi Kiv nq|
cix¶vMv‡i Ges wkíKviLvbvq †h mKj nvB‡WªvKve©b eënvi Kiv nq Zvi †ewki fvMB GB †c‡Uªvwjqvg †_‡K
wewfbœ cÖwµqvq cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq|
11.4 nvB‡WªvKve©b
nvB‡WªvKve©bmg~n ïay Kve©b I nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi mgš^‡q MwVZ| G‡Z Kve©b I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb mg‡hvRx eÜ‡b Ave×
_v‡K| nvB‡WªvKve©bmg~n‡K mvaviYfv‡e (CxHy) wn‡m‡e †jLv nq| †hgb; wg‡_b (CH4), B‡_b (C2H6),
Bw_b (C2H4), mvB‡K¬v‡n‡·b (C6H12), †ebwRb (C6H6)|
1. nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi †kÖwYwefvM
nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K cÖavbZ `yB fv‡M fvM Kiv nq| h_v: A¨vwj‡dwUK nvB‡WªvKve©b I A¨v‡iv‡gwUK nvB‡WªvKve©b|
Kve©b I nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi mgš^‡q MwVZ gy³ wkKj, e× wkKj I kvLvhy³ wkKjwewkó †hŠM‡K A¨vwj‡dwUK
nvB‡WªvKve©b e‡j| GB †hŠ‡M Kve©b-Kve©b GKK eÜb, wØ-eÜb Ges wÎ-eÜb _v‡K Z‡e A¨v‡iv‡gwUK
êwkó¨ _v‡K bv| A¨vwj‡dwUK nvB‡WªvKve©b `yB cÖKvi| h_v- gy³ wkKj nvB‡WªvKve©b I e× wkKj nvB‡WªvKve©b|
wkÿv_©xi KvR : wb‡Pi nvB‡WªvKve©bmg~n‡K gy³ wkKj I e× wkKj I A¨v‡iv‡gwUK nvB‡WªvKve©b wn‡m‡e c„_K
Ki|
H2C CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
H2C CH2 HC CH
CH2
H2C CH3-CH2-CH3 H2C CH2 HC CH
†h mKj nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi Kve©b wkK‡j Kgc‡¶ `ywU cÖvš—xq Kve©b cigvYy _v‡K (e¨wZµg : wg‡_b) Zv‡ì‡K gy³
wkKj nvB‡WªvKve©b e‡j| †hgb, wg‡_b (CH4), B‡_b (CH3-CH3), Bw_b (CH2 = CH2) |
wk¶v_©xi KvR : Dc‡ii D`vni‡Yi mvnvh¨ wb‡q e× wkKj nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi msÁv wjL|
174 imvqb
gy³ wkKj nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K `yB fv‡M fvM Kiv nq| h_v : m¤ú„³ I Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b| m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi
Kve©b wkK‡j Kve©b cigvYymg~n GKK mg‡hvRx eÜ‡b Ave× _v‡K Ges Kve©‡bi Aewkó †hvR¨Zv nvB‡Wªv‡Rb
Øviv c~Y© nq| G‡ì‡K A¨vj‡Kb (Alkane) ejv nq| †hgb, m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b- B‡_b (CH3-CH3),
†cÖv‡cb (CH3-CH2-CH3), weD‡Ub (CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3) BZ¨vw`|
Aciw`‡K Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi Kve©b wkK‡j AšÍZ `ywU Kve©b cigvYy wØeÜb A_ev wÎeÜ‡b Ave× _v‡K
Ges Kve©‡bi Aewkó †hvR¨Zv nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Øviv c~Y© nq|
Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K Avevi `yB fv‡M fvM Kiv nq| h_v- A¨vjwKb (Alkene) I A¨vjKvBb (Alkyne)|
wØeÜb wewkó Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K A¨vjwKb Ges wÎeÜb wewkó Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K A¨vjKvBb e‡j|
Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b- Bw_b (CH2=CH2), †cÖvwcb (CH3-CH=CH2), B_vBb (CH CH), †cÖvcvBb
(CH3-C CH)|
wk¶v_©xi KvR : GB eB‡qi wewfbœ Aa¨v‡qi †hŠM wb‡q A¨vj‡Kb, A¨vjwKb I A¨vjKvB‡bi ZvwjKv ˆZwi Ki|
e× wkKj A¨vwj‡dwUK nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K A¨vwjmvBwK¬K †hŠM e‡j| e× wkKj wewkó A¨vwjmvBwK¬K nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi
Kve©b wkK‡j GK ev GKvwaK GKK eÜb I wØeÜb _vK‡Z cv‡i| G‡ì‡K cÖavbZ `yB fv‡M fvM Kiv nq|
h_v- m¤ú„³ A¨vwjmvBwK¬K I Am¤ú„³ A¨vwjmvBwK¬K nvB‡WªvKve©b|
wk¶v_©xi KvR : wb‡Pi †hŠMmg~n‡K m¤ú„³ I Am¤ú„³ A¨vwjmvBwK¬K †hŠ‡M c„_K Ki|
H2C H2C CH2
CH2
H2C HC CH
A¨v‡iv‡gwUK nvB‡WªvKve©b: †Zvgiv Avjgvwi‡Z Kvc‡ii †cvKv Zvov‡Z b¨vc_wjb Ges mvc Zvov‡Z †dbj
(Kve©wjK GwmW) eënvi Ki hv A¨v‡iv‡gwUK †hŠM| †hgb:
OH
†ebwRb †dbj b¨vc_wjb
K‡qKwU we‡kl êwkó¨m¤úbœ †hŠM‡K A¨v‡iv‡gwUK †hŠM e‡j|

A¨v‡iv‡gwUK †hŠMmg~n mvaviYZ 5, 6 ev 7 m`‡mï mgZjxq Pwµq †hŠM| G‡Z GKvšÍi wØ-eÜb _v‡K; A_©vr
ch©vqµ‡g Kve©b-Kve©b GKwU GKK eÜb Ges GKwU wØ-eÜb _v‡K|
[A¨v‡iv‡gwUK †hŠ‡Mi êwkó¨ m¤ú‡K© †Zvgiv cieZ©x †kªwY‡Z we¯—vwiZ Rvb‡Z cvi‡e]
imvqb 175
2. m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b (A¨vj‡Kb; Alkane)

m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi Kve©b wkK‡j Kve©b cigvYymg~n GKK eÜ‡b Ave× _v‡K Ges Kve©‡bi Aewkó †hvR¨Zv
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Øviv c~Y© nq| A¨vj‡K‡bi mvaviY ms‡KZ CnH2n+2| n Gi wewfbœ gv‡bi Rb¨ wewfbœ Kve©b msL¨v
wewkó A¨vj‡Kb cvIqv hvq| G‡K R-H ØvivI cÖKvk Kiv nq| GLv‡b, R= CnH2n+1 Ges G‡K A¨vjKvBj g~jK
e‡j| g~j A¨vj‡K‡bi Bs‡iwR bv‡gi ÔaneÕ As‡ki cwie‡Z© ÔylÕ hy³ K‡i A¨vjKvBj g~j‡Ki bvgKiY Kiv nq|
m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi ¶z`ªZg m`m¨ wg‡_b (CH4)| †c‡Uªvwjqvg wewfbœ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi wgkÖY| †c‡Uªvwjqvg †_‡K
AvswkK cvZb c×wZ‡Z m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K c„_K Kiv nq| G c×wZ wkí‡¶‡Î jvfRbK bq|
cÖ¯‘wZ : †c‡Uªvwjqvg †_‡K c„_K Kiv QvovI wkí‡¶‡Î Kve©b g‡bvA·vBW I Kve©b WvBA·vBW †_‡K m¤ú„³
nvB‡WªvKve©b (wg‡_b) cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| Kve©b g‡bvA·vBW (CO) I H2 A_ev Kve©b WvBA·vBW (CO2) I H2 Gi
wgkÖY‡K 250 oC ZvcgvÎvq DËß wb‡Kj (Ni) cÖfve‡Ki Dci w`‡q cÖevwnZ Ki‡j cÖPzi cwigv‡Y wg‡_b Drcbœ nq|
250 oC
CO(g) + 3H2(g) CH4(g) + H2O(g) cvB‡ivjvBwmm : evqy i
Ni Abycw¯’wZ‡Z D”P ZvcgvÎvq
CO2(g) + 4H2(g) 250 oC
CH4(g) + 2H2O(g) †c‡Uªvwjqvg‡K we‡hvwRZ Kiv|
Ni
GQvov †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi AvswkK cvZ‡b cÖvß D”PZi A¨vj‡K‡bi cÖfveKxq fvO‡bi (Catalytic cracking)
gva¨‡g ¶z`ª A¨vj‡Kb cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| Avgv‡ì †`‡k cÖvK…wZK M¨vm cvIqvi c~‡e© †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi Ask
†K‡ivwmb‡K D”P ZvcgvÎvq cvB‡ivjvBwmm K‡i j¨ve‡iUwi‡Z eënvi Kiv n‡Zv| GQvov cix¶vMv‡i d¨vwU
Gwm‡Wi jeY †_‡K A¨vj‡Kb cÖ¯—zZ Kiv hvq| ˆRe GwmW ev d¨vwU Gwm‡Wi †mvwWqvg jeY‡K †mvWvjvBg
mn‡hv‡M DËß Ki‡j A¨vj‡Kb Drcbœ nq|
R-COONa + NaOH (CaO) o ' R - H + Na CO (CaO)
2 3
†fŠZ ag© : m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi MjbvsK, ùzUbvsK I †fŠZ Ae¯’v †hŠ‡M Kve©b msL¨vi Dci wbf©ikxj| m¤ú„³
nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi Kve©b msL¨vi cwieZ©‡bi Kvi‡Y Gi †fŠZ Ae¯’v cwiewZ©Z nq| GK †_‡K Pvi Kve©b msL¨v
wewkó m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b M¨vmxq Ae¯’vq _v‡K| G‡ì ùzUbvsK K¶ ZvcgvÎvi wb‡P| cuvP †_‡K c‡bi Kve©b
msL¨v wewkó m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b Zij Ae¯’vq _v‡K| G‡ì ùzUbvsK ¯^vfvweK K¶ ZvcgvÎvi Dc‡i| cuvP
Kve©b wewkó m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b †c‡›U‡bi ùzUbvsK 36oC| m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©‡b Kve©b msL¨v 16 ev Zvi
†ewk n‡j †hŠMmg~n mvaviYZ KwVb cÖK…wZi nq|
†hŠ‡M Kve©b A¨vj‡K‡bi ms‡KZ MjbvsK ùzUbvsK †fŠZ Ae¯’v
msL¨v bvg
1 wg‡_b CH4 -182.5oC -161.6oC M¨vmxq
2 B‡_b CH3-CH3 o
-183.3 C -88.6 C o M¨vmxq
o o
3 †cÖv‡cb CH3-CH2-CH3 -189.7 C -42 C M¨vmxq
4 weD‡Ub CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 -138.3oC - 1 oC M¨vmxq
o
5 †c‡›Ub CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 -129.8 C o 36 C Zij
6 †n‡·b CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 -95.3oC 69 oC Zij
o o
16 †n·v‡W‡Kb C16H34 18 C 135 C KwVb
20 AvB‡Kv‡mb C20H42 37oC 343 oC KwVb
QK 11.2: wewfbœ A¨vj‡K‡bi MjbvsK, ùzUbvsK I †fŠZ Ae¯’v
Dc‡i †Uwe‡j K‡qKwU g~j A¨vj‡K‡bi bvg †Ìqv n‡q‡Q| A¨vj‡K‡bi Kve©‡bi mv‡_ †Kv‡bv cÖwZ¯’vcK gy³ _vK‡j
†hŠ‡Mi bvgKi‡Yi mgq wkK‡j cÖwZ¯’vc‡Ki Ae¯’vb msL¨v bvgmn wjL‡Z nq| †hgb- CH3– CH –CH3 |
(2-wg_vBj †cÖv‡cb) CH 3
wk¶v_©xi KvR: C7H16, C8H18, C9H20 †hŠM¸‡jvi KviYmn m¤¢ve¨ MjbvsK I ùzUbvsK wjL|
176 imvqb
ivmvqwbK ag©
A¨vj‡Kbmg~n Kve©b-Kve©b I Kve©b-nvB‡Wªv‡Rb kw³kvjx GKK mg‡hvRx eÜ‡bi gva¨‡g MwVZ| ZvB GB
†hŠMmg~n mvaviYZ ivmvqwbK wewµqvq AskMÖnY K‡i bv| GRb¨ G‡ì‡K c¨vivwdb ejv nq| c¨vivwdb A_©
Avmw³nxb| Giv GwmW, ¶vi, avZz I Rvi‡Ki mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i bv| GgbwK AK‡Ub (C8H18) Mvp
mvjwdDwiK GwmW, †mvwWqvg avZz I cUvwmqvg cvig¨v½v‡b‡Ui mv‡_ wewµqvq AskMÖnY K‡i bv| Z‡e
A¨vj‡Kbmg~n `nb, n¨v‡jv‡Rb cÖwZ¯’vcb I Zvcxq we‡hvRb wewµqvq AskMÖnY K‡i|
`nb : A¨vj‡Kbmg~n Kve©b I nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi mgš^‡q MwVZ| Kve©b I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb DfqB `vn¨ c`v_©| Z‡e
Kve©‡bi Zzjbvq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb AwaKZi `vn¨| m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b ev A¨vj‡Kb AwZwi³ Aw·‡Rb ev evqyi mv‡_
wewµqv K‡i CO2 I H2O Drcbœ K‡i| GB wewµqvq ch©vß cwigvY Zvckw³ Drcbœ nq, ZvB A¨vj‡Kbmg~n‡K
R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq|
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) o CO2(g) +2H2O(g) + Zvckw³
C2H6(g) + 7/2O2(g) o 2CO2(g) +3H2O(g) + Zvckw³
wewµqvq Aw·‡R‡bi mieivn ch©vß bv n‡j A¨vj‡K‡bi Ac~Y© `nb nq| Ac~Y© `n‡b CO2(g) Gi cwie‡Z© AwZ
welv³ Kve©b g‡bv·vBW M¨vm CO I Kve©b C Drcbœ nq|
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) o 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g) + Zvckw³
CH4(g) + O2(g) o C(s) + 2H2O(g) + Zvckw³
evwoi KvR : A¨vj‡K‡bi Ac~Y© `nb ¯^v¯’¨, cwi‡ek I RvZxq A_©bxwZi ¶wZmvab K‡i- gZvgZ `vI
n¨v‡jv‡Rb cÖwZ¯’vcb: n¨v‡jv‡Rb cÖwZ¯’vcb A¨vj‡K‡bi GKwU êwkóc~Y© wewµqv| wg‡_b g„`y m~h©v‡jv‡Ki (Ultraviolet;
UV) Dcw¯’wZ‡Z †K¬vwi‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i wg_vBj‡K¬vivBW (CH3Cl) WvB‡K¬v‡ivwg‡_b (CH2Cl2)
UªvB‡K¬v‡ivwg‡_b (CHCl3) I †UUªv‡K¬v‡ivwg‡_b (CCl4) Gi wgkÖY Drcbœ K‡i| wewµqvi cÖwZ av‡c wg‡_‡bi
GKwU K‡i nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvYy †K¬vwib cigvYy Øviv cÖwZ¯’vwcZ nq Ges nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i|
GwU GKwU wkKj wewµqv Ges G‡K mn‡R wbqš¿Y Kiv hvq bv|
hȣ
CH4(g) + Cl2 CH3Cl(g)+ HCl(g)
hȣ
CH3Cl(g) + Cl2(g) CH2Cl2(g) + HCl(g)
hȣ
CH2Cl2(g) + Cl2(g) CHCl3(g) + HCl(g)
hȣ
CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g) CCl4(g) + HCl(g)
A¨vj‡K‡bi †K¬vwib cÖwZ¯’vcb wewµqv †c‡Uªv‡KwgK¨vj wk‡íi Rb¨ Zvrch©c~Y©| GB wewµqvi Drcv` wg_vBj
†K¬vivBW (CH3Cl) wkí‡¶‡Î wewfbœ ivmvqwbK `ªe¨ (A¨vj‡Kvnj, A¨vjwWnvBW, ˆReGwmW cÖf…wZ) cÖ¯‘wZ‡Z
eënvi Kiv nq| WvB‡K¬v‡ivwg‡_b‡K (CH2Cl2) is wk‡í `ªveK wn‡m‡e, UªvB‡K¬v‡ivwg‡_b (CHCl3)
imvqb 177
ev †K¬vidig‡K †PZbvbvkK wn‡m‡e Ges †UUªv‡K¬v‡ivwg‡_b‡K (CCl4) WªvBIqvk Ki‡Z `ªveK wn‡m‡e eënvi
Kiv n‡Zv| †K¬vwibhy³ nvB‡WªvKve©b welv³ Ges welv³Zvi cwigvY wbf©i K‡i †hŠ‡M †K¬vwib msL¨vi Dci|
†UUªv‡K¬v‡ivwg‡_b wMÖR I gqjv‡K mn‡R `ªexf~Z Ki‡Z cv‡i|
fvOb ev we‡hvRb (Cracking)
eo nvB‡WªvKve©b AYy‡K †f‡O AwaK eënvi Dc‡hvMx Zzjbvg~jK ¶z`ª AYy‡Z cwiYZ Kiv‡K fvOb e‡j| fvOb
`yBfv‡e m¤úbœ Kiv nq| cÖfveKwenxb D”P Zvc I Pv‡c m¤úbœ fvOb‡K Zvcxq fvOb e‡j| cÖfveKmn wbgœ Zvc
I Pv‡c m¤úbœ fvOb‡K cÖfveKxq fvOb e‡j| fvOb cÖwµqvq †Kv‡bv GKK wewµqv m¤úbœ nq bv| wewµqvq wKQz
wØ-eÜbhy³ nvB‡WªvKve©bmn, nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi wgkÖY Drcbœ nq| G cÖwµqvi GKwU m¤¢ve¨ wewµqv-
C15H32 2C2H4 + C3H6 + C8H18

