Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315

Effect of wollastonite and talc on the micromechanisms of tensile

deformation in polypropylene composites
R.S. Hadal a , A. Dasari a , J. Rohrmann b , R.D.K. Misra a,∗
a Materials Science and Engineering Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Louisiana at Lafayette,
P.O. Box 44130, Lafayette, LA 70504-4130, USA
b Basell Polyolefins, C657 Industriepark Höchst, 65926 Frankfurt, Germany

Received 29 November 2003; received in revised form 10 January 2004

Abstract

The work presented here describes the effect of wollastonite and talc on the micromechanisms of surface deformation and subsequent prop-
agation into the bulk of low and high crystallinity polypropylenes during tensile straining. The potential of high resolution electron microscopy
is utilized to examine deformation processes, and develop deformation mechanism maps. While mineral-reinforced polypropylenes exhibited
an increase in tensile modulus, yield strength remained unaffected. Crystallization behavior indicated that the reinforcement minerals increase
the rate of nucleation with consequent increase in percentage of bulk crystallinity. The reinforcement of polypropylene with wollastonite or
talc alters the primary micromechanism of deformation from deformation bands/crazing in neat polypropylenes to wedge/ridge tearing in
mineral-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylene composites. However, wedges were absent in high crystallinity polypropylene composites.
The final fracture in reinforced polypropylene occurs by a mixed mode consisting of fibrillation and brittle mode, while crazing–tearing and
brittle deformation are fracture modes for neat polypropylenes.
© 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Tensile deformation; Polypropylene composites; Micromechanism; Minerals

1. Introduction that they exhibit improvement in mechanical properties such

The polymer micrometric composites containing minerals
are an attractive set of organic–inorganic materials not only
from the obvious potential as technological materials, but
also provide a convenient macroscopic system to study fun-
damental scientific issues concerning confined and tethered
polymers at the micro- and nano-scale. Also, the local and
global conformation of the polymers are expected to be dra-
matically different from those observed in the bulk because
of the confinement of the polymer chain and also due to spe-
cific polymer-surface interaction, normally not observed in
the bulk [1].
The common reinforcements that are used in semi-cryst-
alline polymeric materials are wollastonite, talc, mica, silica,
and calcium carbonate in amounts of 10–40% by weight.
Experimental work on polymer composites have indicated
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-337-482-6430;
fax: +1-337-482-1220.
E-mail address: dmisra@louisiana.edu (R.D.K. Misra).
as tensile and flexural modulus and strength, impact resis-
tance [2–7], outstanding diffusional barrier properties [8,9],
permeability [10], flame retardancy, resistance to heat defor-
mation or distortion [11]. Other important benefits are de-
crease in thermal expansion and mold shrinkage [12]. Thus,
the engineering value of the composite is improved.
In semi-crystalline polymeric materials, wollastonite
[13,14], talc [15], calcium carbonate [16], and clay [17]
strongly influence the crystallization process, degree of
crystallinity, and nucleation of crystallites. Reinforcement
with each of the above materials increases the starting
crystallization temperature [13–17] and induces a shorter
processing time in injection molding [18], and consequently
affects the percentage of crystallinity of the composite.
The studies have revealed that bulk crystallinity is in-
creased over that of non-reinforced polymer because of
enhanced nucleation in the presence of mineral reinforce-
ment [13–15,19]. Atomic force microscopy suggested that
in wollastonite–polypropylene systems, the lamellae were
more closely packed in the vicinity of the particle–matrix