Bw_b †cÖvwcb AK‡Ub
mvaviYfv‡e fvOb wewµqv‡K wb¤œi~‡c Dc¯’vcb Kiv hvq;
`xN© wkKjwewkó A¨vj‡Kb ¶z`ª wkKjwewkó A¨vj‡K‡bi wgkÖY + ¶z`ª wkKj wewkó A¨vjwK‡bi wgkÖY
Zvcxq fvOb ev we‡hvRb: `xN© wkKjwewkó A¨vj‡Kb‡K D”P Pvc (70 evqyPvc) I ZvcgvÎvq (cÖvq 750oC)
DËß Ki‡j Kve©b wkK‡ji eÜb †f‡O ¶z`ª wkKjwewkó A¨vj‡Kb I A¨vjwK‡bi wgkÖY cvIqv hvq|
cÖfveKxq fvOb: fvOb wewµqvi MwZ e„w× Kivi Rb¨ cÖfveK eënvi Kiv n‡j G‡K cÖfveKxq we‡hvRb e‡j|
cÖfveK wn‡m‡e mvaviYZ wRIjvBUm (Zeolites), A¨vjywgwbqvg A·vBW (Al2O3) ev wmwjKb WvBA·vBW
(SiO2) eënvi Kiv nq| wRIjvBUm n‡jv FYvZ¥K Avavb wewkó A¨vjywg‡bvwmwj‡KU (RwUj †hŠM)| Bnv
A¨vjywgwbqvg, wmwjKb I Aw·‡Rb cigvYywewkó e„nr j¨vwUm| cÖfve‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z A‡c¶vK…Z Kg ZvcgvÎvq
(500oC) I Pv‡c D”PZi A¨vj‡Kb‡K †f‡O ¶z`ªZi A¨vj‡Kb (C5aC10) ˆZwi Kiv hvq| GB wewµqvq kvLvhy³
A¨vj‡Kb Ges A¨v‡iv‡gwUK nvB‡WªvKve©b (†ebwRb) Drcbœ nq| cÖfve‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z GB wewµqvq A¨vjwKb
wn‡m‡e cÖavbZ Bw_b M¨vm cvIqv hvq| e„nr wkKj hy³ A¨vj‡K‡bi Zzjbvq ¶z`ª wkKjhy³ A¨vj‡Kb DËg
R¡vjvwb| ZvB fvOb ev we‡hvRb, †c‡Uªvwjqvg wk‡í GKwU Zvrch©c~Y© wewµqv| GB wewµqvi gva¨‡g wW‡Rj
R¡vjvwb‡K †c‡Uªvj R¡vjvwb‡Z cwiYZ Kiv QvovI A¨vjwKb I nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| †c‡Uªv‡KwgK¨vj
wk‡í A¨vjwKb †_‡K A¨vj‡Kvnjmn wewfbœ ˆRe †hŠM I cøvw÷K ˆZwi Kiv nq|
C18H38 o C 6H14 + 6C2H4
C18H38 oC 8H16 + C10H20 + H2
A¨vj‡K‡bi Ab¨vb¨ eënvi: A¨vj‡Kb‡K wewfbœ BwÄ‡bi R¡vjvwb, we`y¨r Drcv`‡b, wcw”QjKviK †Zj wn‡m‡e
Ges ivmvqwbK wk‡í wewfbœ ivmvqwbK `ªe¨ cÖ¯‘wZ‡Z eënvi Kiv nq| GQvovI e„nr wkKjwewkó A¨vj‡Kb‡K
†gvg (Wax) ˆZwii Rb¨ I iv¯Ív cvKv Kivi Rb¨ eënvi Kiv nq| A¨vj‡Kb †_‡K cÖ¯‘Z Zij †gvg Ges
KwVb †gvg wbw`©ó Abycv‡Z wgwkÖZ Ki‡j †c÷ Gi b¨vq c`v_© cvIqv hvq, hv wewfbœ iKg gvwjk †hgb: wfKm&
(vicks) ˆZwi‡Z eëüZ nq|
178 imvqb
3. Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b (A¨vjwKb I A¨vjKvBb)

Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi Kve©b wkK‡j Aš—Z GKwU wØ-eÜb A_ev wÎ-eÜb _v‡K Ges Kve©‡bi Aewkó
†hvR¨Zv nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Øviv c~Y© nq| wØ-eÜb hy³ Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K A¨vjwKb Ges wÎ-eÜb hy³ Am¤ú„³
nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K A¨vjKvBb e‡j|
K. A¨vjwKb (Alkene): A¨vjwK‡bi Kve©b wkK‡j Aš—Z `ywU Kve©b cigvYyi g‡a¨ wØ-eÜb _v‡K Ges Kve©‡bi
Aewkó †hvR¨Zv nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Øviv c~Y© nq| A¨vjwK‡bi mvaviY ms‡KZ CnH2n| g~j A¨vj‡K‡bi Bs‡iwR bv‡gi
ÔaneÕ As‡ki cwie‡Z© ÔeneÕ hy³ K‡i A¨vjwK‡bi bvgKiY Kiv nq| A¨vjwKb †kÖwYi ¶z`ªZg I mij m`m¨
Bw_b ev Bw_wjb (CH2=CH2)| Kve©b-Kve©b wØ-eÜb‡K A¨vjwK‡bi Kvh©Kix g~jK e‡j| A¨vjwK‡bi
ivmvqwbK ag© GB g~j‡Ki Dci wbf©i K‡i|
A¨vjwKb cÖ¯‘wZ: A¨vjwKb †kªwYi mvgvb¨ †hŠM cÖK…wZ‡Z cvIqv hvq| †c‡Uªv‡KwgK¨vj wk‡í eëüZ AwaKvsk
A¨vjwKb †c‡Uªvwjqvg †_‡K cÖvß D”PZi A¨vj‡K‡bi cÖfveKxq we‡hvR‡bi gva¨‡g cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq|
†c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi AvswkK cvZ‡b cÖvß †K‡ivwm‡bi Dcv`vb †Wv‡W‡Kb (C12H26) †K A¨vjywgwbqvg A·vBW I
†µvwgqvg A·vB‡Wi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z 500oC ZvcgvÎvq DËß Ki‡j ¶z`ª wkKj hy³ A¨vj‡Kb I Bw_b Drcbœ nq|
500 oC
C12H26 C10H22 + H 2C CH2
C12H26 500 oC C8H16 + C4H8 + H2
B_vbj‡K A¨vjywgwbqvg A·vB‡Wi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z DËß Ki‡j ev mvjwdDwiK GwmW Øviv wbi“w`Z Ki‡j cvwb
AcmvwiZ n‡q Bw_wjb ev Bw_b Drcbœ K‡i|
H2SO4
CH3CH2OH H2C CH2
-H2O
Al2O3, '
CH3CH2OH H 2C CH2
-H2O
A¨vjwK‡bi †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK ag©: A¨vj‡K‡bi b¨vq A¨vjwKbmg~n `vn¨ Ges M¨vmxq, Zij I KwVb Ae¯’vq
_v‡K| A¨vjwK‡bi Zvrch©c~Y© ivmvqwbK êwk‡óï Kvi‡Y G‡ì‡K †c‡Uªv‡KwgK¨vj wk‡í eënvi Kiv nq|
A¨vjwKb AYy‡Z Kve©b-Kve©b wØ-eÜb _vKvq Giv ivmvqwbKfv‡e AZ¨š— mwµq| KviY wØ-eÜ‡bi GKwU
eÜb kw³kvjx n‡jI Aci eÜbwU Zzjbvg~jK `ye©j| `nb, ms‡hvRb Ges cwjgviKiY A¨vjwK‡bi êwkó¨c~Y©
wewµqv|
`nb: A¨vjwKb AwZwi³ Aw·‡Rb ev evqyi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i CO2 I H2O Drcbœ K‡i| GB wewµqvq ch©vß cwigvY
Zvckw³ Drcbœ nq| A¨vjwKb Kg `vn¨, KviY A¨vjwK‡b nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi kZKiv cwigvY A¨vj‡K‡bi Zzjbvq Kg|
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) o 2CO 2(g) + 2H 2O(g) + Zvckw³

A¨vjwK‡bi ms‡hvRb: A¨vjwKb AYy‡Z wØ-eÜb _vKvq Bnv mn‡R ms‡hvRb ev hyZ wewµqvq AskMÖnY K‡i| GB
wewµqvq A¨vjwK‡bi Kve©b-Kve©b wØ-eÜb †f‡O GKK eÜ‡b cwiYZ nq|
1. nvB‡Wªv‡Rb ms‡hvRb: avZe cÖfve‡Ki (Ni) Dcw¯’wZ‡Z 180-200oC ZvcgvÎvq A¨vjwKb nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi
imvqb 179
mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i A¨vj‡Kb Drcbœ K‡i| G‡K cÖfveKxq nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bkb (Catalytic hydrogenetion) e‡j|
180-200 oC
H2C CH2 (g) + H2 (g) H3C CH3(g)
Ni
Zij Dw™¢¾¨ †Zj‡K (hv‡Z Kve©b-Kve©b GKvwaK-eÜb _v‡K) GB wewµqvi gva¨‡g AvswkK m¤ú„³ K‡i
gvR©vwi‡b (Margarine) cwiYZ Kiv nq| gvR©vwib gvLb ˆZwi Ki‡Z eëüZ nq|
2. †eªvwgb ms‡hvRb: A¨vjwKb Kgjv-jvj e‡Y©i †eªvwgb M¨vm ev †eªvwgb cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqvq
1,2-WvB‡eªv‡gvA¨vj‡Kb Drcbœ K‡i| wewµqvi d‡j †eªvwg‡bi eY© webó nq| GB wewµqvi gva¨‡g Am¤ú„³
nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K kbv³ Kiv nq|
H2C CH2 (g) + Br2 (g) CH2Br-CH2Br (l)
3. A¨vjwK‡bi RviY: A¨vjwKb †hgb, Bw_b‡K jNy Rjxq cUvwmqvg cvig¨v½v‡bU Øviv RvwiZ Ki‡j
Bw_wjb MøvBKj Drcbœ nq| GB wewµqvq jNy Rjxq cUvwmqvg cvi g¨v½v‡b‡Ui †Mvjvcx ev †e¸wb eY© webó nq|
GB wewµqvi gva¨‡g Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b‡K kbv³ Kiv hvq|
KMnO4
CH2 CH2 (g) + H2 O ( l ) + [ O ] CH2(OH)-CH2(OH)(l)
4. cvwb ms‡hvRb: D”P Zvc (300 oC), D”P Pvc (60 evqyPvc) I dmdwiK GwmW cÖfve‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z
A¨vjwKb cvwb ev‡®úi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i A¨vj‡Kvnj Drcbœ K‡i|
300 oC, 60 atm
H2C CH2(g) + H2O(g) CH3 CH2OH(l)
H3PO4
†Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv †`‡k †hgb, eªvwR‡j A¨vj‡Kvnj‡K cwi‡ekevÜe R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e Ges mKj †`‡k †c‡Uªvwjqvg
wk‡í `ªveK wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq, ZvB GB wewµqv AZ¨šÍ Zvrch©c~Y©| wkí‡¶‡Î G wewµqv jvfRbK bq e‡j
wk‡í GB wewµqvi gva¨‡g A¨vj‡Kvnj cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq bv|
cwjgviKiY
D”P Zvc (200 oC) I D”P Pv‡c (1000 evqyPvc) AmsL¨ A¨vjwKb AYy ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ hy³ n‡q e„nr AvK…wZi
AYy MVb K‡i| GB wewµqvq Drcbœ e„nr AYy‡K cwjgvi Ges wewµqv‡K cwjgviKiY wewµqv e‡j| †h AmsL¨
wewµqK AYy hy³ nq, Zv‡ì cÖ‡Z¨KwU AYy‡K g‡bvgvi e‡j| mKj cøvw÷K `ªe¨ I K…wÎg Zš‘ GB wewµqvi
gva¨‡g ˆZwi Kiv nq| Bw_wjb AYy †_‡K cÖvß cwjgvi‡K cwjw_b e‡j|
200 oC, 1000 atm
n H2C CH2(g) -CH2-CH2- (s)
n
L. A¨vjKvBb (Alkyne): A¨vjKvB‡bi Kve©b wkK‡j AšÍZ `ywU Kve©b cigvYyi g‡a¨ wÎ-eÜb _v‡K Ges
Kve©‡bi Aewkó †hvR¨Zv nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Øviv c~Y© nq| A¨jKvB‡bi mvaviY ms‡KZ CnH2n-2| gyj A¨vj‡K‡bi
Bs‡iwR bv‡gi ÔaneÕ As‡ki cwie‡Z© ÔyneÕ hy³ K‡i A¨vjKvB‡bi bvgKiY Kiv nq| A¨vjKvBb †kÖwYi ¶z`ªZg I
mij m`m¨ B_vBb ev A¨vwmwUwjb (CH CH)| Kve©b-Kve©b wÎ-eÜb‡K A¨vjKvB‡bi Kvh©Kix g~jK e‡j|
A¨vjKvB‡bi ivmvqwbK ag© GB g~j‡Ki Dci wbf©i K‡i|
A¨vjKvBb cÖ¯‘wZ: cÖvK…wZK M¨vm ev wg‡_b‡K 1500 oC ZvcgvÎvq evqyi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z `nb Ki‡j B_vBb Drcbœ
nq| wg‡_‡bi AvswkK `nb †_‡K GB wewµqvi cÖ‡qvRbxq Zvc cvIqv hvq| wewµqvi mgq wg‡_b AYy‡Z eÜb
180 imvqb
fvOv-Movi gva¨‡g B_vBb Drcbœ nq|
2CH4(g) + 3/2O2(g) o HC CH (g) + 3H2O(g) + Zvc (wg_‡bi AvswkK `nb)

2CH4(g) o HC CH(g) + 3H2(g)
wkí‡¶‡Î K¨vjwmqvg Kve©vBW †_‡K B_vBb M¨vm cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| K¨vjwmqvg Kve©vB‡W †duvUvq †duvUvq cvwb †hvM
Ki‡j B_vBb ev A¨vwmwUwjb M¨vm Drcbœ nq|
CaC2(s) + 2H 2O(l) HC CH(g) + Ca(OH)2
A¨vjKvB‡bi †fŠZ I ivmvqwbK ag© : A¨vj‡Kb I A¨vjwK‡bi b¨vq A¨vjKvBbmg~n M¨vmxq, Zij I KwVb
Ae¯’vq _v‡K| `yB †_‡K Pvi Kve©bwewkó A¨vjKvBb M¨vmxq, cuvP †_‡K GMvi Kve©bwewkó A¨vjKvBb Zij Ges
D”PZi A¨vjKvBb KwVb Ae¯’vq _v‡K| A¨vjKvBb †kÖwYi †hŠMI ivmvqwbK wewµqvi cÖwZ AZ¨šÍ mwµq, Z‡e
A¨vjwK‡bi Zzjbvq mwµqZv wKQzUv Kg| A¨vjKvBbmg~n nvB‡Wªv‡Rb, †eªvwg‡bi mv‡_ ms‡hvRb wewµqvq AskMÖnY
K‡i| A¨vjwKb nvB‡Wªv‡Rb, †eªvwg‡bi mv‡_ ms‡hvRb wewµqvq GK AYy (nvB‡Wªv‡Rb, †eªvwg‡bi) hy³ n‡q
Kve©b-Kve©b GKK eÜb wewkó †hŠM Drcbœ K‡i| Aciw`‡K A¨vjKvBb nvB‡Wªv‡Rb, †eªvwg‡bi mv‡_ ms‡hvRb
wewµqvq cÖ_‡g GK AYy hy³ n‡q Kve©b-Kve©b wØ-eÜbwewkó †hŠM Ges cieZ©x‡Z Ab¨ GK AYy (nvB‡Wªv‡Rb,
†eªvwg‡bi) hy³ n‡q GKK eÜbwewkó †hŠM Drcbœ K‡i|
KvR : wb‡Pi wewµqv¸‡jvi cÖkœ‡evaK ¯’vb c~Y© Ki|
H2 H2
HC CH ? ?
Br2 Br2
HC CH ? ?
Am¤ú„³Zvi cix¶v (†eªvwgb cvwb cix¶v):

†eªvwgb‡K ˆRe `ªve‡K ev cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z K‡i jvj/ev`vwg e‡Y©i `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| m¤ú„³ I Am¤ú„³
nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi g‡a¨ c„_Kfv‡e K‡qK †duvUv †eªvwgb `ªeY †hvM K‡i SuvKv‡Z nq| m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b jvj/ev`vwg
e‡Y©i †eªvwgb `ªe‡Yi mv‡_ wewµqvq AskMÖnY K‡i bv Ges `ªe‡Yi jvj/ev`vwg e‡Y©i †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b nq bv|
Aciw`‡K Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b (A¨vjwKb ev A¨vjKvBb) jvj/ev`vwg e‡Y©i †eªvwgb `ªe‡Yi mv‡_ wewµqvq
AskMÖnY K‡i Kve©b-Kve©b wØ-eÜ‡b A_ev wÎ-eÜ‡b †eªvwgb AYy hy³ nq| d‡j †eªvwgb `ªe‡Yi jvj/ev`vwg eY©
webó nq| wewµqvq †eªvwgb `ªe‡Yi eY© cwieZ©b ch©‡e¶Y K‡i m¤ú„³ I Am¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©‡bi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨
Kiv nq|
C2H6(g) + Br2(`ªeY) o wewµqv nq bv (`ªe‡Yi eY© cwieZ©b nq bv)
C2H4(g) + Br2(`ªeY) o BrCH2-CH2Br(l) (`ªe‡Yi eY© cwieZ©b nq)
C2H2(g) + 2Br2(`ªeY) o Br2CH-CHBr2(l) (`ªe‡Yi eY© cwieZ©b nq)
imvqb 181
GKBfv‡e cUvwmqvg cvig¨v½v‡b‡Ui `ªeY eënvi K‡i Am¤ú„³Zvi cix¶v Kiv hvq|
11.5 cwjgvi: cÖK…wZ‡Z Avgiv ˆ`bw›`b Kv‡R †h mKj `ªe¨vw` eënvi Kwi Zvi †ewki fvMB cwjgvi| `yB
ai‡bi cwjgvi Av‡Q| cÖvK…wZK cwjgvi I K…wÎg cwjgvi| cÖvK…wZK cwjgv‡ii g‡a¨ Zzjv, ivevi, ÷vP© (fvZ),
†cÖvwUb Ges K…wÎg cwjgv‡ii g‡a¨ cøvw÷K `ªe¨, †Zvgvi nv‡Zi Kjg, cwjG÷vi Kvco BZ¨vw`|
K. cwjgviKiY wewµqv
GKB c`v‡_©i AmsL¨ AYy ev GKvwaK c`v‡_©i AmsL¨ AYy ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ hy³ n‡q e„nr AYy MVb Kivi cÖwµqv‡K
cwjgviKiY e‡j| GB wewµqvq Drcbœ e„nr AYy‡K cwjgvi Ges wewµqK AmsL¨ ¶z`ª AYyi cÖ‡Z¨KwU‡K g‡bvgvi
e‡j|
-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A- -A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-
cwjgvi †hLv‡b g‡bvgvi = A cwjgvi †hLv‡b g‡bvgvi = A-B
GKB wewµq‡Ki AmsL¨ AYy hy³ n‡q cwjgvi MVb Kivi cÖwµqv‡K hyZ cwjgviKiY (Addition
Polymerisation) e‡j| hyZ cwjgviKi‡Y mvaviYZ wØ-eÜb wewkó A¨vjwKb AYy g‡bvgvi wn‡m‡e wewµqv
K‡i| hyZ cwjgviKi‡Y AmsL¨ g‡bvgvi AYy hy³ nIqvi mgq †Kv‡bv cÖKvi ¶z`ª AYy AcmvwiZ nq bv|
cwjgviKiY
n H2C CH [ CH2 - CH ]
n, X=wewfbœ GK‡hvRx g~jK|
X X
mKj cøvw÷K `ªe¨ cwjgvi| imvqbwe`MY cwjgvi †hŠ‡Mi wKQz we‡kl êwkó¨ eY©bv Kivi Rb¨ cøvw÷K kãwU
eënvi K‡ib| AmsL¨ †QvU AYy GK‡Î hy³ n‡q cwjgvi MwVZ nq| GB †QvU AYy‡K g‡bvgvi ejv nq|
ivmvqwbK c`v_© we‡klZ wØ-eÜb wewkó A¨vjwKb, A¨vjwWnvBW, A¨vj‡Kvnj, A¨vwgb, ˆRe Gwm‡Wi
cwjgviKiY wewµqvi gva¨‡g cøvw÷K cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| cøvw÷K I Zš‘ ˆZwii Rb¨ G mKj Dcv`vb †c‡Uªvwjqvg
†_‡K c„_K Kiv nq A_ev †c‡Uªvwjqvg Dcv`vb †_‡K cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq|
wk¶v_©xi KvR: g‡bvgv‡ii ms‡KZ †_‡K hyZ cwjgv‡ii ms‡KZ wjL|

CH2=CH-CH3, CH2=CHCl, CF2=CF2
†cÖvwcb wfbvBj‡K¬vivBW †UUªv‡d¬v‡ivBw_b
cwjgvi cÖ¯‘wZi cÖ_g w`‡K 200 oC ZvcgvÎvq, 1000 evqyPv‡c mvgvb¨ Aw·‡R‡bi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z Bw_wj‡bi
cwjgvi cwjw_b cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| GB cwjw_‡b AwaK cwigv‡Y kvLvhy³ `xN© Kve©b wkKj _v‡K, G‡Z cwjgv‡ii
NbZ¡ I MjbvsK Kg Ges †Kvgj cÖK…wZi nq| GB cwjw_b‡K wbgœ Nb‡Z¡i cwjw_b (LDPE; Low Density
Poly Ethene) e‡j|
Rvg©vb imvqbwe` Kvj© wRMjvi (Karl Ziegler) cÖfve‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z A‡bK Kg Zvc I Pv‡c (60 oC, GK
evqyPv‡c) Bw_wj‡bi cwjgvi cwjw_b cÖ¯‘Z K‡ib| GB cwjw_‡b kvLvi msL¨v Kg _v‡K, G‡Z cwjgv‡ii NbZ¡,
MjbvsK Zzjbvg~jKfv‡e †ewk nq| mvgvb¨ kvLv hy³ _vKvq cwjw_‡bi `„pZv e„w× cvq|
182 imvqb
G‡K D”P Nb‡Z¡i cwjw_b (HDPE; High Density Poly Ethene) e‡j|
GKvwaK wewµq‡Ki AmsL¨ AYy hy³ n‡q cwjgvi MVb Kivi cÖwµqv‡K Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY (Condensation
Polymerisation) e‡j| Nbxfeb cwjgviKi‡Y mvaviYZ A¨vjwWnvBW, A¨vj‡Kvnj, A¨vwgb I ˆRe Gwm‡Wi
AYy g‡bvgvi wn‡m‡e wewµqv K‡i| Nbxfeb cwjgviKi‡Y AmsL¨ g‡bvgvi AYy hy³ nIqvi mgq cvwb (H2O),
Kve©b WvBA·vB‡Wi (CO2) b¨vq ¶z`ª AYy AcmvwiZ nq| †Kv‡bv wewµq‡K `yB cÖv‡šÍ `yB ai‡bi Kvh©Kixg~jK
_vK‡j H wewµq‡Ki GKvwaK AYy hy³ n‡q G cwjgviKiY N‡U| eûj eëüZ Nbxfeb cwjgv‡ii bvg bvBjb|
D”P Zvc, D”P Pv‡c cÖfve‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z AmsL¨ WvBKve©w·wjK GwmW Ges WvBA¨vwgb AYy ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ hy³
n‡q bvBjb Drcbœ K‡i|
nHOOC-(CH2)4-COOH + nH2N-(CH2)6-NH2 o -OC-(CH
[ 2)4-COHN-(CH2)6-NH-
]n + 2nH2O
bvBjb
cÖvK…wZK cwjgvimg~n (÷vP©, †mjy‡jvR I †cÖvwUb) Nbxfeb cwjgv‡ii D`vniY| cÖvK…wZK cwjgvi †hgb,
†mjy‡jvR, Dj, wmé w`‡q myZv ˆZwi Kiv hvq wKš‘ ÷vP© I ivevi w`‡q myZv ˆZwi Kiv hvq bv| A_©vr cÖvK…wZK
cwjgvi `yB ai‡bi| K…wÎg cwjgvi (bvBjb, cwj÷vi) w`‡q Kvco ˆZwi, iwk Ges ùv‡Zi eªvk ˆZwi Kiv nq|
cwjgv‡ii bvg g‡bvgv‡ii ms‡KZ cwjgv‡ii ag© eënvi
cwjw_b CH2=CH2 mn‡R KvUv hvq bv, cøvw÷K e¨vM, cøvw÷K wkU
†UKmB
cwj‡cÖvwcb CH2=CH-CH3 mn‡R KvUv hvq bv, cøvw÷K iwk, cøvw÷K

†evZj
†UKmB
cwjwfbvBj‡K¬vivBW (PVC) CH2=CHCl k³, KwVb Ges cwjw_‡bi cvwbi cvBc, we`y¨r Acwievnx
Zzjbvq Kg bgbxq c`v_©
cwj‡UUªv‡d¬v‡ivBw_b CF2=CF2 bbw÷K I Zvcmn bb w÷K cvÎ

(PTFE) ev †Udjb
bvBjb HOOC-(CH2)4-COOH PKP‡K, †UKmB, bgbxq K…wÎg Kvco, iwk, ùv‡Zi

I H2N-(CH2)6-NH2 eªvk
QK 11.3: wewfbœ cwjgv‡ii ag© I eënvi
L. cwjgv‡ii †kªwYwefvM: Dr‡mi Dci wfwË K‡i cwjgvi `yB cÖKvi:

1. cÖvK…wZK cwjgvi
cÖvK…wZKfv‡e A‡bK cwjgvi Drcbœ nq| †hgb, Dw™¢‡ì †mjy‡jvR I ÷vP© `y‡UvB cwjgvi hv eûmsL¨K Møy‡KvR
imvqb 183
AYy hy³ n‡q MwVZ n‡q‡Q| Møy‡KvR‡K g Øviv cÖKvk Kiv n‡j ÷vP© I †mjy‡jv‡Ri MVb -g-g-g-g-g-g-| †`L‡Z
Df‡qi MVb GK iKg n‡jI Zv‡ì eÜb MV‡bi †KŠkj wfbœ| Gfv‡e ch©vqµ‡g GKvwaK Møy‡KvR AYy hy³ n‡q
`xN© wkKj Drcbœ K‡i| cÖvwY‡`‡n mwÂZ kK©iv, MøvB‡Kv‡RbI Møy‡Kv‡Ri cwjgvi|
†Zvgvi †`‡ni †Kvl Ges Kjv MVb K‡i †cÖvwUb| †cÖvwUb A¨vgvB‡bv Gwm‡Wi cwjgvi| Bbmywjb bvgK cwjgv‡i
22 wU A¨vgvB‡bv GwmW _v‡K| ivevi bvgK Mv‡Qi Kl GKwU cÖvK…wZK cwjgvi| Avgv‡ì †`‡k cve©Z¨ PÆMÖvg,
K·evRvi, nweMÄ, wm‡jU I Uv½vBj †Rjvq ivevi Pvl n‡”Q| cÖvK„wZK ivev‡ii †P‡q eû¸Y †ewk cøvw÷K wkí
KviLvbvq ms‡kølY Kiv n‡”Q|
2. K…wÎg cwjgvi ev cøvw÷K
k³, nvjKv, m¯Ív Ges †h †Kv‡bv cQ›`mB i‡Oi cøvw÷K cvIqv hvq| cøvw÷K‡K Mjv‡bv hvq Ges Qv‡P †X‡j †h
†Kvb AvKvi †Ìqv hvq| cøvw÷K kãwU G‡m‡Q wMÖK kã Plastikos †_‡K| Plastikos A_© n‡jv Mjv‡bv m¤¢e|
A‡b‡KB cwiZ¨³ ej‡c‡bi cøvw÷K Ask‡K Mwj‡q †ccvi I‡qU ˆZwi K‡ib| GwU Kiv wec`RbK KviY,
cøvw÷K `ªe¨‡K †cvov‡j ev DËv‡c Mjv‡bv n‡j A‡bK welv³ M¨vm Drcbœ nq| Lvevi ivLvi cvÎ, †gvoK, ej‡cb,
†Pqvi, †Uwej, Mvwoi hš¿vsk cvwbi U¨vsK, Mvgjv, evjwZ, gM BZ¨vw` bvbvwea mvgMÖx cÖ¯‘Z Kivi Rb¨ cøvw÷K
`ªe¨ eënvi Kiv nq|
M. eënvi I êwk‡óï wfwË‡Z cøvw÷‡Ki cÖKvi‡f`:
MVb I Zvcxq êwk‡óï wfwË‡Z K…wÎg cwjgvi (cøvw÷K) `yB ai‡bi| Gi g‡a¨ GK ai‡bi cwjgvi j¤^v mi“
RU cvKv‡bv (cross links) wkKj MVb K‡i| G ai‡bi cwjgvi wkK‡ji Kve©bmg~‡ni g‡a¨ kw³kvjx eÜb
MwVZ nq| wKš‘ cvk¦©eZ©x wkKjmg~‡ni g‡a¨ `ye©j AvKl©Y ej KvR K‡i| GB wkKj¸‡jv GKwU AciwUi Ici
w`‡q AwZµg Ki‡Z cv‡i| d‡j G RvZxq cwjgvi‡K mn‡R m¤úªmvwiZ, euvKv‡bv Ges Zvc cÖ‡qv‡M Mjv‡bv hvq|
G ai‡bi cwjgvi‡K _v‡g©vcøvw÷K e‡j| D`vniY: cwjw_b, cwjcÖwcwjb, PVC BZ¨vw`| _v‡g©vcøvw÷K‡K evi evi
Mjv‡bv hvq Ges wewfbœ AvK…wZi e¯‘‡Z cwiYZ Kiv hvq|
wØZxq ai‡bi cwjgv‡i Kve©b cigvYymg~n wkK‡ji g‡a¨ mg‡hvRx Ges GKB mv‡_ cvk¦©eZ©x wkK‡ji Kve©‡bi mv‡_
`„pfv‡e nvB‡Wªv‡Rb eÜ‡bi gva¨‡g hy³ _v‡K| G ai‡bi cwjgvi _v‡g©v‡mwUs| _v‡g©v‡mwUs cøvw÷K,
_v‡g©vcøvw÷‡Ki †P‡q k³ Ges Kg bgbxq| Zvc cÖ‡qv‡M G¸‡jv Mjvi cwie‡Z© Kqjvq cwiYZ nq| G Ae¯’vq
Kve©b wkK‡ji µm wjsK †f‡O †M‡j cwjgvi we‡hvwRZ nq| _v‡g©v‡mwUs cøvw÷K‡K GKevi gvÎ Mjv‡bv Ges
AvKvi †Ìqv hvq| mPivPi K‡¤úªkb †gvwìs Gi gva¨‡g GUv Kiv nq| D`vniY: e¨v‡KjvBU, dvBevi Møvm,
K…wÎg †iwRb Ges B‡cvw· Møy|
wk¶v_©xi KvR: †Zvgvi eënvh© cwjgvimg~n‡K _v‡g©vcøvw÷K I _v‡g©v‡mwUs cøvw÷K wn‡m‡e †kÖwYwefvM Ki|
N. K…wÎg cwjgvi ev cøvw÷K RvZxq `ª‡eï myweav I Amyweav:

wØZxq wek¦hy‡×i ci †_‡K mviv we‡k¦ K…wÎg cwjgvi ev cøvw÷K RvZxq `ª‡eï eënvi Zvrch©c~Y©fv‡e evo‡Z
_v‡K| gvby‡li ˆ`bw›`b Kv‡R eëüZ KvV, KvMR, Møvm I avZzi ˆZwi `ª‡eï RvqMvq cøvw÷‡Ki `ªe¨ ¯’vb K‡i
wb‡q‡Q| cøvw÷‡Ki wewfbœ êwk‡óï Kvi‡Y KvV I avZzi ˆZwi `ª‡eï cwie‡Z© cøvw÷K`ªe¨ eënvi e„w×
†c‡q‡Q| cøvw÷K Kg g~‡j¨ cvIqv hvq, ¶q nq bv, AwaKvsk ivmvqwbK c`v‡_©i mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i bv, mn‡R is
Kiv hvq, we`y¨r Acwievnx, IR‡b nvév, mn‡R cwienb‡hvM¨, `xN©¯’vqx Ges AvenvIqv Øviv ¶wZMÖ¯— nq bv|
184 imvqb
cøvw÷K `ª‡eï A‡bK myweav _vK‡jI Gi wKQz AmyweavI i‡q‡Q| K…wÎg cwjgvi ev cøvw÷K eënv‡ii cÖavb
mgm¨v n‡jv, Gme c`v_© we‡hvwRZ nq bv Ges cwi‡ek‡K `~wlZ K‡i| AwaKvsk cÖvK…wZK Dcv`vb gvwUi
e¨vK‡Uwiqv Øviv we‡hvwRZ nq wKš‘ cøvw÷K `ªe¨ e¨vK‡Uwiqv Øviv we‡hvwRZ nq bv| G Rb¨ cøvw÷K‡K bb
ev‡qvwW‡MÖ‡Wej (Non-biodegradable) c`v_© e‡j| A‡bK †¶‡Î cøvw÷K‡K cywo‡q asm Kiv nq hv‡Z
welv³ †auvqv (nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW, A¨vjwWnvBW, nvB‡Wªv‡Rb mvqvbvBW) Drcbœ nq| G mKj M¨vm gvby‡li
kix‡i K¨vÝvimn wewfbœ †iv‡Mi m„wó K‡i| eZ©gv‡b weÁvbxMY K…wÎg cwjgvi ˆZwi K‡i‡Qb hv cÖ_‡g m~‡h©i
Av‡jv‡Z we‡hvwRZ (Photodegradable) nq Ges cieZ©x‡Z cÖvK…wZKfv‡e e¨vK‡Uwiqv RxevYy Øviv we‡hvwRZ
(Biodegradable) nq| G‡ì‡K ev‡qvcwjgvi e‡j| †ewkifvM ev‡qvcwjgvi fzÆv I B¶z †_‡K cÖ¯‘Z Kiv
nq| GB cwjgvi RxevYy Øviv we‡hvwRZ n‡Z 20 †_‡K 30 eQi cÖ‡qvRb| cwjB_vbj {-CH2-CH(OH)-}n
GK cÖKvi cwjgvi hvnv nvmcvZv‡j eëüZ nq Ges cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nq| cwjB_vb‡ji cvwb‡Z `ªebxqZv n Gi
gv‡bi Dci wbf©i K‡i|
cøvw÷K cwjgvimg~n‡K †h g‡bvgvi Øviv cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq Zvnv Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwb †_‡K msMÖn Kiv nq| G‡Z mxwgZ
Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwbi gRy` n«vm cvq, Aciw`‡K eZ©gv‡b we‡k¦i 4% Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwb w`‡q Drcvw`Z we`y¨r, cøvw÷K cwjgvi
cÖ¯‘Z Ki‡Z eënvi Kiv nq| AcÖ‡qvRbxq cøvw÷K eënvi bv K‡i Ges eëüZ cøvw÷K cybcÖwµqvRvZ
(Recycling) K‡i Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwbi Dci Pvc Kgv‡bv hvq| cwi‡e‡ki fvimvg¨ i¶v‡_© K…wÎg Auv‡ki Dci
wbf©ikxjZv Kgv‡bv cÖ‡qvRb| Zzjv, Dj I cv‡Ui Avuk QvovI cÖvK…wZK Auv‡ki eënvi evov‡bv †h‡Z cv‡i|
evsjv‡`‡ki gvwU De©i, GLv‡b Zzjv I cvU Pv‡li cvkvcvwk †gmZv Pvl K‡i K…wÎg Auv‡ki eënvi Kgv‡bv hvq|
wdwjcvBb I B‡›`v‡bwkqvq Avbvi‡mi cvZv Ges KjvMv‡Qi Auvk †_‡K DbœZgv‡bi myZv ˆZwi K‡i Kvco eybv‡bv nq|
11.6 nvB‡WªvKve©b †_‡K A¨vj‡Kvnj, A¨vjwWnvBW I ˆRe GwmW cÖ¯‘wZ
†c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi cÖavb Dcv`vb nvB‡WªvKve©b (A¨vj‡Kb, A¨vjwKb I A¨vjKvBb)| nvB‡WªvKve©b †_‡K mKj †kÖwYi
ˆRe †hŠM cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| m~h©v‡jv‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z m¤ú„³ nvB‡WªvKve©b ev A¨vj‡Kb n¨v‡jv‡R‡bi mv‡_ wewµqv
K‡i A¨vjKvBj n¨vjvBW Drcbœ K‡i| nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cviA·vB‡Wi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z A¨vjwKb nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †eªvgvB‡Wi
mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i A¨vjKvBj †eªvgvBW Drcbœ K‡i| A¨vjKvBj n¨vjvBW †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv·vB‡Wi Rjxq `ªe‡Yi
mv‡_ wewµqvq A¨vj‡Kvn‡j cwiYZ nq| Drcbœ A¨vj‡Kvnj‡K kw³kvjx RviK (K2Cr2O7 I H2SO4) Øviv
RvwiZ Ki‡j cÖ_‡g A¨vjwWnvBW/wK‡Uvb Ges cieZ©x‡Z ˆRe Gwm‡W cwiYZ nq|
hȣ
R-CH2-CH3 + Br2 o R-CH2-CH2Br + HBr GLv‡b,
H2O2
R-CH = CH2 + HBr oR-CH2-CH2Br R = A¨vjKvBjg~jK
R-CH2-CH2Br + NaOH(aq) o R-CH2CH2OH + NaBr = CH3-,C2H5-, C3H7- BZ¨vw`
R-CH2CH2OH + [O] o R-CH2-CHO + H2O
R-CH2CHO + [O] o R-CH2-COOH
imvqb 185
wkÿv_©xi KvR: A¨vjwKb o