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msea.2004.01.003
 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315
as compared to regions far away [13,14]. The close-packing
of lamellae in the vicinity of particle–matrix was attributed
to polymer–mineral surface interaction and implied higher
local crystallinity.
While a number of studies have dealt with crystallization
and mechanical properties of polymeric materials con-
taining reinforcement fillers, there is currently a lack of
understanding of the micromechanisms of plastic deforma-
tion in mineral-reinforced composites. This is particularly
important because polymeric materials under conditions of
mechanical deformation such as tensile, fatigue or impact
loading have a tendency to exhibit a whiter appearance.
In other words, an initially transparent or translucent poly-
meric material exhibits enhanced opacity and whiter color
leading to increased optical brightness, referred as stress
whitening.
In general, the origin of stress whitening in thermoplas-
tic materials has been attributed to the formation of voids
and microcrazing. Studies on the mechanism of crazing have
suggested that the nucleation of craze initiates with the for-
mation of deformation bands, and the growth occurs by a
process that involves existing voids advance finger-like ex-
tensions into the bulk polymer, linking up the stretched fib-
rils in their wake [20,21]. Furthermore, electron microscopy
studies indicated that in the craze zone, in addition to the
main fibrils that are present normal to the orientation of
a craze and bridge the two surfaces, cross-tie fibrils are
also present, which link the main fibrils [22]. Other dom-
inant micromechanisms proposed for stress whitening in-
clude shear deformation bands, kinking, microcracking, and
ductile ploughing. Stress whitening is an important con-
stituent of any mechanical deformation process.
To encourage the use of polyolefins for load-bearing ap-
plications, it is important that they exhibit reduced suscep-
tibility to mechanically induced surface damage and do not
stress whiten. Misra and co-workers [23,24] believe that
polymeric materials characterized by high modulus and yield
strength, and a large elastic regime are preferred materials
in applications where mechanically induced surface dam-
age is the primary concern. Mechanically induced surface
damage in the form of scratch or internal damage in the
form of voids undermines the longevity of the polymeric
components and limits their use [25,26]. The minimization
of plastic deformation (or stress whitening) can be accom-
plished by increasing crystallinity [27], use of short chain
polymers [28], compounding with additives, and a signifi-
cant influence can be realized by reinforcement of polymers
with micrometric size particles, such as wollastonite and talc
minerals.
It is interesting to examine the mechanical deformation
behavior of mineral-reinforced polypropylenes such as wol-
lastonite and talc that have contrasting structures. Wollas-
tonite (calcium silicate) has acicular (needle-like) structure
and is characterized by repeating, twisted, three silica tetra-
hedron unit, while talc (magnesium silicate) has a platy or
layered structure made up of two silica tetrahedra fused to
297
an edge-shared octahedral sheet of magnesium hydroxide
(tetrahedron–octahedron–tetrahedron). van der Waals’ gaps
(interlayer or gallery) between the layers are formed due
to stacking of layers [29], which may assist in the delami-
nation behavior of talc mineral particles during mechanical
deformation (please see below), resulting in reduced yield
strength in reinforced polymers.
2. Experimental materials and procedure
Tensile bars (ASTM D638 geometry) of low and high
crystallinity polypropylenes reinforced with wollastonite
and talc were cast by the injection molding process with
the longitudinal axis of the specimen corresponding to the
direction of molding. Tensile bars were also cast without
mineral particles to study the influence of reinforcement
(low crystallinity neat polypropylene: N1, and high crys-
tallinity neat polypropylene: N2). Depending on the nature
of the mineral particles, the samples are designated as W1
(wollastonite-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylene of
median particle size ∼8 ␮m), T1 (talc-reinforced low crys-
tallinity polypropylene of median particle size ∼7.5 ␮m),
W2 (wollastonite-reinforced high crystallinity polypropy-
lene of median particle size ∼8 ␮m), and T2 (talc-reinforced
high crystallinity polypropylene of median particle size
∼7.5 ␮m). The volume fraction of wollastonite and talc
was kept constant at ∼20%. The melt flow rates (at 230 ◦ C
and 2.16 kg piston force) of the injected-molded neat and
reinforced low and high crystallinity polypropylenes were
maintained at ∼6 and 5 g for 10 min, respectively.
The crystallization behavior of neat and reinforced low
and high crystallinity polypropylenes was carried out using
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) (TA Instruments).
The samples were heated from room temperature (∼20 ◦ C)
to 180 ◦ C at a rate of 10 ◦ C/min, held at 180 ◦ C for about
a minute, cooled to −20 ◦ C at the rate of 10 ◦ C/min, and
a second scan was carried out in a manner similar to the
first. The heat of fusion and crystallization obtained by DSC
for neat and reinforced polypropylenes are listed in Table 1
along with the melting and crystallization temperatures.
The tensile bars were deformed in uniaxial tension at
20 ◦ C using a computerized MTS 210 tensile testing ma-
chine at selected displacement rates in the range of 2.5–
500 mm/min. The MTS testing machine was a constant-
rate-of-crosshead movement comprising essentially a fixed
member carrying one grip and a movable member car-
rying a second grip. The standard ASTM test specimens
were held between the fixed and movable grips that were
self-aligning such that they move freely into alignment as
soon as any load is applied, and the long axis of the test
specimen coincides with the direction of the applied pull
through the centerline of the grip assembly. It was ensured
that the test specimens were perfectly aligned in the di-
rection of pull and no slippage occurred at the grips. A
25 mm course extensometer was used for determining the
298 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315

Table 1
Physical and mechanical properties of neat and reinforced low and high crystallinity polypropylenes
Property Low crystallinity polypropylenes High crystallinity polypropylenes

Neat Wollastonite-reinforced Talc-reinforced Neat Wollastonite-reinforced Talc-reinforced

Modulus (MPa) 1500 2280 2015 2075 2570 2150

Yield stress (MPa) 37 39 35 43 46 40
Melting temperature (◦ C) 168 169 169 168 169 170
Heat of fusion (J/g) 63 75 70 81 85 83
Crystallinity (%) 46 54 50 59 62 60
Crystallization temperature (◦ C) 111 121 126 125 128 130
Heat of crystallization (J/g) 80 71 65 87 84 78

distance between the two designated points within the gage
length of the test specimen. The gage length used for the
purpose was 50.8 mm. The longitudinal strain or extension
was measured automatically by the extensometer.
Two types of tests were performed to examine (a) the
modes of deformation, (b) the evolution of deformation pro-
cesses with increase in strain and strain rate, and (c) the se-
quence of events that led to different modes of fracture. In
the first type of test, tensile loading at a constant strain rate
to predetermined strain on the stress–strain plots was carried
out, followed by unloading of the samples. In the second
type of tests, the samples were tested to failure. This was
followed by field emission scanning electron microscopy
(JEOL 6300) studies of tensile deformed polymeric ma-
and T1) (Fig. 1a) exhibit enhanced crystallization in com-
parison to reinforced high crystallinity polypropylenes (W2
and T2) (Fig. 1b), with respect to their neat polypropylenes
as implied by relatively high heat of fusion. The heat of
fusion increased from ∼63 J/g in N1 to ∼75 J/g in W1 and
∼70 J/g in T1, while it increased from ∼81 J/g in N2 to ∼85
and 83 J/g in W2 and T2, respectively. The behavior was
consistent in different DSC runs. The increase in heat of fu-
3
2.5
W1
Heat Flow, W/g

2
terials. To define the boundaries of different micromecha- N1 T1
nisms of deformation with reasonable accuracy, the first at- 1.5
tempt was to define on the stress–strain plots the strain and
strain rate condition that represented the transition between 1
the different micromechanisms. This was followed by SEM
characterization of tensile deformed surfaces by interrupting 0.5
tests at different stress–strain conditions, and the procedure
repeated for varying strain rates. 0
75 90 105 120 135 150
(a) Temperature, C
o

3. Results and discussion

3

3.1. Crystallization
2.5

Crystallization behavior of neat and reinforced polypropy-

Heat Flow, W/g

2
lenes was studied to determine the effect of wollastonite and N2
talc on the kinetics of crystallization that is expected to in-
1.5
fluence the percentage of bulk crystallinity and consequently W2
deformation mechanisms. The temperature dependence of
1 T2
crystallization for neat and reinforced low and high crys-
tallinity polypropylenes is presented in Fig. 1. Fig. 1 shows
that the crystallization in reinforced polypropylenes starts 0.5

at a temperature greater than neat polypropylenes, implying

acceleration of the crystallization process in the presence of 0
100 110 120 130 140 150
reinforcement presumably because of enhanced nucleation
(b) Temperature, C
o
in the presence of minerals. Also, from Fig. 1, it can be
seen that talc-reinforcement has higher nucleating capabil- Fig. 1. Plot of temperature dependence of crystallization for neat and
ity in relation to wollastonite-reinforcement. Additionally, reinforced polymeric materials: (a) low crystallinity polypropylenes and
mineral-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylenes (W1 (b) high crystallinity polypropylenes.
 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315 299

45

40

35

30
Engineering Stress, MPa

T1
25

20
N1
W1 Failed at a strain ~ 5.2
15

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
(a) Engineering Strain

50

45

40

35
Engineering Stress, MPa

30

25
W2
20
T2

15
N2

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
(b) Engineering Strain

Fig. 2. Engineering stress–strain plot of neat and mineral-reinforced polymeric materials at a selected displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min: (a) low
crystallinity polypropylenes and (b) high crystallinity polypropylenes.

sion is a direct indication of higher percentage of bulk crys-
tallinity in polypropylene composites. Using a value of heat
of fusion for 100% crystalline polypropylene of 138 J/g, the
percentage of crystallinity of neat and mineral-reinforced
polypropylenes are estimated and presented in Table 1.
In Table 1, melting and crystallization temperatures for
neat and reinforced polypropylenes are also presented. It
may be noted from Table 1 that the shift in melting tem-
perature on the addition of mineral to polypropylenes is
insignificant.
300 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315

3.2. Tensile behavior

Engineering stress–strain plots for neat and mineral-rein-

Fig. 3. SEM micrographs of neat low crystallinity polypropylene (N1) at a
displacement rate of ∼250 mm/min showing the formation of (a) distinct
array of crazes at a percentage of strain of ∼17 and (b) secondary crazes
at a percentage of strain of ∼40.
forced low and high crystallinity polypropylenes at a se-
lected displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min are presented
in Fig. 2. Reinforcement of polypropylenes with wollas-
tonite and talc increased the tensile modulus or stiffness
of polypropylenes (Table 1) and decreased percentage of
strain-to-fracture (Fig. 2). However, the difference in per-
centage of strain-to-fracture between wollastonite- and
talc-reinforced low and high crystallinity polypropylenes
was insignificant.
As regards yield strength, there appears to be a marginal
increase in the yield strength on the addition of wollastonite
mineral to the polypropylene matrix and a slight decrease
on the addition of talc. The small differences may very
well be within the experimental range for neat polypropy-
lenes. Thus, it can be said that yield stress was unaffected
on the addition of talc or wollastonite in neat polypropy-
lenes. In a recent study on the plastic deformation behavior
of ethylene–propylene copolymers, a similar observation
was made [14]. It was observed that while wollastonite-
reinforcement particles increased the stiffness of the mate-
rial, yield strength remained unaffected. This behavior was
attributed to the high aspect ratio of the particles that en-
couraged detachment from the matrix at the commencement

Fig. 4. Low magnification (a) SEM micrograph of the fracture surface of neat low crystallinity polypropylene (N1) along with the high magnification
micrographs of the two modes of failure, crazing–tearing (b) and brittle (c) at a displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min.
 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315 301

Fig. 5. Sequence of events leading to the debonding/detachment of mineral particles from the surface of wollastonite-reinforced low crystallinity
polypropylene (W1) at a displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min subjected to different amounts of percentage of strain: (a) ∼10; (b) ∼20; (c, d) ∼25; (e)
∼30; (f, g) ∼35.
302 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315

of yielding and thus did not contribute to improvement in
yield strength. In a recent study on Nylon 6 composites
reinforced with micron-size silica and glass particles indi-
cated an increase in yield stress for composites with silica
and decrease for glass-containing composites [30]. Also,
yield stress increased with decrease in filler size. Tensile
modulus, was however higher for filled composites than
that of pure components. The differences in the behavior of
silica- and glass-filled Nylon 6 composites were attributed
to different dispersibility of fillers in the polymer matrix.
Thus, micron-size fillers can increase the modulus, and can
also decrease the strength. In another study on micron-size
TiO2 -filled epoxy composites, modulus was increased and
the strain-to-fracture decreased relative to unfilled epoxy
[30].
In the present case, the observed increase in modulus
of wollastonite- and talc-reinforced polypropylenes can
be explained in terms of reinforcement effect. The de-
crease in percentage of strain-to-fracture in the micron-size
wollastonite- and talc-reinforced polypropylenes (W1,
W2, T1, and T2) can be explained by considering that
the matrix/particle interface provides potential sites for
crack nucleation. The onset of composite failure occurs
when the particles debond from the matrix such that the
strain-to-fracture of the composite has a value that is inter-
mediate between the mineral and the polymer matrix.
3.3. Microstructural evolution during tensile straining
Neat low and high crystallinity polypropylenes (N1 and
N2) exhibit distinct regions such as yielding and plastic
deformation. After yielding, further tensile deformation re-
sulted in specimen necking and cold drawing in neat low
crystallinity polypropylene (N1). The neck propagated along
the gage length exhibiting cold drawing until the speci-
men failed. However, stress–strain plots of wollastonite- and
talc-reinforced polypropylenes (Fig. 2) did not exhibit cold
drawing.