?
A¨vjKvBjn¨vjvBW ?
o A¨vj‡Kvnj ?
o A¨vjwWnvBW / wK‡Uvb ?
o ˆRe GwmW
GB c×wZ QvovI nvB‡WªvKve©b †_‡K A¨vj‡Kvnj, A¨vjwWnvBW I ˆRe GwmW cÖ¯‘Z Kiv hvq| dmdwiK
Gwm‡Wi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z A¨vjwKb 300 oC ZvcgvÎvq Ges 60 evqyPv‡c Rjxqev‡®úi (H2O) mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i
A¨vj‡Kvnj Drcbœ K‡i|
300 oC, 60 atm
H2C CH2(g) + H2O(g) H3C CH2OH(l)
H3PO4
2% gviwKDwiK mvj‡dU (HgSO4) Ges 20% mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi (H2SO4) Dcw¯’wZ‡Z A¨vjKvBb
(B_vBb) cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqv K‡i A¨vjwWnvBW Drcbœ K‡i| HgSO4 welv³ nIqvq wkí‡¶‡Î Gi eënvi
wbi“rmvwnZ Kiv nq|
HgSO4, H2SO4
CH CH(g) + H2O( l ) H3C CHO(l)
†c‡Uªvwjqvg †_‡K cÖvß A¨vj‡Kb‡K D”P Zvc I Pv‡c evqyi Aw·‡Rb Øviv RvwiZ Ki‡j ˆRe GwmW Drcbœ nq|
CH3-CH3(g) + 3 [O] o CH3-COOH(l) +H2O (l)
CH3-CH2-CH3(g) +3 [O] o CH3-CH2-COOH(l) +H2O (l)
-OH g~jKhy³ A¨vwj‡KwUK ˆRe †hŠM‡K A¨vj‡Kvnj, -CHO g~jKhy³ †hŠM‡K A¨vjwWnvBW Ges
-COOH g~jKhy³ †hŠM‡K ˆRe GwmW e‡j| g~j A¨vj‡K‡bi Bs‡iwR bv‡g †k‡li ÔeÕ Aÿ‡ii cwie‡Z©
Aj (ol), A¨vj (al), Ges AwqK GwmW (oic acid) hy³ K‡i h_vµ‡g A¨vj‡Kvnj, A¨vjwWnvBW I
ˆRe Gwm‡Wi bvgKiY Kiv nq| GB g~jKmg~n‡K mswkøó †hŠ‡Mi Kvh©Kix g~jK e‡j|
11.7 A¨vj‡Kvnj, A¨vjwWnvBW I ˆRe Gwm‡Wi eënvi
A¨vj‡Kvnj: wg_vbj welv³ ivmvqwbK c`v_©| wg_vbj g~jZ Ab¨ ivmvqwbK c`v_© cÖ¯‘Z Ki‡Z eëüZ nq|
ivmvqwbK wk‡í B_vbj †_‡K B_vbwqK GwmW, wewfbœ ˆRe Gwm‡Wi G÷vi cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| B_vbj‡K cÖavbZ
cviwdDg, Km‡gwU· I Jla wk‡í `ªveK wn‡m‡e eënvi K‡i| dvg©vwmDwUK¨vj †MÖ‡Wi B_vbj‡K Jla wk‡í
Ges †iKwUdvBW w¯úwiU‡K †nvwgI Jl‡a eënvi Kiv nq| B_vb‡ji 96% Rjxq `ªeY‡K †iKwUdvBW w¯úwiU
e‡j| †h mKj Dcv`vb cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq bq Zv‡ì‡K B_vb‡j `ªexf~Z K‡i eënvi Kiv hvq| cviwdDg wk‡íI
B_vb‡ji e¨vcK eënvi i‡q‡Q| cviwdD‡g B_vbj eënv‡ii c~‡e© Zv‡K MÜgy³ Kiv nq| Jla I Lv`¨ wkí
e¨ZxZ Ab¨ wk‡í eëüZ †iKwUdvBW w¯úwiU mvgvb¨ wg_vbj †hv‡M welv³ K‡i eënvi K‡i| G‡K †gw_‡j‡UW
w¯úwiU e‡j| KvV Ges avZzi ˆZwi AvmevecÎ evwb©k Kivi Rb¨ †gw_‡j‡UW w¯úwiU eënvi Kiv nq| eZ©gv‡b
eªvwR‡j Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwbi cwie‡Z© B_vbj‡K gUi BwÄ‡bi R¡vjvwbiƒ‡c eënvi Kiv n‡”Q| M¨vm‡nvj (Gasohol)
GK cÖKvi R¡vjvwb, †hLv‡b †c‡Uªv‡ji mv‡_ 10-20% B_vbj wgwkÖZ _v‡K|
CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O 2(g) o 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) + Zvckw³
÷vP© (Pvj, Mg, Avjy I f~Æv) †_‡K MuvRb (Fermentation) cÖwµqvq A¨vj‡Kvnj cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| GQvov wPwb
wk‡íi DcRvZ Drcv` wPUv¸o †_‡K GKB cÖwµqvq A¨vj‡Kvnj (B_vbj) cvIqv hvq| evsjv‡`‡ki `k©bvq †Ki“
GÛ †Ki“ †Kv¤úvwb‡Z B_vbj cÖ¯‘Z K‡i †`‡ki Pvwn`v c~iY Kiv nq| A¨vj‡Kvnj‡K R¡vjvwb wn‡m‡e eënvi
186 imvqb
Ki‡j GKw`‡K Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwbi Dci Pvc K‡g Aciw`‡K cwi‡ek‡K `~lYgy³ ivLv hvq|
A¨vjwWnvBW: wkí KviLvbvq A¨vjwWnvB‡Wi eënvi Zzjbvg~jKfv‡e Kg| Z‡e Ab¨ ivmvqwbK c`v_© cÖ¯‘Z Kivi
Rb¨ A¨vjwWnvB‡Wi cÖPzi eënvi i‡q‡Q| wg_vb¨vj ev digvjwWnvB‡Wi m¤ú„³ (40%; AvqZb wn‡m‡e, 37%;
fi wn‡m‡e) Rjxq `ªeY‡K digvwjb e‡j hvnv g„Z cÖvYx msi¶Y Kivi Rb¨ eëüZ nq|
A¨vjwWnvBW †_‡K cwjgviKiY wewµqvq cøvw÷K `ªe¨ ˆZwi niv nq| wb¤œ AvYweK fiwewkó A¨vjwWnvB‡Wi
(wg_vb¨vj; HCHO) Rjxq `ªeY‡K AwZ wbgœ Pv‡c DËß Ki‡j †Wiwjb (Derlin) bvgK k³ cwjgvi Drcbœ
nq| †Wiwjb cwjgvi w`‡q †Pqvi, WvBwbs †Uwej, evjwZ BZ¨vw` RvZxq `ªe¨ ˆZwi Kiv nq hv c~‡e© KvV I avZz
w`‡q ˆZwi Kiv nZ|
O H
n H-C-H(l) O C (s)
n
H
GLv‡b cwjgvi AYy‡Z g‡bvgv‡ii msL¨v cuvP †_‡K cÂvk ch©šÍ n‡Z cv‡i|
digvjwWnvBW (wg_vb¨vj) I BDwiqv †_‡K Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY wewµqvq BDwiqv-digvjwWnvBW †iwRb
(†gjvgvBb cwjgvi) Drcbœ nq hv M„‡ni †cøU, Møvm, gM BZ¨vw` ˆZwi Ki‡Z eëüZ nq| c¨vivjwWnvBW bvgK
Ny‡gi Jla cÖ¯‘Z Ki‡Z A¨vwmUvjwWnvBW (CH3CHO) eënvi Kiv nq|
ˆRe GwmW: ˆRe GwmWmg~n A‰Re Gwm‡Wi Zzjbvq `ye©j| ˆRe GwmW gvby‡li Lv`¨v‡cv‡hvMx Dcv`vb| Avgiv
†jeyi im (mvBwUªK GwmW), †ZuZzj (UviUvwiK GwmW), `wa (j¨vKwUK GwmW) Gi mv‡_ ˆRe GwmW‡K Lvevi
wn‡m‡e MÖnY Kwi| ˆRe Gwm‡Wi e¨vK‡Uwiqv aŸsm Kivi ¶gZv _vKvq G‡K Lv`¨ msi¶K (Food
Preservative) wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv nq| B_vbwqK Gwm‡Wi 6-10% Rjxq `ªeY‡K wf‡bMvi e‡j hvnv mm& I
AvPvi msi¶‡Yi Rb¨ eëüZ nq|
ˆRe GwmW †_‡KI cwjgviKiY wewµqvq cøvw÷K `ªe¨ ˆZwi Kiv nq| c¨v›U, kv‡U©i Kvco ˆZwi Ki‡Z eëüZ
†Uwiwjb (cwjG÷vi) bvgK ivmvqwbK Zš‘ A¨vj‡Kvnj I ˆRe GwmW †_‡K Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY wewµqvi gva¨‡g
cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq| GLv‡b D‡jøL¨ Kv‡e©vnvB‡WªW I †Zj RvZxq cÖvK…wZK cwjgvi A¨vj‡Kvnj I ˆRe GwmW †_‡K
MwVZ nq| Z‡e cwjG÷vi Øviv cÖ¯‘Z Kvc‡oi Pvwn`v µgvš^‡q n«vm cv‡”Q| myMwÜ (G÷vi) RvZxq ivmvqwbK
`ªe¨ ˆZwi Ki‡Z ˆRe GwmW eëüZ nq|
wk¶v_©xi KvR :
cÖvK…wZK M¨vm, †c‡Uªvwjqvg I Kqjv eënv‡ii myweav I Amyweav m¤ú‡K© gZvgZ `vI:
(cÖvK…wZK M¨vm †c‡Uªvwjqvg I Kqjvq A‡bK †¶‡Î mvjdvi, bvB‡Uªv‡Rb Dcw¯’Z _v‡K| evZv‡mi
Aw·‡R‡bi mv‡_ G¸‡jvi wewµqvq Drcv` we‡ePbvq wb‡e|)
imvqb 187
cÖvK…wZK M¨vm †c‡Uªwjqvg I Kqjv †cvov‡j Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm Drcbœ nq| GwU GKwU MÖxbnvDR M¨vm|]
cwi‡e‡ki Dci cøvw÷K `ª‡eï cÖfve m¤úwK©Z AbymÜvb:

cøvw÷K eR©¨ †djvi RvqMv, cøvw÷‡Ki cPbkxjZv, cøvw÷K `ªe¨ gvwU‡K †X‡K ivL‡j G‡Z evqy I m~h©v‡jvK
cÖ‡e‡ki my‡hvM, e„‡¶i wkKo we¯Ív‡i evav BZ¨vw` we‡ePbv Ki‡e|
11.8 ˆRe I A‰Re †hŠ‡Mi cv_©K¨KiY

G Aa¨v‡q Zzwg †h mKj †hŠM m¤ú‡K© Aa¨qb K‡iQ Zvi meB ˆRe †hŠM| ˆRe †hŠMmg~n mg‡hvRx eÜ‡bi
gva¨‡g Ges A‰Re †hŠMmg~n AvqwbK eÜ‡bi gva¨‡g MwVZ nq| Z‡e wKQz mg‡hvRx †hŠM _v‡K hviv AvqwbK
êwkó¨ AR©b K‡i| GKBfv‡e wKQz AvqwbK †hŠM _v‡K hviv mg‡hvRx êwkó¨ AR©b K‡i|
wk¶v_©xi KvR : ˆRe †hŠ‡Mi msÁv `vI|
K‡qKwU ˆRe I A‰Re †hŠM wb‡q MjbvsK wbY©q K‡i cv_©K¨ †`LvI|
wPšÍv Ki : AvqwbK I mg‡hvRx †hŠ‡Mi cv_©‡Kï wfwË‡Z wKfv‡e ˆRe I A‰Re †hŠ‡Mi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Kiv hvq|
Abykxjbx
1. cÖvK…wZK M¨v‡m kZKiv KZ fvM B‡_b _v‡K?
K. 3 fvM L. 4 fvM
M. 6 fvM N. 7 fvM
2. wb‡Pi †Kvb †hŠMwU †eªvwgb `ªe‡Yi jvj eY©‡K eY©nxb Ki‡Z cv‡i?
K. C3H8 L. C3H8O
M. C3H6O N. C3H4
Br2 Br2
wewµqv: CH3C CH X Y
Dc‡ii wewµqv †_‡K 3 I 4 bs cÖ‡kœi DËi `vI:
3. Y †hŠMwUi bvg Kx?
K. 1, 1-WvB‡eªv‡gv †cÖv‡cb L. 2, 2-WvB‡eªv‡gv †cÖv‡cb
M. 1, 1, 2, 2-†UUªv‡eªv‡gv †cÖv‡cb N. 1, 2-WvB‡eªv‡gv‡cÖvwcb
4. DÏxc‡Ki ÔXÕ †hŠMwU-
i. ms‡hvRb wewµqv †`q
ii. cøvw÷K ˆZwi‡Z eëüZ nq
iii. Y A‡c¶v Kg mwµq
188 imvqb

m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1. gvP©-Ryb gv‡m evsjv‡`‡k msi¶‡Yi Afv‡e cÖPzi cwigv‡Y Avjy bó nq| Avjy †_‡K wb‡Pi wewµqvq B_vbj
Drcbœ Kiv hvq|
GbRvBg (Wvqvm‡UR I g¨vj‡UR) GbRvBg (RvB‡gR)
÷v©P Møy‡KvR B_vbj
H 2O
K. †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi cÖavb Dcv`vb Kx?

L. A¨vj‡Kb A‡c¶v A¨vjwKb mwµq †Kb? e¨vL¨v Ki|
M. DÏxc‡Ki wewµqv eënvi K‡i Avjy †_‡K wg‡_b cÖ¯‘wZi eY©bv `vI|
N. AwZwi³ Avjy‡K Rxevk¥ R¡vjvwbi weKí wn‡m‡e eënv‡ii m¤¢vebv we‡kølY Ki|
2. ch©vqµ‡g GKwU M¨vm‡K i †_‡K iii wewµqvi gva¨‡g wewfbœ c`v‡_© cwiYZ Kiv nq|
1500 ° C
i. 2CH4 HC CH + H2
ii. HC CH + HCl CH2 CHCl
polymerization
iii. nCH2 CHCl CH2- CH
n
Cl
K. nvB‡WªvKve©b Kv‡K e‡j?
L. †ebwRb A¨v‡iv‡gwUK nvB‡WªvKve©b †Kb?
M. ii bs wewµqvwU †Kvb ai‡bi wewµqv? e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. DÏxc‡Ki cÖ_g wewµqK M¨vmwU eënvi eûgyLxKi‡Yi m¤¢vebv we‡kølY Ki|
Øv`k Aa¨vq
Avgv‡ì Rxe‡b imvqb

Avg evsjv‡`‡k AZ¨šÍ RbwcÖq dj| K¨vjwmqvg Kve©vBW w`‡q cvKv‡bv n‡q‡Q e‡j A_ev wcÖRv‡f©wUf †Ìqv Av‡Q
e‡j gvbyl dj †L‡Z fq cv‡”Q| gvby‡li aviYv gv‡QI dg©vwjb| msi¶Y ev cvKv‡bvi Dcv`vb¸‡jv ivmvqwbK
c`v_©| Avgv‡ì ˆ`bw›`b cÖ‡qvR‡b eëüZ mKj ivmvqwbK c`v_© ¶wZKi bq| cÖwZw`b imvq‡bi mv‡_ Nyg
fv‡½ Avevi imvqb †kl K‡i Nygv‡Z hvB| Avgv‡ì Lvevi, cÖmvab mvgMÖx, Lv`¨ Drcv`‡b eëüZ
mvi-KxUbvkK, cwi®‹viK c`v_© BZ¨vw` mKjB ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb| Avgv‡ì Rxe‡b imvq‡bi cÖfve Dcjw×
K‡i g¨vWvg †gwi Kzwi (Madame Marie Curie) Gi imvq‡b †bv‡ej cyi¯‹vi (Nobel Prize) AR©‡bi
100 Zg eQi Dcj‡¶ imvqb Ges dwjZ imvq‡bi AvšÍR©vwZK ms¯’v (IUPAC) 2011 mvj‡K imvqb eQi
wn‡m‡e cvjb K‡i| Gi cÖwZcv`¨ welq wQj: imvqbB Avgv‡ì Rxeb Ges imvqbB Avgv‡ì fwel¨r|
Uq‡jU cwi®‹viK
†ewKs cvDWvi
Møvm cwi®‹viK
ivmvqwbK mvi KxUbvkK

jeY
†Kvgj cvwbq
dj kvK mewR
wf‡bMvi wWUvi‡R›U c¨v‡KU
mvevb
G Aa¨vq cvV †k‡l Avgiv-

(1) M„‡n eënvh© KwZcq Lv`¨ mvgMÖxi AvniY, ag© I eënv‡ii ¸i“Z¡ we‡kølY Ki‡Z cvie|
(2) M„‡n cÖmvab mvgMÖxi Dc‡hvwMZv wba©vi‡Y pH Gi ¸iyZ¡ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvie|
(3) M„‡n eënvh© cwi®‹viK mvgMÖxi cÖ¯‘wZ I cwi®‹vi Kivi †KŠkj e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(4) K…wl‡¶‡Î Dchy³ †hŠM eënvi K‡i gvwUi pH gvb wbqš¿Y Ki‡Z cvie|
(5) K…wl`ªe¨ cÖwµqvKi‡Yi Dcvq e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(6) K…wl`ªe¨ msi¶‡Yi Dcvq e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(7) ivmvqwbK eR©¨ m¤ú‡K© †R‡b Gi ¶wZKi cÖfve e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvie|
(8) ivmvqwbK `ªe¨ eënvi K‡i mvevb cÖ¯‘Z Ki‡Z cvie|
(9) weøwPs cvDWv‡ii weiÄb wµqv cÖ`k©b Ki‡Z cvie|
(10) gvwU, cvwb I evqy `~lY †iv‡a ivmvqwbK `ª‡eï h_vh_ eënvi wel‡q Av¯’vi mv‡_ ¯^Ztù~Z© gZvgZ w`‡Z
cvie|
(11) ¯^v¯’¨ m‡PZb `ªe¨ eënv‡i AvMÖn cÖ`k©b Kie|
(12) ¯^v¯’¨m¤§Z Lv`¨`ªe¨ eënv‡i AvMÖn cÖ`k©b Kie|
(13) Lv`¨ `ª‡e¨ †ewKs cvDWv‡ii f~wgKv cix¶vi gva¨‡g †`Lv‡Z cvie|
190 imvqb
12.1 M„n¯’vwji imvqb

je‡Yi gZ fv‡jvevmvi Mí Zzwg wbðq ï‡bQ| myZivs Zzwg Rvb jeY Qvov Lv`¨mvgMÖx Kíbv Kiv hvq bv|
gvQ-gvsm BZ¨vw` big I my¯^v`y Kivi Rb¨ wmiKv (wf‡bMvi) eënvi Kiv nq| †KK, i“wU ev wcVv †dvjv‡bvi
Rb¨ †ewKs cvDWvi eënvi Kiv nq| GKUz wiPdzW ev ˆZjv³ Lvev‡ii c‡i †Kvgjcvbxq bv n‡jB bq|
1. Lv`¨ jeY ev †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW; NaCl
mvM‡ii cvwb‡Z cÖPzi cwigv‡Y Lv`¨ jeY ev †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW `ªexf~Z _v‡K| Avevi f~M‡f© LwbRi~‡c †mvwWqvg
†K¬vivBW ch©vß cwigv‡Y cvIqv hvq| Avgv‡ì †`‡k mgy`ª DcK~‡ji jeYPvwlMY mgy‡`ªi cvwb †_‡K jeY AvniY
K‡i|
wk¶v_©xi KvR:
GKwU cv‡Î Mvp K‡i Lvevi je‡Yi `ªeY ˆZwi Ki| GKwU †Uª‡Z Kv‡jv cwjw_b wewQ‡q Gi Ici wKQzUv `ªeY
†X‡j `vI| †UªwU‡K mvivw`b †iv‡` `vI| cÖwZw`b mKv‡j †Uª‡Z wKQzUv `ªeY †hvM K‡i mviv w`b †iv‡` †i‡L
`vI| j¶ ivL‡e †hb G‡Z †Kv‡bv fv‡e cvwb bv c‡o| Gfv‡e GK mßvn ch©‡e¶Y Ki|
x ch©‡e¶‡Yi wfwË‡Z DcK~‡ji Pvwl‡ì jeY Avni‡Yi †KŠkj m¤ú‡K© †Zvgvi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki|
x GKwU AvZkx KvP w`‡q je‡Yi GKwU `vbv ch©‡e¶Y Ki| Gi eY© I AvKv‡ii weeiY `vI|
x GKwU cv‡Î f¨vKzqvg Bfv‡cv‡ikb c×wZ‡Z (wkí KviLvbvq cÖ¯‘Z) cwi‡kvwaZ jeY (weï×
NaCl) I Aci GKwU cv‡Î mvaviY jeY (CaCl2, MgCl2 wgwkÖZ NaCl) el©vKv‡j evZv‡m 2/3w`b
†i‡L `vI| ch©‡e¶‡Yi wfwË‡Z je‡Yi cvwbMÖvmx ag© e¨vL¨v Ki|
†mvwWqvg jeY Avgv‡ì kix‡ii B‡jK‡UªvjvB‡Ui Pvwn`v c~iY K‡i| Lvevi jeY QvovI †mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW wewfbœ
†hŠM cÖ¯‘wZ‡Z, Jla wk‡í, mvevb wk‡í Ges e¯¿ iÄb wk‡í is cvKv Kivi Rb¨ eëüZ nq|
2. †ewKs cvDWvi ev †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU : NaHCO3

†Zvgv‡ì ivbœv N‡ii GKwU AwZ cÖ‡qvRbxq Dcv`vb †ewKs cvDWvi| †KK ev wcVv †dvjv‡bvi Rb¨ mvaviYZ †ewKs
cvDWvi eënvi Kiv nq| †ewKs cvDWvi g~j Dcv`vb n‡jv †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU| Pzbvcv_i, A¨v‡gvwbqv
M¨vm I Lvevi jeY eënvi K‡i †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq|
†mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi m¤ú„³ `ªeY‡K eªvBb e‡j| eªvBb‡K A¨v‡gvwbqv Øviv m¤ú„³ Kiv nq| K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU‡K
(Pzbv cv_i) AwaK ZvcgvÎvq (600oC) DËß Ki‡j Pzb I Kve©b WvBA·vBW Drcbœ nq| A¨v‡gvwbqv m¤ú„³
eªvB‡bi g‡a¨ Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm Pvjbv Ki‡j wbgœwjwLZ wewµqv¸‡jv msMwVZ nq|
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Pzbvcv_i Pzb Kve©b WvBA·vBW
Kve©b WvBA·vBW, A¨v‡gvwbqv I cvwbi wewµqvq Drcbœ nq A¨v‡gvwbqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU|
imvqb 191
CO2 + NH3 + H2O NH4HCO3

A¨v‡gvwbqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU
Rjxq `ªe‡Y A¨v‡gvwbqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU †mvwWqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqvq †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU
Ges A¨v‡gvwbqvg †K¬vivBW Drcbœ nq|
NH4HCO3 + NaCl NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
†mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU
†mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU †KjvwmZ nq| †Kjvm‡K msMÖn K‡i ï®‹ Kiv nq Ges evRvi RvZ Kiv nq|
†mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU Kxfv‡e †KK †dvjvq :
†K‡Ki gq`vi mv‡_ †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU (†ewKs cvDWvi) wgwk‡q DËvc †Ìqv nq| Zv‡c †mvwWqvg
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU we‡hvwRZ n‡q †mvwWqvg Kve©‡bU, Kve©b WvBA·vBW I cvwb Drcbœ nq| Kve©b WvB A·vBW
M¨vm gq`v‡K dywj‡q w`‡q D‡o hvq|
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2(g) + H2O
†mvwWqvg Kve©‡bU
†mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU NaHCO3 e`nRg mgm¨vi mgvavb †`q| e` nRg mgm¨vq cvK¯’wj‡Z AwZwi³
nvB‡Wªv‡K¬vwiK GwmW HCl Drcbœ nq| NaHCO3 GB GwmW‡K cÖkwgZ K‡i|
wk¶v_©xi KvR : cÖZxK I ms‡K‡Zi mvnv‡h¨ Dch©y³ cÖkgb wewµqvwU wjL|
evwo‡Z ev †eKvwi‡Z cvDi“wU †dvjv‡bvi Rb¨ B÷ bvgK QÎvK eënvi Kiv nq| G Rb¨ cÖ_‡g wPwbi
`ªe‡Y B÷ †gkv‡bv nq| GB wgkÖY w`‡q gq`v †g‡L `jv K‡i Dò ¯’v‡b ivL‡j gq`vi `jv †dvj‡Z _v‡K|
gq`vi GB †dvjvi KviY B‡÷i ¯êvZ k¦mb| B÷ evZv‡mi Aw·‡Rbmn k¦mb wµqv Kivi mgq Kve©b WvB
A·vBW M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i| hv cvDi“wU‡K †dvjv‡Z mvnvh¨ K‡i| cvDi“wU cwiwgZ cwigv‡Y †dvjvi c‡i I‡f‡b
†ewKs Kiv nq| DËv‡c B÷ g‡i hvq| d‡j i“wUi †dvjv eÜ nq|
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + Zvckw³

Møy‡KvR
wk¶v_©xi KvR: c„_Kfv‡e †ewKs cvDWvi Ges B‡÷i mv‡_ gq`v †g‡L †i‡L `vI| wKQz mgq c‡i GB gq`v
w`‡q †KK evbvI| Dfq †K‡Ki g‡a¨ Zzjbv Ki| †KK `yBwU‡Z cv_©K¨ †`Lv †M‡j Gi KviY e¨vL¨v Ki|
3. wmiKv ev wf‡bMvi
wmiKv ev wf‡bMvi n‡jv B_vbwqK Gwm‡Wi 6-10% Rjxq `ªeY| B_vbwqK GwmW Rjxq `ªe‡Y AvswkK we‡hvwRZ
nq| d‡j Rjxq `ªe‡Y Lye Kg msL¨K nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avqb Drcbœ nq| Gi c‡iI B_vbwqK Gwm‡Wi Rjxq `ªe‡Yi
192 imvqb
pH gvb 7 Gi Kg|
CH3-COOH + H2O CH3 COO + H+

Lv`¨ `ªe¨ †hgb AvPvi msi¶‡Yi Rb¨ wf‡bMvi ev wmiKv eënvi Kiv nq| AvPvi c‡P hvIqvi Rb¨ `vqx
e¨vK‡Uwiqv| wf‡bMvi ev B_vbwqK Gwm‡Wi H+ Avqb e¨vK‡Uwiqvi †cÖvwUb I d¨vU‡K Av`©ªwe‡køwlZ K‡i| d‡j
e¨vK‡Uwiqv g‡i hvq| G‡Z K‡i AvPvi cP‡bi nvZ †_‡K i¶v cvq| gvQ, gvsm †gwi‡bU (gvQ, gvsm‡K njy`,
gwiP w`‡q †i‡L †`qv) Kivi RbÏ wmiKv ev wf‡bMvi eënvi Kiv nq| GwU †cÖvwUb‡K †f‡O †d‡j e‡j Lvevi
big I my¯^v`y nq|
B_vbwqK Gwm‡Wi cÖ¯‘wZ: cix¶vMv‡i B_vbj‡K mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi Dcw¯’wZ‡Z cUvwmqvg WvB †µv‡gU Øviv
RvwiZ K‡i B_vbwqK GwmW Drcbœ Kiv nq|
[O]
CH3-CH2OH CH3CHO + H2O
[O]
CH3-CHO CH3COOH
wkí‡¶‡Î B_vBb ev A¨vwmwUwjb †_‡K weï× B_vbwqK GwmW ms‡kølY Kiv nq| †c‡Uªvwjqv‡gi Zvc we‡hvR‡b
Drcbœ B_vBb M¨vm‡K 60 oC ZvcgvÎvq DËß K‡i 2% gviwKDwiK mvj‡dU I (HgSO4) 20% jNy
mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi Rjxq `ªe‡Y Pvjbv Kiv nq| d‡j B_vb¨vj Drcbœ nq| G †¶‡Î HgSO4 I jNy H2SO4
cÖfveK i~‡c KvR K‡i|
20% H2SO4
HC CH + H2O o CH3CHO
2% HgSO4 , 60 C
B_vb¨vj‡K g¨v½vbvm Gwm‡UU cÖfve‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z 60 oC ZvcgvÎvq evZv‡mi Aw·‡Rb Øviv RvwiZ K‡i
B_vbwqK GwmW Drcv`b Kiv nq|
o
CH3 CHO
Mn2+,60 C CH3COOH
Avgv‡ì †`‡k 30/35 eQi Av‡MI MÖv‡gi †jv‡Kiv †LRy‡ii im †iv‡` w`‡q gë wf‡bMvi ˆZwi K‡i AvPvi
msi¶Y KiZ|
wk¶v_©xi KvR :
†Zvgv‡ì evwo‡Z ev cÖwZ‡ekxMY Avi †Kvb †Kvb Dcv`vb eënvi K‡i Lv`¨ msi¶Y K‡ib Zvi GKwU
ZvwjKv ˆZwi Ki| ZvwjKvi Dcv`vbMy‡jvi pH gvb wbY©q Ki| GB Dcv`vbmg~‡ni msi¶Y †KŠkj m¤ú‡K©
†Zvgvi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki|
4. †Kvgj cvbxq
†cvjvI, wewiqvbx LvIqvi c‡i Kvi bv VvÊv †Kvgj cvbxq cvb Kivi B”Qv nq! †Kvgj cvbxq n‡jv cvwb‡Z Kve©b
WvBA·vB‡Wi `ªeY| G‡Z AwZwi³ cwigv‡Y wPwb `ªexf~Z _v‡K| Ab¨vb¨ DcKiY wgwk‡q wWªsK‡mi eY© I ¯^v`
cwieZ©b Kiv nq| VvÊv Ae¯’vq I D”P Pv‡c cvwb‡Z Kve©b WvBA·vBW M¨vm `ªexf~Z Kiv nq| Zvc e„w×
imvqb 193
†c‡j ev Pvc n«vm †c‡j `ªeY †_‡K ey` ey` AvKv‡i M¨vm †ewi‡q †h‡Z _v‡K| †h Kvi‡Y wWªsK‡mi †evZj Lyj‡jB
†dbvmn Zij I M¨vm †ewi‡q Avm‡Z _v‡K| G Rb¨ G mKj cvbxq VvÊv Ae¯’vq cvb Ki‡Z fv‡jv jv‡M| Kve©b
WvBA·vBW M¨vm cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z n‡q Kve©wbK Gwm‡W cwiYZ nq|
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
Kve©wbK GwmW GbRvB‡gi wµqv‡K Z¡ivwš^Z K‡i cwicv‡K mnvqZv K‡i| Kve©wbK GwmW GKwU g„`y GwmW|
cvwb‡Z Gi Lye Kg msL¨K AYy we‡hvwRZ nq|
wk¶v_©xi KvR :
1. †ewKs cvDWv‡i (†mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU I UviUvwiK Gwm‡Wi wgkÖY) cvwb A_ev Lvevi
†mvWvi (†mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU) Ici †jeyi im †hvM K‡i ch©‡e¶Y Ki| †Zvgvi ch©‡e¶‡Yi
mv‡_ †Kvgj cvbx‡qi †evZ‡ji gyL †Lvjvi `„‡kï Zzjbv Ki|
2. we`¨vj‡q †Zvgvi †kÖwYi wk¶v_©x‡ì g‡a¨ GKwU Rwic PvjvI †h KZ Rb cÖwZw`b, KZ Rb gv‡S
gv‡S Ges KZ Rb Lye Kg †Kvgj cvbxq cvb K‡i| Zv‡ì cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki ¯^v‡¯’ï w`‡K †Lqvj Ki Ges
†bvU bvI| †Kvgj cvbxq cv‡bi mv‡_ ¯^v‡¯’ï m¤úK© wbY©q Ki| †Kvgj cvbxq cv‡bi
myweav-Amyweav m¤ú‡K© GKwU cÖwZ‡e`b wj‡L Rgv `vI|
12.2 cwi®‹vi cwi”QbœZvq imvqb

cwi®‹vi cwi”QbœZv Cgv‡bi A½| cwi®‹vi cwi”QbœZv gvby‡li e¨w³Z¡‡K cÖKvk K‡i| cwi®‹viK mvgMÖx ej‡ZB
†Zvgvi †Pv‡L †h mKj `ªe¨mvgMÖx †f‡m D‡V Zv n‡jv- Uq‡jU mvevb, k¨v¤úy, Uz_‡c÷, jwÛª mvevb, wWUvi‡R›U,
Kvco KuvPv †mvWv, weøwPs cvDWvi, Møvm wK¬bvi, Uq‡jU wK¬bvi BZ¨vw`| cv‡Vi myweav we‡ePbvq Dcv`vbmg~n Av‡M
ev c‡i Dc¯’vcb Kiv n‡q‡Q|
1. †mvWv A¨vm
†mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU‡K DËv‡c we‡hvwRZ Ki‡j †mvWv A¨vm cvIqv hvq|
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
†mvwWqvg Kve©‡bU
†mvWv A¨vm cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nq| Rjxq `ªe‡Y †mvWv A¨vm Zxeª ¶vi †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW I Kve©wbK Gwm‡W
i~cvšÍwiZ nq| Rjxq `ªe‡Y †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW m¤ú~Y©i~‡c Na+ Avqb I OH- Avq‡b we‡hvwRZ _v‡K wKš‘
Kve©wbK GwmW g„`y e‡j Lye Aí cwigv‡Y we‡hwRZ nq|
Na2CO3(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
194 imvqb
wk¶v_©xi KvR :
1. wjUgvm †ccvi ev pH †ccv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ †mvWv A¨v‡mi Rjxq `ªe‡Yi pH gvb wbY©q K‡i Dc‡ii wewµqvwUi
mwVKZv wbi~cY Ki|
2. †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Kve©‡bU NaHCO3 e` nRg mgm¨vq LvIqv n‡jI †mvWv A¨vm LvIqv nq bv| Dfq
`ªe‡Yi pH gvb wbY©q K‡i cÖvß djvd‡ji wfwË‡Z gZvgZ `vI|
2. Uq‡jU wK¬bvi
Uq‡jU wK¬bv‡ii g~j Dcv`vb n‡jv Kw÷K †mvWv; NaOH| Kw÷K †mvWvi Avq‡bi ¶qKviK fywgKvi Rb¨
Uq‡jU cwi®‹vi nq| Lvevi je‡Yi; NaCl Mvp `ªeY ev eªvB‡bi Zwor we‡kølY K‡i Kw÷K †mvWv (NaOH)
Drcv`b Kiv nq| NaCl Gi Rjxq `ªe‡Y Na+, H+, Cl- I OH- Avqb Dcw¯’Z _v‡K|G‡ì g‡a¨ Na+ I
H+ K¨vUvqb Ges Cl- I OH- A¨vbvqb|
A¨v‡bvW wewµqv
4OH- - 4e- 2H2O + O2
A¨v‡bvW
Cl- - e- Cl
Cl + Cl Cl2
K¨v‡_vW wewµqv cøvwUbvg)