Fig. 6. Low magnification SEM micrograph of the fracture surface of wollastonite-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylene (W1) tensile tested at a
displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min (a) along with the high magnification micrographs of the two modes of fracture, fibrillation (b, c) and brittle (d, e)
showing voiding and detached mineral particles.
 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315 303

To study the deformation processes during tensile strain-
ing of neat and reinforced polypropylenes, samples were
unloaded to predetermined strains on the engineering
stress–strain plots (Fig. 2). These include (a) end of elastic
limit (commencement of yielding), (b) progress in yielding
and cold drawing, and (c) fracture. The unloaded samples
were studied using high resolution field emission SEM to
identify the deformation processes in neat and reinforced
polypropylenes that lead to fracture.
3.3.1. Neat low crystallinity polypropylene
At the commencement of plastic deformation (onset of
yielding), ‘deformation bands’ were observed in regions of
intense local deformation because of severe plastic flow.
The local strain in the deformation bands is expected to be
many orders of magnitude greater than in the less severely
deformed regions. With increase in strain (percentage of
strain ∼17, displacement rate ∼250 mm/min), the defor-
mation bands developed into distinct array of crazes. An
example of crazing is illustrated in Fig. 3a. The closely
spaced crazes are formed normal to the tensile axis and are
opaque planes in the stress-whitened material. With increase
in strain, a crack nucleates through an array of crazes. The
presence of crack within the crazed zone modifies the stress
fields such that subsequent crazing (secondary crazing) oc-
curred at an angle to the primary crazes (Fig. 3b, percent-
age of strain ∼40, displacement rate ∼250 mm/min). Also,
crazes multiplied with increase in strain along with the in-
crease in the density of voids and subsequently increasing
the stress-whitened zone. The sequence of events was similar

Fig. 7. Sequence of events leading to the debonding/detachment of mineral particles from the surface of talc-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylene
(T1) at a displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min subjected to different amounts of percentage of strain: (a) ∼10; (b) ∼20; (c) ∼25; (d) ∼30; (e) ∼40.
304 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315

at higher strain rates. It has been recently shown by Dasari
and Misra [31] using AFM that in the crazed region, the
fibrils align in the direction of the tensile strained direction
(i.e. perpendicular to the crazed region), and micro-voids are
generated because of fragmentation and splitting of stretched
fibrils.
The final fracture in neat polypropylene (N1) occurred by
tearing along the individual bundle of crazes growing from
opposite faces resulting in crazing–tearing at the edges and
brittle mode of fracture in the center. It was proposed by
Steger and Nielsen [32] that when the strain hardening of
fibrils is inadequate to compensate for the voids, craze be-
comes mechanically unstable and accumulates strain until
a macroscopic crack propagates leading to fracture. SEM
micrographs illustrating the mixed mode of fracture in N1
at a low displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min along with the
high magnification micrographs of craze-tearing and brit-
tle regions of the fracture surface are presented in Fig. 4.
At this low displacement rate, the extent of craze forma-
tion in N1 was ∼65% and the brittle region was ∼35% of
the fracture, and with increase in displacement rate, the ex-
tent of craze region decreased with consequent increase in
the brittle area. Furthermore, the low magnification SEM
fractograph of N1 suggests that the fracture starts near the
core of the tensile bar, and propagates outwards breaking
through the crazed surface on both sides (resulting in tear-
ing of the crazed region) at approximately the same posi-
tion along the length of the bar. An interesting aspect of
brittle fracture is that while the fracture surface appears
smooth, there are a large number of unbroken ligaments
that continued to deform plastically as decohesion of fibrils
occurred.

Fig. 8. Low magnification SEM micrograph of the fracture surface of talc-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylene (T1) tensile tested at a displacement
rate of ∼50 mm/min (a) along with the high magnification micrographs of the two modes of fracture, fibrillation (b, c) and brittle (d, e) showing voiding
and detached mineral particles.
 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315 305

0.1

Brittle
Crazing

0.01

Crazing-Tearing
Strain Rate, s-1

0.001 Deformation Bands

0.0001 Crazing

Fully Elastic

0.00001
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
(a) Strain

0.1
Fibrillation
+
Distinct Brittle Fracture
Wedge Pulling Apart of Wedges Associated with Debonding
Formation
+

0.01
Tearing along the Ridges
Strain Rate, s-1

Wedge
Multiplication

0.001

Formation of Ridges
Wedge
Fully Nucleation
Elastic

0.0001
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
(b) Strain

Fig. 9. Domains of deformation processes as a function of strain and strain rate in (a) neat low crystallinity polypropylene (N1), (b) wollastonite-reinforced
low crystallinity polypropylene (W1), and (c) talc-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylene (T1).
306 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315
0.1
0.01
Strain Rate, s-1
Wedge
Formation
0.001
Fully
Elastic
0.0001
0 0.1
(c)
Based on the detailed observations made during the dif-
ferent stages of plastic deformation, it is believed that crazes
are initially formed on the surface (and close to surface)
and grow inwards. On subsequent increase in strain, a stable
crack nucleates and propagates through an array of closely
spaced crazes resulting in tearing along the bundle of crazes.
In general, the rate of nucleation and growth of craze and
the mode of fracture depends on the strain rate of the ten-
sile test. Since crazes grow from opposite surfaces and take
time to reach the mid-thickness region, crazing/tearing was
reduced at high strain rates. The factors that control the per-
cent of crazing–tearing and brittle mode of fracture include
the rate of craze nucleation and rate of growth, the density
of crazes, and the ease with which the crack nucleates and
grows within the craze. These factors are most likely to de-
pend on material parameters, molecular weight and molec-
ular weight distribution. It is now established that the final
fracture reflects the progress of deformation from the sur-
face into the bulk [28,32–34].
3.3.2. Wollastonite-reinforced low crystallinity
polypropylene composite
During the early stages of tensile deformation (com-
mencement of yielding, percentage of strain ∼10 and dis-
placement rate ∼50 mm/min), wedges were formed on the
deformed surface of the specimen, parallel to the direction
of stress axis (Fig. 5a). The wedges nucleated at localized
stress concentration sites involving the formation of tiny
voids. This is due to the initial separation of the tip of the
Increased Density
of Ridges
Fibrillation
+
Brittle Fracture
Associated with Debonding
Wedge
Multiplication
Pulling Apart
+ of Wedges
Formation
of
Ridges
+
Tearing Involving Ridges
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Strain
Fig. 9. (Continued ).
wedge from the constrained matrix. With increase in strain,
the wedges multiplied and increased in density, which led
to increase in void size (Fig. 5b, percentage of strain ∼20,
displacement rate ∼50 mm/min). Wedges associated with
voids of different sizes can be seen in Fig. 5b and c. At this
stage, there was, however, no clear indication of debonding
of the filler particles from the matrix during this stage. Un-
like N1 (Fig. 3), in W1, localized deformation bands and
crazes were absent. The filler particles presumably altered
the distribution of local stress field in the polymer matrix
and inhibited crazing.
Additionally, in the tensile strained regions, deformation
features, which we call here as ‘ridges’ were formed perpen-
dicular to the tensile direction (Fig. 5b). These wrinkle-like
ridges are raised surface features in Fig. 5b and were formed
in the direction in which the mineral particles were oriented
in the matrix (Fig. 5b-d). The size or width of the individ-
ual ridges varied from 1 to 10 ␮m. The ridges were precur-
sor to the debonding process. The formation of ridges can
be envisaged as follows. The presence of mineral particles
reduces the plasticity of the polymer matrix and increases
the rigidity or stiffness of the matrix. Thus, when the fib-
rils associated with the polymer matrix are pulled along the
tensile axis, the restrained plasticity increases the localized
stresses associated with the mineral particle. The particles
act as stress concentrators, and restrict the enhanced stretch-
ing of polymer resulting in the formation of ridges. In other
words, the ridges are formed because of stress relaxation (or
stress release) of highly stressed localized regions.
 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315 307

With further increase in strain, the ridges developed over
the entire surface of the polymer composite with consequent
reduction in the wedge density. In some highly strained
local regions, tearing of the material involving ridges can
be seen (Fig. 5c, percentage of strain ∼25, displacement
rate ∼50 mm/min). A close view of the tearing of the ma-
terial involving ridges leading to debonding of the mineral
particles can be seen in Fig. 5d (percentage of strain ∼25).
Continued deformation resulted in excessive tearing of the
polymer matrix with consequent detachment of the mineral
particles and formation of large and shallow voids (Fig. 5e,
percentage of strain ∼30, displacement rate ∼50 mm/min).
Visually, at the strain corresponding to the tearing process,
the sample gradually became translucent and then opaque
as the strain whitening set in. With further increase in
strain, the strain whitened area began to spread over the en-
tire surface of the sample. However, the intensity of strain
whitening was far less than that observed for neat low crys-
tallinity polypropylene. SEM micrographs of the severely
stress-whitened zones (at a percentage of strain ∼35, dis-
placement rate ∼50 mm/min) in wollastonite-reinforced
polymer are presented in Fig. 5f and g. At this strain, the
tearing and debonding process was also associated with
locally broken areas. Additionally, the microstructure of the
sample appeared porous and consisted of severely deformed
fibrils (Fig. 5f) with large and shallow voids (Fig. 5g).
At all the strain rates studied, W1 was characterized by
two fracture morphologies, fibrillation and brittle. The low
magnification SEM micrograph of the fracture surface at a
displacement rate of 50 mm/min is presented in Fig. 6 along
with the corresponding high magnification micrographs of
the modes of fracture. Due to the high amount of hydrostatic
stress present in the center of the specimen, fibrillation,
which is drawing of a network of fibrils, is concentrated
in the center of the fracture surface. The large numbers
of voids present on the fracture surface are a consequence
of debonding and detachment of particles from the matrix
surface, which resulted in enhanced stress whitening of the
polymer composite. Furthermore, the area fraction of fib-
rillation decreased with increase in strain rate of the tensile
test with consequent increase in the area fraction of brittle
region, in a manner similar to neat polypropylene, where
percentage of area fraction of crazing–tearing decreased
with consequent increase in area fraction of brittle region.
The area fraction of fibrillated region decreased from 60%
at a displacement rate of 50 mm/min to 30% at a displace-