H + + e- H cvi` K¨v‡_vW †mj
H + H H2
K¨v‡_vW
K¨v‡_vW wewµqv (cvi`)
Na+ + e- Na wPÎ 12.1 : cvi` K¨v‡_vW †mj
Hg + Na Na-Hg
Na-Hg + H2O NaOH + H2 + Hg
wk¶v_©xi KvR :
A¨v‡bv‡W Drcbœ M¨vm‡K Db¥y³ evZv‡m †Q‡o w`‡j Rjevqy‡Z †h cÖfve co‡e Zv we‡kølY Ki| Drcbœ
M¨vmmg~n‡K a‡i †i‡L †Kvb †Kvb Kv‡R eënvi Kiv hvq Zv e¨vL¨v Ki|
Na2CO3 I NaOH Gi Rjxq `ªe‡Y GKwU mvaviY Avqb cvIqv hvq| GB AvqbwUi ms‡KZ I
Dcw¯’wZi KviY e¨vL¨v Ki|
3. mvevb (Uq‡jU I jwÛª mvevb)
cÖvPxb Kv‡j Avgv‡ì †`‡ki gvbyl Kvco KuvPvi Rb¨ Kjv, mxg ev eoB Mv‡Qi QvB‡K cvwb‡Z wfwR‡q †i‡L H
cvwb eënvi KiZ| †Mvm‡ji Rb¨ b`x ev Lv‡ji cwjgvwU, mwilvi LBj BZ¨vw` eënvi KiZ| aviYv Kiv hvq
imvqb 195
cÖvq 2500 eQi c~‡e© wMÖK Ges †ivgvbiv mvevb eënvi KiZ| †ivgvbiv cïi Pwe©, nvo Ges Pvgov‡K K¨v¤ú
dvqv‡ii QvB‡qi mv‡_ cvwb‡Z dzwU‡q mvevb ˆZwi KiZ| ga¨hy‡M Bsj¨vÛ I Avqvij¨v‡Ûi †jv‡Kiv jvB †_‡K
mvevb ˆZwi KiZ| jvB GKwU ¶vixq Zij| Kv‡Vi QvB‡qi ga¨ w`‡q cvwb PzB‡q jvB cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡Zv| GwU
†avqv †gvQvi Kv‡R eëüZ n‡Zv| gv‡S gv‡S jvB‡K mivmwi eënvi Kiv n‡Zv Avevi KL‡bv G‡K Pwe©i mv‡_
dzwU‡q mvevb cª¯‘Z Kiv n‡Zv| wgkixqiv Mi“, gwnl, DU GgbwK wms‡ni Pwe© †_‡K mvevb ˆZwi KiZ|
ga¨hy‡Mi †kl fv‡M Zxeª ¶vi Kw÷K †mvWvi mv‡_ Pwe©‡K DËv‡c dzwU‡q mvevb ˆZwi Kiv n‡Zv| 1890 mv‡j
evwYwR¨Kfv‡e mvevb Drcv`b ïi“ nq| GKB mg‡q Kw÷K †mvWviI e¨vcK Drcv`b ïi“ nq|
eZ©gv‡b mviv c„w_ex‡Z mvev‡bi wecyj Pvwn`v| G Rb¨ mvevb cÖ¯‘ZKviK‡ì g‡a¨ Zxeª cÖwZ‡hvwMZv m„wó
n‡q‡Q| d‡j cÖwZwbqZ mvev‡bi ¸YMZ gvb I cÖ¯‘‡Zi c×wZ DbœZ †_‡K DbœZZi n‡”Q| eZ©gv‡b wewfbœ
cÖ‡qvR‡b wewfbœ ai‡bi mvevb eëüZ nq| mvevb ˆZwii cÖavb KvPvgvj n‡jv Pwe© Ges ¶vi| wewfbœ Pwe© I †Zj
†hgb, bvi‡Kj, cvg, gûqv, Awjf BZ¨vwì †Zj‡K mvevb cÖ¯‘‡Z eënvi Kiv nq| ¶vi wn‡m‡e Kw÷K †mvWv,
Kw÷K cUvm BZ¨vw` eënvi Kiv nq| ZvQvov eënvi Dc‡hvwMZv wePv‡i wewfbœ ivmvqwbK `ªe¨, myMwÜ I iÄK
c`v_© G‡Z †hvM Kiv nq|
†Zj I Pwe©‡K Kw÷K †mvWv ev Kw÷K cUvm mn‡hv‡M Av`ª© we‡kølY K‡i †mvwWqvg ev cUvwmqvg mvevb ˆZwi Kiv
nq| mvevb ˆZwii GB wewµqv‡K mvevbvqb wewµqv ejv nq|
CH2-OCO-R O CH2-OH GLv‡b,
| || | R = Cn H2n+1
CH-OCO-R + 3NaOH 3R-C-ONa + CH-OH n = 12-18
| |
CH2-OCO-R Kw÷K †mvWv mvevb CH2-OH
†Zj ev Pwe© wMømvij
wewµqvq Drcbœ wgkª‡Y Lv`¨ jeY †hvM Ki‡j mvevb Dc‡i †f‡m D‡V| Drcbœ mvev‡b mvgvb¨ cwigvY NaCl,
NaOH, wMømvij BZ¨vw` Ac`ªe¨ wgwkÖZ _v‡K| A‡kvwaZ mvevb‡K cvwb †hv‡M dzUv‡j Ac`ªe¨mg~n `ªexf~Z nq|
AZtci kxZj K‡i cvwb †d‡j †Ìqv nq| cybivq cvwb †hv‡M dzwU‡q †i‡L w`‡j †gvUvgywU weï× mvevb cvIqv
hvq| Drcbœ mvev‡b is I myMwÜ Ges Uq‡jU mvev‡b RxevYy bvkK I Z¡‡Ki †KvgjZv i¶vKvix c`v_© I Ab¨vb¨
`ªe¨ †hvM K‡i Quv‡P †d‡j wewfbœ AvK…wZi mvevb ˆZwi Kiv nq Ges Gi Mv‡q †UªWgvK© I eª¨vÛ BZ¨vw` †Lv`vB Kiv
nq|
4. wWUvi‡R›U
cÖ_g wek¦ hy‡×vËi Kv‡j †Zj I Pwe©i Afv‡ei d‡j Rvg©vwb‡Z me©cÖ_g †c‡Uªvwjqvg DcRvZ †_‡K wWUvi‡R›U
D™¢ve‡bi cÖqvm †bIqv nq| wWUvi‡R›U mvev‡bi gZ GKB cÖwµqvq gqjv cwi®‹vi K‡i| wWUvi‡R›U AYyi MVb
mvev‡bi AYyi †_‡K wfbœ|
196 imvqb
wWUvi‡R›U Li cvwb‡ZI mgvbfv‡e Kvh©Ki| Li cvwb‡Z K¨vjwmqvg I g¨vM‡bwmqv‡gi jeY `ªexf~Z _v‡K|
K¨vjwmqvg I g¨vM‡bwmqvg Avqb mvev‡bi mv‡_ wewµqvq A`ªeYxq K¨vjwmqvg I g¨vM‡bwmqvg jeY Drcbœ K‡i
hv cvwbi Dci cvZjv m‡ii gZ fvm‡Z _v‡K| d‡j gqjv Kvco cwi®‹vi nq bv| G‡Z mvev‡bi AcPq nq| GB
mi jvM‡j Kvco Aby¾¡j nq| c¶vš Í‡i wWUvi‡R‡›Ui K¨vjwmqvg I g¨vM‡bwmqvg jeY cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq| d‡j
wWUvi‡R›U w`‡q Li cvwb‡Z Kvco KuvP‡Z †Kvb mgm¨v nq bv|
wWUvi‡R›U cÖ¯‘wZ:
K. †mvwWqvg jivBj mvj‡dv‡bU : †Zj ev Pwe©‡K Av`ª© we‡kølY I nvB‡WªvwR‡bkb Ki‡j `xN© wkKj wewkó wewfbœ
A¨vj‡Kvnj (†hgb, jivBj A¨vj‡Kvnj) Drcbœ nq| Drcv‡ì mv‡_ mvjwdDwiK GwmW †hvM Ki‡j `xN© wkKj
wewkó A¨vjKvBj (jivBj) nvB‡Wªv‡Rb mvj‡dU Drcbœ nq| jivBj nvB‡Wªv‡Rb mvj‡dU‡K Kw÷K‡mvWv `ªe‡Yi
ga¨ w`‡q Pvjbv Ki‡j †mvwWqvg jivBj mvj‡dv‡bU bvgK wWUvi‡R›U Drcbœ nq| Drcbœ wWUvi‡R‡›U weiÄK
c`v_©, Zš
‘ D¾¡jKviK c`v_©, weìvi BZ¨vw` †gkv‡bv nq| wWUvi‡R›U‡K cvDWvi, `vbv, Zij A_ev evi wn‡m‡e
evRviRvZ Kiv nq|
CH3-(CH2)10-CH2-OH + H2SO4 CH3-(CH2)10-CH2-O-SO3H + H2O

jivBj A¨vj‡Kvnj mvjwdDwiK GwmW jivBj nvB‡Wªv‡Rb mvj‡dU
CH3-(CH2)10-CH2- O-SO3H + NaOH CH3-(CH2)10-CH2-O-SO3Na + H2O
jivBj nvB‡Wªv‡Rb mvj‡dU Kw÷K †mvWv †mvwWqvg jivBj mvj‡dv‡bU
weìvi: mevb I wWUvi‡R‡›Ui g~j¨ Kgv‡bvi Rb¨ eënvi Kiv nq| weìvi mvevb I wWUvi‡R‡›Ui
Kvh©KvwiZv e„w× K‡i|
5. mvevb I wWUvi‡R‡›Ui Kvco cwi®‹vi Kivi †KŠkj

mvevb ev wWUvi‡R›U j¤^v Kve©b wkKj hy³ AYy| `ªexf~Z Ae¯’vq Giv FYvZ¥K Avavb hy³ mvevb ev wWUvi‡R›U
Avqb I abvZ¥K Avavb hy³ †mvwWqvg Avq‡b wewkøó nq| mvevb ev wWUvi‡R›U Avq‡bi GK cÖvš
Í FYvZ¥K Avavb
hy³ _v‡K| Avq‡bi G cÖvš
Í‡K nvB‡WªvwdwjK ev cvwb AvKwl© ejv nq| Avq‡bi Aci cÖvš
Í cvwb weKwl©
(nvB‡Wªv‡dvweK) Ask hv †Zj ev wMÖ‡R `ªexf~Z nq|
R - COONa R - COO- + Na+ (R = C17H35- )

mvev‡bi F
YvZ¥K
Avqb
imvqb 197
gqjv Kvco‡K hLb mvevb ev wWUvi‡R›Umn cvwb‡Z †fRv‡bv nq ZLb nvB‡Wªv‡dvweK Ask Kvc‡oi †Zj I wMÖR
RvZxq gqjvi cÖwZ AvK…ó nq Ges G‡Z `ªexf~Z nq| c¶všÍ‡i nvB‡WªvwdwjK Ask PZz®úv‡k¦© cvwbi ¯Í‡i cÖmvwiZ
nq| G Ae¯’vq Kvco‡K Nlv w`‡j ev †gvPov‡bv n‡j †Zj ev wMÖR m¤ú~Y©i~‡c nvB‡WªvwdwjK Ask Øviv Ave„Z n‡q
c‡o| †Zj ev wMÖR AYy¸‡jvi PZz®úv‡k¦© FYvZ¥K Avav‡bi ejq m„wó nq| d‡j G¸‡jv m¤¢ve¨ m‡e©v”P `~i‡Z¡
Ae¯’vb Ki‡Z Pvq| G‡Z K‡i cvwb‡Z †Zj I wMÖ‡Ri Ae`ªe (Bgvjmb) m„wó nq Ges cvwb‡Z †aŠZ n‡q hvq|
d‡j Kvco cwi®‹vi nq| (Ae`ªe n‡jv `yÕwU AwgkÖYxq Zi‡ji wgkÖY)
nvB‡Wªv‡dvweK cÖvšÍ nvB‡WªvwdwjK cÖvšÍ

mvev‡bi FYvZ¥K Avqb
cvwbi AYy
mvevb AYy wMÖR (Kvc‡oi c„ô‡_‡K c„_KxK…Z)
wMÖR
wPÎ 12.2 : mvevb ev wWUvi‡R‡›Ui gqjv cwi®‹vi Kivi †KŠkj
6. AwZwi³ mvevb ev wWUvi‡R›U eënv‡ii Kydj
mvevb I wWUvi‡R›U AwZwi³ eënv‡ii d‡j Kvc‡oi is I eybb bó n‡Z cv‡i| nv‡Zi Z¡‡K mgm¨v †`Lv w`‡Z
cv‡i| g„`y cvwb‡Z mvevb fv‡jv cwi®‹vi Ki‡Z cv‡i, wKš‘ Nb AvVv‡jv c`v_© m„wó K‡i b`©gv eÜ K‡i †`q|
wWUvi‡R›U GB mgm¨v m„wó K‡i bv| †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv wWUvi‡R›U bb ev‡qvwW‡MÖ‡Wej c`v_©| G¸‡jv cwi‡e‡ki
Dci wfbœfv‡e ¶wZKi cÖfve †d‡j| (bb ev‡qv wW‡MÖ‡Wej : †h mKj c`v_© AbyRxe Øviv we‡hvwRZ nq bv)
ev‡qvwW‡MÖ‡Wej †hŠMmg~n AYyRxe KZ©„K we‡hvwRZ n‡q mij †hŠ‡M cwiYZ nq| bb ev‡qvwW‡MÖ‡Wej
wWUvi‡R›Umg~n cvwbi mv‡_ cÖevwnZ n‡q b`x-bvjv, Lvj-we‡j G‡m c‡o Ges †mLv‡b cvwb‡Z †dbv Drcbœ
K‡i| GB †dbv RjR cwi‡ek‡K bó K‡i| A‡bK †`‡k bb ev‡qvwW‡MÖ‡Wej wWUvi‡R›U wbwl× Kiv n‡q‡Q|
Dw™¢`RvZ †Zj †_‡K ˆZwi mvevb ev‡qvwW‡MÖ‡Wej| wKš‘ evmvq I Ab¨Î eëüZ mvev‡bi eR©¨ b`xbvjvi cvwbi
Dcwifv‡M †f‡m _v‡K| ZvB GB e‡R©ï e¨vK‡Uwiqvi ms¯ú‡k© Avmvi my‡hvM Kg nq| d‡j AwZwi³ mvev‡bi
eënvi cwi‡e‡ki ¶wZ K‡i| ZvB mvevb I wWUvi‡R‡›Ui eënvi Kgv‡bv DwPZ|
gqjv cwi®‹v‡ii ¶gZv e„w×i Rb¨ †Kv‡bv
†Kv‡bv wWUvi‡R‡›U dm‡dU eënvi Kiv nq|
dm‡dU cvwb‡K g„`y cvwb‡Z cwiYZ K‡i| GB
dm‡dU cvwb‡Z ay‡q b`x-bvjv, Lvj-we‡j G‡m
c‡o| dm‡dU ˆkevj I Ab¨vb¨ RjR Dw™¢‡ì
Rb¨ fv‡jv mvi| d‡j GmKj Dw™¢‡ì cwigvY wPÎ 12.3 : b`xi cv‡i KvcoKuvPvi `„k¨
198 imvqb
`ª“Z †e‡o hvq| GB ewa©Z RjR Dw™¢‡ì Rxeb Pµ †k‡l we‡hvR‡bi Rb¨ cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z Aw·‡Rb LiP n‡q
hvq| `ªexf~Z Aw·‡R‡bi Afv‡e RjR cÖvwYKyj g‡i hvq| G Rb¨ wWUvi‡R‡›U dm‡d‡Ui cwigvY wbqš¿Y Kiv
cÖ‡qvRb|
wk¶v_©xi KvR: cix¶Y
mvevb cÖ¯‘wZ:
AbywgZ cÖKí: ¶v‡ii mv‡_ †Zj ev Pwe©i wewµqvq mvevb Drcbœ nq| Drcbœ mvev‡bi pH gvb 7 Gi †ewk n‡e|
hš¿cvwZ DcKiY
x eyb‡mb evb©vi/ w¯úwiU j¨v¤ú/†K‡ivwmb KzKvi| x bvi‡Kj †Zj
x 2wU weKvi 400 mL x Kw÷K †mvWv
x 2wU †U÷wUDe x NaCl Gi m¤ú„³ `ªeY
x 1wU eo †cvwm©wjb evwU
x evRv‡ii mvevb
x 1wU bvovwb KvwV
x †K‡ivwmb †Zj
x 1wU †¯úPzjv
x 1wU gvc †PvO (10 mL)
x 1wU dv‡bj
x 1wU wdëvi †ccvi
wbivcËvg~jK mZK©Zv:
x †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW Mig Ae¯’vq
AZ¨šÍ Zxeª ¶qKviK c`v_©| myZivs GwU hv‡Z
c‡o wM‡q †Kv‡bv `yN©Ubv bv nq †m e¨vcv‡i
mZK© _vK‡Z n‡e|
x Drcbœ mvevb‡K nv‡Z ev Mv‡q eënvi bv Kiv|
Kvh©c×wZ
K. GKwU weKv‡i cvwb c~Y© K‡i Gi Dc‡i wP‡Îi b¨vq †cvwm©wjb
evwU ¯’vcb K‡i w÷g ev_ cÖ¯‘Z Ki|
L. †cvwm©wjb evwU‡Z 5 mL bvi‡Kj †Zj ev 5MÖvg Pwe© Ges 30
mL †mvwWqvg nvBWª·vBW `ªeY bvI| wPÎ 12.4 : mvevb cÖ¯‘wZ
M. wgkÖYwU‡K w÷g ev‡_ 30 wgwbU a‡i dzUvI| G mgq bvovwb KvwV Øviv GKUz ci ci bvo‡Z _vK Ges cvwb
†hvM K‡i ev®úxf~Z cvwbi NvUwZ c~iY Ki| G mgq †Zj ev Pwe© m¤ú~Y© `ªexf~Z n‡q AvVv‡jv c`v_© m„wó n‡e|
N. AZtci Zvc †Ìqv eÜ Ki Ges wgkÖYwU‡K VvÊv n‡Z `vI|
O. VvÊv wgkÖ‡Y 50 mL NaCl Gi m¤ú„³ `ªeY †hvM K‡i mviv ivZ †i‡L `vI|
imvqb 199
P. c‡ii w`b GKwU wdëvi †ccv‡ii mvnv‡q¨ wgkÖYwU‡K †Qu‡K cwimªyZ †d‡j `vI Ges mvevb‡K ky‡Kv‡Z `vI|
Drcbœ mvev‡bi cix¶v :
1. GKwU †U÷wUD‡ei wZb fv‡Mi GK fvM cvwb I †Zvgvi ˆZwi
mvev‡bi bgybv bvI| †U÷wUD‡ei gyL eÜ K‡i SuvKvI| j¶
Ki †dbv Drcbœ nq wK bv?
2. Gevi †U÷wUD‡e 2/3 †duvUv †K‡ivwmb †hvM K‡i SuvKvI I
ch©‡e¶Y Ki| †K‡ivwmb‡K wMÖR a‡i wb‡q djvdj e¨vL¨v Ki|
3. †Zvgvi ˆZwi mvev‡bi pH gvb wbY©q Ki|
4. evRv‡ii mvev‡bi Rb¨ Dc‡ii cix¶v wZbwU m¤úbœ Ki Ges
†Zvgvi ˆZwi mvev‡bi mv‡_ evRv‡ii mvev‡bi Zzjbv Ki|
5. mvevb cÖ¯‘Z cÖYvjx Ges †Zvgvi ˆZwi mvev‡bi ¸YMZ gvb
m¤ú‡K© GKwU cÖwZ‡e`b wk¶‡Ki wbKU Rgv `vI| wPÎ 12.5 : mvev‡bi QuvKb
7. weøP
Kvco KuvPvi c‡i Av‡bK mgq Kvc‡o †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv `vM †_‡K hvq| mvevb ev wWUvi‡R›U w`‡q †avqvi c‡iI
`vM hvq bv| G mKj †¶‡Î weø‡Pi cÖ‡qvRb nq| Avgv‡ì †`‡k me‡P‡q cÖPwjZ weøP n‡jv weøwPs cvDWvi
Ca(OCl)Cl| 40 oC ZvcgvÎvq Ca(OH)2 Gi g‡a¨ Cl2 M¨vm Pvjbv Ki‡j weøwPs cvDWvi Drcbœ nq|
40OC
Ca(OH)2(s) + Cl2(g) Ca(OCl)Cl(s) + H2O(l)
8. weøwPs cvDWv‡ii `vM DVv‡bvi †KŠkj

weøwPs cvDWvi evqygÊ‡ji Kve©b WvBA·vBW Ges cvwbi mv‡_ wewµqvq nvB‡cv‡K¬vivm GwmW (HClO) Drcbœ
K‡i| nvB‡cv‡K¬vivm GwmW Zvr¶wYK we‡hvwRZ n‡q Rvqgvb Aw·‡Rb Drcbœ K‡i| GB Rvqgvb Aw·‡R‡bi
RviY wµqvq Kvc‡oi `vM `~i nq| Rvqgvb Aw·‡Rb I HCl Gi wewµqvq cvwb I mwµq †K¬vwib Drcbœ nq|
Drcbœ †K¬vwi‡bi RviY wµqvq `vM `~i nq|
2Ca(OCl)Cl + H2O + CO2 CaCO3 + CaCl2 +2HClO
HClO HCl + [O]
2HCl + [O] H2O + 2[Cl]
RxevYybvkK wn‡m‡e weøwPs cvDWv‡ii e¨vcK eënvi Av‡Q| Drcvw`Z Rvqgvb Aw·‡Rb I Rvqgvb †K¬vwib RxevYyi
†cÖvwUb‡K RvwiZ K‡i| d‡j RxevYy g‡i hvq|
9. Møvm wK¬bvi
Rvbvjv, †kv‡Km, †Uwej, Mvwo BZ¨vwì KvP cwi®‹vi Kivi Rb¨ GK cÖKvi Zij c`v_© eëüZ nq| GB Zi‡ji
g~j Dcv`vb n‡jv A¨v‡gvwbqv NH3| †h †Kv‡bv A¨v‡gvwbqvg jeY‡K ¶vimn‡hv‡M Zvc w`‡j Av¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm
Drcbœ nq|
200 imvqb
cix¶vvMv‡i A¨v‡gvwbqvg †K¬vivBW (NH4Cl) Gi mv‡_ KzBK jvBg; (CaO) ev †¯øKW jvBg‡K ev KwjPzb‡K
{Ca(OH)2} †K DËß K‡i A¨v‡gvwbqv NH3 cÖ¯‘Z Kiv nq|
2NH4Cl(s) + CaO(s) 2NH3(g) + CaCl2(s) + H2O(g)
2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) 2NH3(g) + CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(g)
wk¶v_©xi KvR: cix¶Y
A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm cÖ¯‘wZ I Gi ag© cix¶Y:
wP‡Îi b¨vq hš¿ I DcKiY eënvi K‡i A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm Drcbœ Ki|
mnvqZv: A¨v‡gvwbqvg †K¬vivB‡Wi wØ¸Y cwigvY KwjPzb fv‡jvfv‡e wgwk‡q wb‡e| wgkÖY w`‡q wewµqvb‡ji
A‡a©‡Ki Kg c~Y© Ki‡e| wewµqv bjwUi m¤§yL fvM GKUz Xvjy K‡i ivL‡e| fve Ges DËi `vI|
1. wewµqvb‡ji gy‡Li wQwc Ges wbM©g b‡ji †Mvov
evqy‡ivax bv n‡j †Kvb mgm¨v †`Lv w`‡e?
2. wewµqvq cvwb Drcbœ nq we‡ePbvq wewµqvbjwUi
m¤§yLfvM Xvjy ivLvi ¸iæZ¡ e¨vL¨v Ki|
3. wewµqv wgkÖY w`‡q wewµqv bjwU c~Y© K‡i wewµqv
NUv‡j †Kvb †Kvb mgm¨v †`Lv w`‡e|
[Drcbœ M¨v‡mi cwigvY, M¨v‡mi Pvc, M¨vm
wbM©g‡bi c_ BZ¨vw` we‡ePbv Ki‡e|] wPÎ 12.6 : A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm cÖ¯‘wZ I msMÖn
4. ï®‹ M¨vmRvi/†U÷wUDe wbM©g b‡ji gy³ cÖv‡šÍi
Dci Dcyi K‡i a‡i M¨vm msMÖn K‡iQ| evqyc~Y© M¨vm RviwU M¨vm Øviv c~Y© n‡j evqy †ewi‡q †Mj Kxfv‡e?
A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨v‡mi fi I evqyi f‡ii Zzjbv Ki|
5. ï®‹ M¨vmRvi/†U÷wUDe NH3M¨vm Øviv c~Y© n‡jv wK bv Zv †Kgb K‡i eyS‡e? Gi DË‡i ejv hvq
GKwU KvPbj HCl Gwm‡W wfwR‡q M¨vmRvi/†U÷wUD‡ei †Lvjv gy‡L ai| hw` †`L M¨vm Rv‡ii gy‡L
mv`v †auvqv m„wó n‡q‡Q Zv n‡j eyS‡e M¨vmRvi M¨vm Øviv c~Y© n‡q‡Q| Drcbœ mv`v †auvqv A¨v‡gvwbqvg
†K¬vivBW; NH4Cl bvgK †hŠM| NH4Cl Drcv`‡bi ivmvqwbK wewµqvwU †jL|
6. GKwU M¨vm c~Y© †U÷wUD‡ei gyL e„×v½yj w`‡q †P‡c a‡i cvwb‡Z WzevI| †U÷wUD‡ei gyL cvwb‡Z Wzev‡bv
Ae¯’vq Av½yj mwi‡q bvI| djvdj ch©‡e¶Y Ki| GB ch©‡e¶Y †_‡K wK wm×všÍ †bIqv hvq|
[†U÷wUDe cvwb‡Z c~Y© n‡j NH3 M¨vm †Mj †Kv_vq? cvwb‡Z wPwb †gkv‡j †h djvdj nq Zvi mv‡_ Gi
Zzjbv Ki|]
7. GKwU M¨vm c~Y© †U÷wUD‡e ev wbM©g b‡ji gy‡L †fRv jvj wjUgvm †ccvi ai| djvdj ch©‡e¶Y Ki| G
†_‡K M¨vmwUi ivmvqwbK ag© m¤ú‡K© †Zvgvi aviYv e¨vL¨v Ki|
8. Zzwg †Kv_vq †Kv_vq A¨v‡gvwbqv; NH3 M¨v‡mi MÜ j¶ K‡iQ? GB MÜ hy³ e¯‘mg~‡ni †Kvb †KvbwU
K…wl †¶‡Î eëüZ nq| G¸‡jv eënv‡ii c‡¶ †Zvgvi hyw³ wjwLZfv‡e Dc¯’vcb Ki|
imvqb 201
10. A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨v‡mi wk‡ívrcv`b

†nevi cÖYvjx‡Z NH3 M¨v‡mi wk‡ívrcv`b Kiv nq| G Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb nq bvB‡Uªv‡Rb; N2 Ges
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb; H2 M¨vm| Zzwg wbðqB Rvb evZv‡mi cuvP fv‡Mi Pvi fvMB bvB‡Uªv‡Rb| evZvm‡K kxZj
Ki‡j bvB‡Uªv‡Rb Zij n‡q c„_K n‡q hvq|
nvB‡Wªv‡R‡bi Drm n‡jv cÖvK…wZK M¨vm Ges cvwb| Avgv‡ì †`‡ki cÖvK…wZK M¨vm g~jZ wg‡_b CH4|
wg‡_b M¨vm wb‡Kj cÖfve‡Ki Dcw¯’wZ‡Z 750 oC ZvcgvÎvq Ges 30 atm (evqy Pv‡c) Rjxqev‡®úi
mv‡_ wewµqvq nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm I Kve©b g‡bv·vBW (CO) M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i| Kve©b g‡bv·vBW cybivq
Awe‡hvwRZ Rjxqev®ú‡K weRvwiZ K‡i nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm Ges Kve©b WvB A·vBW (CO2) M¨vm Drcbœ
K‡i| Drcbœ M¨vm‡K kxZjxKiY Ki‡j mn‡RB CO2 M¨vm Zij n‡q c„_K n‡q hvq| `ywU M¨vm‡KB
msMÖn I msi¶Y Kiv nq|
CH4(g) + H2O(g) 3H2(g) + CO(g)
CO(g) + H2O(g) H2(g) + CO2(g)
A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm Drcv`b:

†nevi cÖYvjx‡Z A¨v‡gvwbqv Drcv`‡bi Rb¨ bvB‡Uªv‡Rb Ges nvB‡Wª‡Rb M¨v‡mi 1t3 AbycvZ wgkÖY‡K 200-250
atm Pv‡c 450oC -550oC ZvcgvÎvq DËß Avqib cÖfve‡Ki Dci w`‡q Pvjbv Ki‡j A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm
Drcbœ nq|
Fe
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) ; ' H = 92 k J
200-250 atm
450-550 oC
GwU GKwU Zv‡cvrcv`x wewµqv|
wk¶v_©x‡ì `jMZ KvR:
A¨v‡gvwbqv Drcv`‡bi mv‡_ mswkøó cÖwZwU wewµqvq jv kv‡Zjxq bxwZi cÖ‡qvM e¨vL¨v Ki|
12.3 K…wl I wkí †¶‡Î imvqb

1. Pzbvcv_i; CaCO3
wkí †¶‡Î Pzbvcv_i: Zzwg B‡Zvg‡a¨B †R‡bQ, evZ¨v Pzwjø‡Z Avqib wb®‹vk‡b Ges †mvwWqvg nvB‡Wªv‡Rb
Kve©‡bU ev Lvevi †mvWvi wk‡ívrcv`‡b Pzbvcv_i eëüZ nq| Pzbvcv_i GKwU g~jëvb LwbR m¤ú`| Avgv‡ì
†`‡k mybvgMÄ †Rjvq Ges †m›U gvwU©b Øx‡c Pzbvcv_i cvIqv †M‡Q| GB Pzbvcv_i wm‡g›U wk‡íi cÖavb KuvPvgvj|
is ev †cB›U wk‡í Gi eënvi AZ¨šÍ e¨vcK|
K…wl †¶‡Î Pzbvcv_i: K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU mej ev `ye©j †h †Kvb Gwm‡Wi mv‡_ wewµqvq Gwm‡Wi nvB‡Wªv‡Rb
Avqb‡K cÖkwgZ K‡i Ges Kve©b WvB A·vBW M¨vm Drcbœ K‡i| Pzbvcv_‡ii GB ivmvqwbK a‡g©i Rb¨ GwmwWq
202 imvqb
gvwU ev cvwbi pH gvb e„w×i Rb¨ Pzbvcv_i eënvi Kiv nq|

CaCO3 + 2H+ Ca2+ + CO2 + H2O
GwmwWq gvwU‡Z Pzbvcv_i ¸uov K‡i gvwU‡Z cÖ‡qvM Kiv nq| GwU gvwUi pH gvb e„w×i cvkvcvwk Dw™¢‡ì Rb¨
cÖ‡qvRbxq K¨vjwmqvg mieivn K‡i| ¶viKxq gvwUi cvwb aviY¶gZv †ewk _v‡K| Dw™¢‡ì gyL¨ cywó Dcv`vb
(bvB‡Uªv‡Rb, dm‡dU I cUvwmqvg) cwi‡kvlY e„w× K‡i| ¯Íb¨cvqx cÖvYx we‡klZ `y»eZx Mvfxi K¨vjwmqvg
NvUwZ c~i‡Yi Rb¨ Lv‡`ï mv‡_ K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡bU LvIqv‡bv nq| `y‡ai cÖavb Dcv`vb K¨vjwmqvg| `y‡ai mv‡_
Mvfxi kixi †_‡K cÖPzi cwigv‡Y K¨vjwmqvg †ewi‡q hvq|
2. KzBK jvBg; CaO
Pzbvcv_i‡K D”P ZvcgvÎvq DËß Ki‡j KzBK jvBg ev K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW CaO Drcbœ nq|
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
K¨vjwmqvg A·vB‡Wi mv‡_ cÖ‡qvRbxq cwigvY cvwb †hvM Ki‡j Zv‡cvrcv`x wewµqvq †¯øKW jvBg ev K¨vjwmqvg
nvBWª·vBW Drcbœ Kiv nq|
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
GwmwWq gvwU‡Z Dw™¢‡ì gyL¨ cywó Dcv`vb (bvB‡Uªv‡Rb, dm‡dU I cUvwmqvg) cwi‡kvlY evavMÖ¯’ nq| d‡j
djb fv‡jv nq bv| AwZwi³ GwmwWK gvwU‡Z mxg RvZxq Dw×` Rb¥vq bv| cvwbi pH gvb K‡g †M‡j A_©vr
cvwb GwmwWK n‡q †M‡j gv‡Qi kix‡i Nv †`Lv †`q| GwmwWq gvwU I cvwbi pH gvb e„w×i Rb¨ GgbwK gvwU ev
cvwb‡K ¶vixq Kivi Rb¨ Pzb eënvi Kiv nq| ZvQvov wkí †¶‡Î cvwbi LiZv `~ixKi‡Y Ges weøwPs cvDWv‡ii
wk‡ívrcv`‡b K¨vjwmqvg A·vBW eëüZ nq|
3. BDwiqv; (NH2)2C=O
evsjv‡`k †KwgK¨vj BÛvw÷ªR K‡c©v‡ik‡bi 6wU KviLvbvq eQ‡i 23,21,000 †gwUªK Ub BDwiqv mvi Drcvw`Z
nq| Gi cy‡ivUv eënv‡ii c‡iI evsjv‡`k‡K BDwiqv Avg`vwb Ki‡Z nq| ZvQvov 100% ißvwbgyLx
Kvd‡Kv‡Z cÖwZ eQi 68 j¶ †gwUªK Ub BDwiqv Drcbœ nq| BDwiqv mv‡ii 46% nj Dw™¢‡ì cÖavb cywó
Dcv`vb bvB‡Uªv‡Rb| Zij Kve©b WvBA·vBW I A¨v‡gvwbqvi wgkÖY‡K D”P Pv‡c Ges 130 a 150 oC
ZvcgvÎvq DËß K‡i BDwiqv Drcv`b Kiv nq|
CO2 + 2NH3 (NH2)2C=O + H2O
gvwU‡Z `ªexf~Z Ae¯’vq BDwiqv BDwi‡qR GbRvB‡gi cÖfv‡e ax‡i ax‡i we‡hvwRZ n‡q A¨v‡gvwbqv I Kve©b WvB
A·vB‡W cwiYZ nq| A¨v‡gvwbqv cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z n‡q A¨v‡gvwbqvg nvBWª·vB‡W cwiYZ nq| A¨v‡gvwbqvg
nvBWª·vBW NH4+ Avqb I OH- Avq‡b AvswkKfv‡e we‡hvwRZ Ae¯’vq _v‡K| Dw™¢` NH4+ Avqb
cwi‡kvlY K‡i|
imvqb 203
(NH2)2C=O + H2O BDwi‡qR 2NH3 + CO2
NH3(l) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)
NH4OH (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H2O(l)