Fig. 10. SEM micrographs of tensile deformed neat high crystallinity polypropylene (N2) showing the sequence of events leading to the disentanglement
of the fibrils at selected displacement rates and percentage of strains of (a) 50 mm/min and percentage of strain ∼30, formation of deformation bands, (b)
125 mm/min and percentage of strain ∼30, distinct array of crazes, (c) 125 mm/min and percentage of strain ∼30 (another location), and (d) 380 mm/min
and percentage of strain ∼40, showing the separation of deformation bands/crazes from the constrained matrix.
308 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315

ment rate of 380 mm/min. The change in deformation mode
from a combination of crazing–tearing/brittle fracture to
fibrillation/brittle mode of fracture is believed to be due
to the change in state of stress in polymeric material in a
way such that fibrillation/yielding is promoted before craz-
ing. This change in stress state may be caused due to the
addition of mineral particles to the polymer matrix.
3.3.3. Talc-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylene
composite
The tensile deformation processes observed in talc-rein-
forced low crystallinity polypropylene (T1) were similar
to wollastonite-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylene
(W1). The sequence of deformation events in T1 at a
displacement rate of 50 mm/min and at different strains

Fig. 11. SEM micrographs of the fracture surface of neat high crystallinity polypropylene (N2) at a displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min identifying
the different fracture modes involved (brittle, craze-tearing, and brittle with ductile pulling of fibrils) (a) and their corresponding high magnification
micrographs ((b) crazing–tearing, (c) brittle fracture, (d) brittle fracture with ductile pulling of fibrils).
 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315 309

is presented in Fig. 7. Wedges were formed during the early

stages of tensile straining (percentage of strain ∼10, Fig. 7a)
parallel to the direction of tensile stress axis, which grow in
size and number with increase in strain. On further strain-
ing, ridges were observed normal to the tensile stress axis
due to stress relaxation of localized regions, along with the
previously formed wedges (Fig. 7b and c) (Fig. 7b: percent-
age of strain ∼20, Fig. 7c: percentage of strain ∼25). But,
in comparison to W1, in T1, the width of ridges was consis-
tently larger (due to low aspect ratio of talc minerals (1:1)
in comparison to wollastonite minerals (1:19)). Also, the
hump associated with ridges was greater in T1 in relation to
W1. This behavior can be attributed to greater stress relax-
ation in T1 than W1 presumably because of delamination or
breaking of the layered structure of talc.
On continued deformation (Fig. 7d, percentage of strain
∼30), the ridges developed over the entire surface in a
manner similar to W1, followed by tearing of ridges and
debonding of talc particles from the matrix. Additionally,
the density of ridges is more in T1 in comparison to W1 at
identical strains, which finally with increase in strain leads
to excessive tearing of the polymer matrix with consequent
formation of large number of big and shallow voids in
relation to W1 (Fig. 7e, percentage of strain ∼40).
As discussed above in Section 3.3.2, the tearing of high
density of ridges produced large but shallow voids in com-
parison to W1. This was reflected in the fracture surface of
talc-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylene (T1). Fig. 8
shows the low and high magnification SEM micrographs
of the fracture surface of T1 illustrating different modes of
fracture. Two types of fracture morphology were observed,
fibrillation in the center and brittle away from the center.
The fracture initiates in the core of the specimen where large
voids are nucleated and rapidly extends outwards leading to
brittle mode of deformation surrounding the fibrillated frac-
ture. In comparison to W1, in T1, the high magnification
micrographs of fibrillated region exhibits large size voids
while brittle region is characterized by excessive debond-
ing/detachment of talc minerals from the polymeric matrix.
The domains of different deformation processes are
summarized in Fig. 9 in terms of strain–strain rate defor-
mation diagrams for neat and reinforced low crystallinity
polypropylenes (N1, W1, and T1). It is interesting to note
that the primary controlling micromechanism of deforma-
tion resulting in stress whitening of the surface is altered
from crazing–tearing (large number of tiny voids interdis-
persed between deformed fibrils) in neat polypropylene
to extensive wedge/ridge-tearing (with large size voids) in
reinforced polypropylene, which exhibited enhanced stress Fig. 12. Sequence of events leading to the debonding/detachment of min-
whitening (or optical opacity). The small size of voids and eral particles from the surface of wollastonite-reinforced high crystallinity
deformed fibrils produce light scattering efficiency and thus polypropylene (W2) at a displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min subjected to
different amounts of percentage of strain: (a) ∼10; (b) ∼15; (c) ∼19.
gray level change in neat polypropylene. However, the large
number of shallow voids (deep voids are expected to ab-
sorb light and decrease scattering efficiency) and severely
deformed fibrils are expected to scatter greater light and
exhibit higher stress whitening.
310 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315

3.3.4. Neat high crystallinity polypropylene
The tensile deformation behavior of neat high crys-
tallinity polypropylene (N2) was similar to that of N1. At
lower strains, N2 was characterized by deformation bands
(Fig. 10a, displacement rate of 50 mm/min and percentage
of strain ∼30) that developed into distinct array of crazes
with increase in strain (Fig. 10b, displacement rate of
125 mm/min and percentage of strain ∼30). These closely
spaced deformation bands/crazes are opaque planes and ap-
pear as white streaks in stress-whitened material (Fig. 10c,
percentage of strain ∼30, displacement rate ∼125 mm/min)
in a manner similar to N1. During the craze growth, a crack
can propagate through the array of crazes tearing them apart,
thereby increasing the opaqueness of the stress-whitened
region. On continued deformation (e.g. 380 mm/min and
percentage of strain ∼40), the deformation bands/crazes
separated from the constrained matrix in the direction of
tensile axis (Fig. 10d).
In N2, three modes of fracture (brittle fracture, crazing–
tearing, and brittle fracture with ductile separation of fib-
rils) were observed at lower displacement rates of less than
∼50 mm/min (Fig. 11a, displacement rate ∼50 mm/min).
However, at displacement rates greater than ∼50 mm/min,
only brittle mode of fracture was observed. Fig. 11b shows
the SEM micrograph of crazing/tearing region. Fine craz-
ing and tearing along the array of crazes can be seen. Craz-
ing/tearing mode of fracture occurred at some distance away
from the center of the fracture surface in comparison to

Fig. 13. Low magnification SEM micrograph of the fracture surface of wollastonite-reinforced high crystallinity polypropylene (W2) tensile tested at a
displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min (a) along with the high magnification micrographs of the two modes of fracture, fibrillation (b, c) and brittle (d, e)
showing voiding and detached mineral particles.
 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315 311

N1. Higher magnification SEM micrograph of brittle region 3.3.6. Talc-reinforced high crystallinity polypropylene
(Fig. 11c) indicates that even though the brittle fracture re- composite
gion is smooth, occasionally voids were observed. These Analogous to the behavior of wollastonite-reinforced high
voids are associated with an unidentified nucleating agent, crystallinity polypropylene (W2), wedge mode of deforma-
which are added to provide large number of nucleation sites. tion was absent in T2 and tensile straining initiated with
SEM micrograph of brittle region with ductile pulling of ridges. An illustration of this is presented in Fig. 14a, at a per-
fibrils at a displacement rate of 50 mm/min presented in centage of strain ∼10 and displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min.
Fig. 11d suggests that this region is similar to the brittle
region in N1 (Fig. 4c). Even though the region appears to
be brittle, there are a large number of unbroken fibrils that
continued to plastically deform as decohesion of fibrils pro-
gressed. It is also relevant to note here that atomic force
microscopy of the brittle region indicated that it involves re-
organization of microstructure signifying reduced stretching
of fibrils resulting in an irregular surface morphology at the
micrometric scale [26].

3.3.5. Wollastonite-reinforced high crystallinity

polypropylene composite
The sequence of tensile deformation processes in wolla-
stonite-reinforced high crystallinity polypropylene (W2)
leading to disentanglement of the entangled network of
polymer at a constant displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min
is presented in Fig. 12. In W2, wedges were not observed
during the initial stages of deformation processes on the
surface of tensile strained specimen, consistent with the
SEM observation of neat high crystallinity polypropy-
lene (N2) that indicated predominant brittle nature and
reduced susceptibility to plastic deformation (Figs. 10 and
11). Instead, the tensile deformation process in W2 ini-
tiated with ridges (Fig. 12a, percentage of strain ∼10).
The ridges form parallel to the tensile axis and around
the mineral particles that are preferentially oriented along
the tensile straining direction, similar to W1 and T1. The
size of ridges in W2 and W1 were similar. With increase
in strain (Fig. 12b, percentage of strain ∼15), tearing of
the material involving ridges occurred. On further strain-
ing (Fig. 12c, percentage of strain ∼19), the tearing of
the polymeric matrix in localized areas led to debonding
of the wollastonite from the high crystallinity polymeric
matrix.
Even though, W2 exhibited both fibrillation and brit-
tle mode of deformation on the fracture surface as other
reinforced materials (W1 and T1), the percentage of fib-
rillation in W2 was less (Fig. 13) in comparison to W1
(Fig. 6) at identical displacement rate of 50 mm/min. The
fracture surface of W2 was predominantly brittle in nature.
The high magnification SEM micrographs show voids in
both the fibrillated and brittle regions of the fracture sur-
face and detachment of mineral particles from the matrix
in a manner similar to W1. It may be noted that in com-
parison to W1, in W2, the high rigidity (high modulus)
of the polymeric matrix possibly facilitated disintegration
Fig. 14. Sequence of events leading to the debonding/detachment of
of mineral particles (Fig. 13c) with consequent formation mineral particles from the surface of talc-reinforced high crystallinity
of high density of voids in the brittle areas of the fracture polypropylene (T2) at a displacement rate of ∼50 mm/min subjected to
surface. different amounts of percentage of strain: (a) ∼10; (b) ∼15; (c) ∼20.
312 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315

With increase in strain, ridge density increased (Fig. 14b,
percentage of strain ∼15) and on increased straining, tear-
ing of ridges occurred with consequent debonding of the
talc particles, formation of shallow voids, and locally bro-
ken polymer matrix (Fig. 14c, percentage of strain ∼20, dis-
placement rate ∼50 mm/min). The features of the fracture of
T2 (Fig. 15) were essentially similar to that of T1 (Fig. 8).
However, the severity of voiding was significantly lower than
T1 and the percentage of fibrillation was also less in rela-
tion to T1. The decrease in percentage of fibrillation in T2 is
again related to higher tensile modulus of high crystallinity
polypropylenes, similar to high crystallinity W2. The de-
formation processes observed as a function of percentage
of strain and deformation rate for neat, wollastonite- and
talc-reinforced high crystallinity polypropylenes are sum-
marized in Fig. 16.
Additionally, in a recent study on the effect of wollas-
tonite and talc on the scratch behavior of polypropylenes,
talc-reinforced polypropylene exhibited significant inter-
laminar delamination [35]. The high shear stress generated
during the scratch was attributed to the delamination be-
havior of talc. Low Mohs hardness of talc reduced the