GB wewµqvi mgq wKQz cwigvY A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vmxq AvKv‡i wbM©Z nq|
ZvQvov BDwiqv‡K g¨vjvgvBb, diwgKv BZ¨vw` cwjgv‡ii wk‡ívrcv`‡b eënvi Kiv nq|
4. A¨v‡gvwbqvg mvj‡dU; (NH4)2SO4
A¨v‡gvwbqv Ges mvjwdDwiK Gwm‡Wi wewµqvq A¨v‡gvwbqvg mvj‡dU Drcbœ nq|
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
A¨v‡gvwbqvg mvj‡dU mv`v `vbv`vi c`v_©| Rjxq `ªe‡Y GwU GwmwWK ag© cÖ`k©b K‡i| gvwUi ¶viKZ¡ AZ¨waK
n‡q †M‡j A¨v‡gvwbqvg mvj‡dU cÖ‡qvM K‡i Zv wbqš¿Y Kiv nq| GwU Dw™¢‡ì AwZ cÖ‡qvRbxq cywó Dcv`vb
bvB‡Uªv‡Rb I mvjdvi mieivn K‡i|
A¨vmvBb‡g›U: K…wl †¶‡Î AwZwi³ mvi eënv‡ii ¶wZKi cÖfve|
†h welq¸‡jv cwigvc ev we‡ePbv Ki‡e:
1. K…wl Rwg‡Z AvMvQvi cwigvY
2. K…wl Rwgi Av‡k cv‡ki Rjvk‡qi cvwbi pH gvb
3. e„wó‡Z mvi ay‡q hvIqv
4. RjR Dw™¢‡ì e„w×, g„Zy¨ I we‡hvRb| Aw·‡Rb Øviv RvwiZ n‡q g„Z Dw™¢` I cÖvYxi we‡hvRb N‡U
_v‡K|
5. `ªexf~Z Aw·‡R‡bi cwigvY
6. RjR cÖvYxi †eu‡P _vKvi m¤¢vebv|
5. K…wl`ªe¨ cÖwµqvKi‡Y ivmvqwbK `ªe¨

evRv‡i d‡ji †`vKv‡b _‡i _‡i mvRv‡bv dj †`L‡j Kvi bv wKb‡Z ev †L‡Z B”Qv K‡i| wKš‘ ivmvqwbK
eënv‡ii K_v ïb‡jB B”Qv `~i n‡q hvq| cÖwZeQi ˆR¨ô Avlvp gv‡m K¨vjwmqvg Kve©vBW w`‡q cvKv‡bv e‡j
wecyj cwigvY Avg bó Kiv nq| cÖvK…wZKfv‡e Dw™¢` Kv‡Êi gyKz‡j Bb‡Wvj GwmwUK GwmW Drcbœ nq, hv †_‡K
GK ch©v‡q Bw_wjb M¨vm Drcbœ nq Ges GB M¨v‡mi cÖfv‡e Mv‡QB dj cv‡K| cvKv dj cwienb Kivq mgm¨v nq
Ges d‡j `vM m„wó nq| GRb¨ KuvPv Ae¯’vq dj cwienb K‡i eëmvqxiv weµq‡K‡›`ª K…wÎgfv‡e dj cvKv‡Z
AvMÖnx| DbœZ †`‡k dj eëmvqxMY Bw_wjb M¨vm †Rbv‡iU‡ii gva¨‡g Drcbœ M¨vm, cwiwgZ cwigv‡Y cÖ‡qvM K‡i
dj cvKvq| dj cvKv‡bvi Rb¨ ¸`vg N‡ii evZv‡m 0.1% Bw_wjb M¨vm h‡_ó| AwZwi³ Bw_wjb gvby‡li
mœvqyZš¿‡K `ye©j K‡i| GwU †PvL, Z¡K, dzzmdzm I gw¯Í‡®‹i ¶wZ K‡i| Gi cÖfv‡e Aw·‡Rb mieiv‡ni
`xN©-†gqvw` mgm¨v †`Lv w`‡Z cv‡i| †Kv_vI †Kv_vI dj cvKv‡Z B‡_v‡db bvgK Dw™¢` ni‡gvb eënvi K‡i|
B‡_v‡db we‡hvwRZ n‡q Bw_wjb Drcbœ K‡i| G Rb¨ 2010 mv‡j hy³iv‡óªi FDCA dj cvKv‡Z B‡_v‡d‡bi
204 imvqb
eënvi wbwl× K‡i‡Q| evsjv‡`‡k K¨vjwmqvg Kve©vBW; CaC2 w`‡q dj cvKv‡bv nq| CaC2 cvwbi mv‡_
wewµqvq A¨vwmwUwjb M¨vm Ges K¨vjwmqvg nvBWª·vBW Drcbœ K‡i|
CaC2 + H2O CH CH + Ca(OH)2
A¨vwmwUwjb (C2H2) M¨vm Avg, Kjvmn cÖvq mKj dj cvKv‡Z mvnvh¨ K‡i| wkí †MÖ‡Wi CaC2 G welv³
Av‡m©wbK Ges dmdivm _v‡K| ZvQvov Bw_wjb I A¨vwmwUwj‡bi a‡g© mv`„k¨ we`¨gvb| evsjv‡`‡k CaC2
eënvi K‡i dj cvKv‡bv wbwl×| †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv †`‡k dj eëmvqxMY we_vBwjb bvgK ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb
eënvi Ki‡Q| GLb ch©šÍ Gi †Kvb ¶wZKi cÖfve Avwe®‹…Z nq bvB|
mZK©Zv: evRv‡ii †Kbv dj LvIqvi c~‡e© GKwU Mvgjvi cvwb‡Z jeY I Pzb wgwk‡q dj¸‡jv‡K 5-7 wgwbU
wfwR‡q ivL| AZtci cwi®‹vi cvwb w`‡q ay‡q dj ïwK‡q bvI|
†Kbvi Rb¨ dj cQ›` Kivi mg‡q d‡ji Mv‡q b‡Li wPý, ¶Z ev cPv wPý _vK‡j Zzwg wKb‡e bv|
6. K…wl`ªe¨ msi¶‡Y ivmvqwbK `ªe¨

wewfbœ AYyRxe KZ…©K Lv`¨ mvgMÖx‡K cP‡bi nvZ †_‡K i¶v Kiv ev cPb‡K wejw¤^Z Kiv; eY©, MÜ I AvK…wZi
cwieZ©b †iva ev wejw¤^Z Kivi Rb¨ mviv c„w_ex‡ZB wcÖRvi‡fwUfm eënvi Kiv nq| †jvKgy‡L †kvbv hvq
Avgv‡ì †`‡k eëmvqxMY AÁZvemZ mKj cPbkxj `ªe¨ msi¶‡Y digvwjb eënvi K‡ib| dj msi¶‡Y
digvwjb †Kv‡bv Kvh©Ki f~wgKv iv‡L bv ev ivL‡Z cv‡i bv| g~jZ digvwjb n‡jv digvjwWnvBW (HCHO) Gi
40% Rjxq `ªeY| GwU e¨vK‡Uwiqv I QÎvKbvkK wn‡m‡e AZ¨šÍ Kvh©Ki| g„Z gvbyl, RxeweÁv‡bi j¨ve‡iUwi
bgybv I c¨v_jwRK¨vj wUmy¨ msi¶‡Y digvwjb eënvi Kiv nq| digvjwWnvBW †cÖvwUb ev DNA-Gi
bvB‡Uª‡R‡bi mv‡_ H2C-NH- wjs‡KR m„wó K‡i wUmy¨‡K wd· K‡i ev msi¶Y K‡i| wbgœ ZvcgvÎvq I Aí
mg‡qi ms¯ú‡k© msMwVZ cwieZ©b DfgyLx nq wKš‘ AwaK ZvcgvÎvq `xN© mg‡qi ms¯ú‡k© GKgyLx cwieZ©b nq|
digvjwWnvBW mKj cÖvYxi Rb¨ AZ¨šÍ welv³ c`v_©| Bnv K¨vÝvi Drcv`K wn‡m‡e êÁvwbKfv‡e cÖgvwYZ| AwaK
gvÎvq digvjwWnvBW kix‡i cÖ‡ek Ki‡j Zxeª †cU e¨_v, ewg, wKWwb, †Kvgv mgm¨v GgbwK g„Zz¨ ch©š— n‡Z
cv‡i| evsjv‡`kmn c„w_exi eû †`‡k digvjwWnvBW w`‡q djg~j, gvQ-gvsm I Ab¨vb¨ Lv`¨mvgMÖx msi¶Y wbwl×|
7. K‡qKwU Aby‡gvw`Z dzW wcÖRvi‡fwUfm&&

†mvwWqvg †eb‡Rv‡qU I †ebRwqK GwmW : `ywU wcÖRvi‡fwUfm&B g~jZ GKBfv‡e KvR K‡i| †mvwWqvg
†eb‡Rv‡qU Rjxq `ªe‡Y †ebRwqK GwmW Drcbœ K‡i| GwU cÖvK…wZK fv‡e Avjy‡evLviv, Zvj, `vi“wPwb, cvKv
RjcvB Ges Av‡c‡j cvIqv hvq| GwU B÷, †gvìm&&, Ges KwZcq e¨vK‡Uwiqv cÖwZ‡iva K‡i| GwU pH gvb 4.5
Gi wb‡P AZ¨šÍ Kvh©Ki| Gi Aby‡gvw`Z MÖnY‡hvM¨ gvÎv 0.1% †mvwWqvg †eb‡Rv‡qU| †eb‡RvwqK Gwm‡Wi
RvZK c¨viv wg‡_vw·‡eb‡RvwqK GwmW Ges c¨viv wg_vBj‡eb‡RvwqK GwmW Lv`¨ msi¶K wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i|
cÖwµqvRvZ Lvevi †hgb: U‡g‡Uv mm, AvPvi, PvbvPzi, wPcm BZ¨vw`‡Z wba©vwiZ cwigv‡Y †mvwWqvg †eb‡Rv‡qU
eëüZ nq|
imvqb 205
cUvwmqvg mi‡eU, †mvwWqvg mi‡eU I K¨vjwmqvg mi‡eU: GB jeY¸‡jv cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z Ki‡j miweK GwmW
Drcv`b K‡i| GwU pH gvb 6.5 ch©š— AZ¨šÍ Kvh©Kifv‡e B÷, †gvìm&&, Ges KwZcq e¨vK‡Uwiqv `gb K‡i|
GwUiI Aby‡gvw`Z MÖnY‡hvM¨ gvÎv 0.1%|
†Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv Lv`¨ Dcv`v‡b AwaKZi wbivcËvi Rb¨ †mvwWqvg †ebR‡qU I mi‡eU GK‡Î eënvi Kiv nq|
Lv`¨mvgMÖx‡Z wcÖRvi‡fwUfm&& eënvi Kiv n‡j Zv DcKiY ZvwjKvq D‡jøL Kiv Avek¨K|
wk¶v_©xi KvR :
wfbœ wfbœ cv‡Î c„_K fv‡e †Zj, wf‡bMvi, †jeyi im, jeY, wPwbi Nb `ªeY, cvwb Ges Lvwj cv‡Î GK UzKiv
K‡i dj ev mewR †i‡L 7 w`b a‡i ch©‡e¶Y Ki| †Zvgvi ch©‡e¶‡Yi wfwË‡Z G¸‡jvi g‡a¨ †Kvb¸‡jv‡K
wcÖRvi‡fwUf wn‡m‡e eënvi Kiv hvq Zv eY©bv Ki|
12.4 wkí eR©¨ I cwi‡ek `ylY

evsjv‡`‡k U¨vbvwi, †cB›U Ges KxUbvkK wkí eR©¨ c`v‡_©i mv‡_ †µvwgqvg (Cr), †jW (Pb), gvK©vwi (Hg) I
K¨vWwgqvg (Cd) Gi gZ fvix avZzi Avqb gy³ ev e× Rjvk‡q Aegy³ K‡i| GB Avqbmg~n AZ¨šÍ ¯^í
gvÎvqI Lye welv³| G¸‡jv cÖvYx I Dw™¢‡ì †cÖvwU‡bi gva¨‡g Lv`¨ k„•L‡j cÖ‡ek K‡i gvbe †`‡ni ¶wZmvab
K‡i Ges †cÖvwU‡bi h_v_© Kvh©µg m¤úv`‡b weNœ m„wó K‡i| gvbe kix‡i fvix avZzi cÖfve AZ¨šÍ gvivZ¥K| Gi
d‡j mœvqyZš¿, wKWwb I wjfv‡ii ¶wZ nq, gvbwmK cÖwZewÜZv †`Lv †`q GgbwK g„Zz¨ ch©šÍ n‡Z cv‡i|
wkí eR©¨ †_‡K fvix avZzi Avqbmg~n AcmviY bv Ki‡j Zv Lv`¨ k„•L‡j hy³ nq| A_©vr `~lYvµvšÍ Rjvk‡qi gvQ,
cvwb †m‡Pi gva¨‡g km¨ I mewR‡Z Ges `~lYvµvšÍ cvwb I Lv`¨ †_‡K †cvwëª Ges Mi“-QvM‡ji gvs‡m fvix avZzi
Avqb Rgv nq|
¯^í Nb‡Z¡i `ªe‡Y fvix avZzi Avqb kbv³ Kiv Lye KwVb| cvwb †_‡K G¸‡jvi AcmviY Kiv AZ¨šÍ KwVb I
e¨qeûj|
mvevb I wWUvi‡R›U KviLvbv e‡R©ï mv‡_ cÖPzi cwigv‡Y Kw÷K †mvWv wbM©gb K‡i| d‡j cvwbi pH gvb †e‡o
hvq| G‡Z RjR cÖvYx I Dw™¢‡ì Dci wei~c cÖfve c‡o|
wk¶v_©xi KvR:
1. †Zvgvi GjvKvq †Kvb wkí KviLvbv _vK‡j Zv e‡R©ï mv‡_ Rjvk‡q Kx Kx avZz wbM©gb K‡i, Zv
†R‡b Gi ¶wZKi cÖfve m¤ú‡K© GKwU cÖwZ‡e`b iPbv Ki‡e| cÖ‡qvR‡b wk¶K Ges B›Uv‡b‡Ui
mnvqZv wb‡e|
2. eR©¨ †kvabvMvi cÖwZôvq RbgZ m„wó Ges KviLvbvi gvwjK c¶‡K Kxfv‡e AbycÖvwYZ Ki‡e? eY©bv Ki|
3. †Zvgvi GjvKvi K…lKMY †h mKj KxUbvkK c`v_© eënvi K‡ib Zvi †j‡ej c‡o Dcw¯’Z
Dcv`vbmg~‡ni bvg Ges G¸‡jvi g‡a¨ †Kvb¸‡jv cwi‡ek `~lY Ki‡Q Zvi Dci GKwU cÖwZ‡e`b iPbv
Ki|
206 imvqb
Abykxjbx
1. A¨v‡gvwbqv M¨vm Drcv`‡b eëüZ nvB‡Wªv‡Rb I bvB‡Uªv‡R‡bi AbycvZ KZ?
K. 1 t 2 L. 1 t 3
M. 2 t 1 N. 3 t 1
2. wb‡Pi †KvbwU GbRvB‡gi wµqv‡K Z¡ivwš^Z K‡i?
K. H2O L. NaCl
M. H2CO3 N. CH3COO H
3. Zworwe‡kølY K‡i NaOH Drcv`‡bi †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨-
K. NaCl -G jNy Rjxq `ªeY L. MwjZ NaCl
M. cøvwUbvg ZworØvi N. gviKvwi ZworØvi
4. NH3+H2SO4 wewµqvwU-
i. GKwU cÖkgb wewµqv
ii. Drcv` Dw™¢‡ì GKwU ¸i“Z¡c~Y© cywó Dcv`vb
iii. Drcv‡ì Rjxq `ªe‡Yi pH gvb 7 Gi †ewk
†KvbwU mwVK
K. i L. i I ii
m„Rbkxj cÖkœ:
1. Wv. P›`ªvi M„nKgx©i e`nRg nIqvq M„nKg©x wekÖvg wb‡”Qb| nVvr evwoi wd«RwU weKj nIqvq Wv. P›`ªv evRvi
†_‡K Avbv KuvPv gvQ-gvsm, jeY, njy`, †ewKs cvDWvi Ges wf‡bMvi wb‡q wPšÍvq co‡jb| B‡Zvg‡a¨ M„nKgx©
†Mvc‡b †ewKs cvDWvi †L‡q my¯’‡eva Ki‡jb| Wv. P›`ªv NUbvwU †R‡b, fwel¨‡Z Zv‡K GwU †L‡Z wb‡la Ki‡jb|
K. Møvm wK¬bv‡ii g~j Dcv`vb Kx?
L. Avgv‡ì †`‡ki A¨v‡gvwbqv wk‡í evZv‡mi f~wgKv †Kv_vq?
M. Zvr¶wYK eë¯’v wb‡Z Wv. P›`ªv gvQ, gvsm msi¶‡Yi Rb¨ M„nKgx©‡K DÏxc‡Ki †KvbwU‡K eënvi Ki‡Z
ej‡eb? e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. DÏxc‡Ki M„nKgx©i e`nRg †_‡K gyw³ cvIqvi imvqb mgxKiYmn e¨vL¨v Ki|
imvqb 207
2. eQ‡ii ïi“‡ZB m„Rbx I kÖvešÍx GKB Kvc‡oi bZzb ¯‹zj †Wªm c‡i ¯‹z‡j hvIqv ïi“ Kij| Rvgv Kvco
cwi®‹vi Ki‡Z `yR‡bi gv mvevb eënvi Ki‡jI kÖvešÍxi gv Kvco †avqvi ci GK evjwZ cvwb‡Z `yB PvgP
wf‡bMvi †hvM K‡i Avevi †aŠZ K‡ib| G‡Z kÖvešÍxi Kvco m„Rbxi Zzjbvq D¾¡j †`Lvq|
K. weøwPs cvDWv‡ii ms‡KZ wjL|
L. wPswo gv‡Qi †N‡i gv‡S gv‡S Pzb †hvM Kiv nq †Kb?
M. DwjøwLZ ¯‹zj †Wªm cwi®‹v‡ii †KŠkj e¨vL¨v Ki|
N. DÏxc‡Ki kÖvešÍxi †WªmwUi D¾¡jZvi KviY hyw³mn e¨vL¨v `vI|
-mgvß-
ch©vq mviwY
1 18
IA 0
MÖyc msL¨v 1
cvigvYweK msL¨v
2 1 13 14 15 16 17
1 †gŠ‡ji cÖZxK
IIA H IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
ch©vq msL¨v Hydrogen †gŠ‡ji bvg
2 1 1.01 cvigvYweK fi
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII VIII VIII IB IIB
4
5
7 Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermovium Tennessine Oganesson
284 289 288 292 294

Chemistry 9 10

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Chemistry 9 10

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Z…Zxq c`v‡_©i MVb 26-40

PZz_© ch©vq mviwY 41-52

cÂg ivmvqwbK eÜb 53-70

lô †gv‡ji aviYv I ivmvqwbK MYbv 71-85

mßg ivmvqwbK wewµqv 86-105

Aóg imvqb I kw³ 106-128

beg GwmW-¶vi mgZv 129-151

`kg LwbR m¤ú`: avZz-AavZz 152-169

GKv`k LwbR m¤ú`-Rxevk¥ 170-188

Øv`k Avgv‡`i Rxe‡b imvqb 189-207

GB Aa¨vq cvV †k‡l AvgivÑ

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QK 1.3 : imvq‡bi cwiwa we‡ePbvi D`vniY

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2.2 KYvi MwZZË¡ (Kinetic theory of particles)

(K) (L) (M)

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2.4 wbtmiY (Effusion)

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