Fig. 15. Low magnification SEM micrograph of the fracture surface of talc-reinforced high crystallinity polypropylene (T2) tensile tested at a displacement
rate of ∼50 mm/min (a) along with the high magnification micrographs of the two modes of fracture, fibrillation (b, c) and brittle (d, e) showing voiding
and detached mineral particles.
 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315 313

scratch hardness of composite in relation to wollastonite-
reinforced polypropylenes and contributed to a deeper
scratch and more scratch visibility (optical opacity or stress
whitening). Although, there was an increase in percentage
of bulk crystallinity of reinforced polypropylenes over neat
polypropylenes, it causes embrittlement of the material and
contributes to debonding and stress whitening.
It is important to note that wedge mode of deforma-
tion, which is generally characterized by extensive plastic
flow, was absent in both wollastonite- and talc-reinforced
high crystallinity polypropylenes (W2 and T2) consistent
with partially brittle mode of fracture and lower percent-
age of strain-to-fracture. However, irrespective of the nature
of reinforced-mineral (wollastonite or talc), the characteris-

Brittle Fracture

Brittle Fracture
0.1 Splitting of Fibrils/Microfibrils + +
Ductile Pulling
Multiplication of Crazes
Strain Rate, s-1

+
Pulling of Formation of
Fully Deformation Bands Secondary Crazes
Elastic +
Crazing
Brittle Fracture
0.01 +
Crazing/Tearing
+
Formation of Ductile Pulling
Deformation Bands

0.001
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
(a) Strain

0.1
Fibrillation
+
Brittle Fracture
Associated with
Debonding

0.01
Excessive Tearing
-1
Strain Rate, s

Formation of
of Ridge Ridges
Ridges Multiplication
+
Tearing
of
0.001 Fully Ridges
Elastic

0.0001
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
(b) Strain

Fig. 16. Domains of deformation processes as a function of strain and strain rate in (a) neat high crystallinity polypropylene (N2), (b) wollastonite-reinforced
high crystallinity polypropylene (W2), and (c) talc-reinforced high crystallinity polypropylene (T2).
314 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315

0.1
Ridge
Multiplication
Fibrillation
+
+
Tearing
Brittle Fracture
of
Associated with
Ridges
Debonding

0.01

Formation
Strain Rate, s-1

of
Ridges

Excessive Tearing
0.001 of
Ridges
Fully
Elastic

0.0001
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
(c) Strain

Fig. 16. (Continued ).

tics of the fracture of low and high crystallinity polypropy-
lenes were retained in micrometric-reinforced composites.
Additionally, crazing, which contributes to stress whiten-
ing in neat polypropylenes was not observed in reinforced
polypropylenes. Instead, excessive tearing and straighten-
ing of ridges produced fibrillated structure and detachment
of minerals with consequent formation of voids contribut-
ing to stress whitening in polymer micrometric composites.
The deformation maps presented in Figs. 9 and 16 provide
a broad perspective of the micromechanisms of deforma-
tion that occur in different strain rate–strain regimes and
enable a relative comparison to be made between different
materials.
4. Conclusions
(a) In the presence of reinforcement, the crystallization
process is accelerated and there is an increase in per-
centage of crystallinity of polypropylenes, which can
be attributed to enhanced nucleation in the presence of
minerals. Also, talc-reinforcement has higher nucleat-
ing capability than wollastonite-reinforcement.
(b) Reinforcement of polypropylenes with wollastonite
and talc increased the tensile modulus or stiffness of
polypropylenes and reduced the percentage of strain-
to-fracture.
(c) Tensile deformation processes in neat polypropylene
initiated with the formation of localized deformation
bands, which developed into closely spaced crazes. Fi-
nal separation occurred by tearing along individual bun-
dle of crazes growing from opposite faces resulting in
crazing–tearing at the edge and brittle mode of fracture
in the center. The percentage of craze-tearing decreased
with increase in strain rate with consequent increase in
brittle fracture.
(d) In wollastonite- and talc-reinforced low crystallinity
polypropylenes, plastic deformation processes initiated
with wedge-shaped microcracks, followed by ridges
that were formed due to stress relaxation. Further strain-
ing led to the tearing of material along the ridges with
consequent debonding/detachment of mineral particles.
At the debonding strain, the tearing and detachment
process was accompanied by localized breaking of
polymer matrix. Additionally, the microstructure of the
sample appeared porous and consisted of severely de-
formed fibrils with interdispersed voids. However, in
comparison to wollastonite-reinforced low crystallinity
polypropylene, in talc-reinforced low crystallinity
polypropylene, the density, size, and stress relaxation
associated with ridges was consistently greater.
(e) The center of the fracture surface in wollastonite- and
talc-reinforced low crystallinity polypropylenes was
characterized by fibrillation, while the surrounding ar-
eas away from the center was characterized by brittle
fracture.
(f) Neat high crystallinity polypropylene exhibited a sim-
ilar sequence of deformation events as neat low crys-
 R.S. Hadal et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 296–315
tallinity polypropylene. However, the final fracture was
predominantly brittle.
(g) In wollastonite- and talc-reinforced high crystallinity
polypropylenes, wedge mode of deformation was ab-
sent and tensile straining initiated with ridges because
of high rigidity of the polymer matrix. Subsequent
deformation resulted in tearing of the ridges and for-
mation of shallow voids and locally broken polymer
matrix. The features of the fracture were essentially
similar to reinforced low crystallinity polypropylenes.
(h) Reinforcement of polypropylenes with wollastonite al-
tered the primary mechanism of stress whitening from
crazing–tearing to ridge-tearing mode of deformation.
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