Journal of Gerontology
1979, Vol. 34, No. I, 94-98
Longevity and Age Exaggeration in
Vilcabamba, Ecuador1
Richard B. Mazess, PhD,2 and Sylvia H. Forman, PhD3
Systematic age exaggeration was found after age 70 in an Equadorian population noted for extreme
longevity. Extreme ages (over 100 years) were either incorrect or unsubstantiated. There was no evidence
of increased longevity in the Vilcabamba population.
HE population of Vilcabamba in southern
T Ecuador is one of three populations in the
world noted for extreme longevity and for the
rarity of chronic diseases which usually afflict
the elderly (Davies, 1975; Halsell, 1976; Leaf,
1973; Leaf, 1975). Documentation of great
longevity in Vilcabamba, however, has been
viewed as difficult because of the destruction
of early baptismal records in a churchfire.Con-
troversy has developed as a result of both un-
critical acceptance and uncritical rejection
of the extreme ages reported to investigators
by the inhabitants. We have attempted to eval-
uate the extent of age exaggeration in this pop-
ulation by comparing reported ages with those
derived from birth records and from other
records of the age of the inhabitants when they
were young adults (age 20 to 50 years).
Age exaggeration appears to be a common
finding in the extreme elderly throughout the
world and appears associated with illiteracy
and absence of actual documentation. Such
exaggeration has been repeatedly demon-
strated in those claiming to be centenarians
(Bowerman, 1939). This problem of overstate-
ment of ages with advanced years has been
evaluated for the United States (Myers, 1966;
Rosenwaike, 1968) and for the Soviet Union
(Medvedev, 1974; Myers, 1965). The conclu-
sions of these studies suggested that there was
indeed exaggeration of ages and a consequent
underestimation of mortality. Illiteracy has
been common in Vilcabamba and there has
been little attempt at documentation of ages
'Supported by Faye McBeath Inst. on Aging, Univ. of Wisconsin Graduate
School Research Committee, NASA-Y-NGR-5O-OO2-O51 and NSF grant
BNS77-26860. Dr. Miguel Salvador S. and M. Moreano aided work in Ecua-
dor. We are grateful for the help of Celso Benitez Suarez, Teniente Politico of
Vilcabamba, Padre Andres, and the kind cooperation of the townspeople.
2
Dept. of Radiology (Medical Physics), Univ. of Wisconsin Hospitals,
Madison, Wl 53706.
'Dept. of Anthropology, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst. MA 01003.
94
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until recently. Although there are few social
and economic benefits associated with extreme
age in this region, there does appear to be high
prestige accorded the aged. Consequently
some overstatement of ages might be expected.
Fortunately birth, marriage, death and other
records have been kept over the past century
and these permit objective documentation of
actual ages.
METHODS
A household census was made in the village
of Vilcabamba in 1974 by Forman which in-
cluded about 80% of the actual population of
about 1100 persons. There were about 4400
people living in the area around the town, and
about 14,300 in the geographical zone noted
for longevity. The above household census, a
survey of skeletal status conducted at the same
time (Mazess, 1978), and later health investi-
gations (Mazess) provided the stated ages of
the inhabitants. The census enabled construc-
tion of geneologies for the village households.
Also in 1974 a cursory examination was made
of early birth and baptismal records, and the
ages at death for the recently deceased (1966
to 1974) were obtained from civil death re-
cords. In 1976 and 1978 Mazess examined
many of the birth and baptismal records (from
the local church and the Civil Registry office)
for the years 1860 to 1940. The 19th-century
records were difficult to read because of the
faded writing and poor condition of the pages.
In addition, death and marriage records from
the first part of this century were examined.
The birth, death, and marriage records from
this century frequently contained references
to older Vilcabamba inhabitants (living or re-
cently deceased) giving their ages while still
young adults (below 50 years). Since these
 LONGEVITY IN VILCABAMBA
records are legal documents they usually con-
tain both the matronym and patronym of the
individual, as well as related information (fa-
milial relationships, number of children, mari-
tal state) which could then be checked against
the geneologies to provide positive identifica-
tion. These records also permitted extension
of the geneological reconstruction into the
early 19th century.
Positive identification of individuals seemed
to be a major problem in this population, even
with fairly adequate records since there were
frequent duplications of given names and sur-
names. Misidentification and sloppiness of
identification have characterized previous
descriptions of this population (Davies, 1975;
Halsell, 1976; Leaf, 1973). In Vilcabamba
there are relatively few familial names in use,
and several of these, such as Toledo and Car-
pio, are extremely common. At any time there
is likely to be duplication of a given name and
a patronym in different family lines (or differ-
ent branches of a family). Given the tendency
for intermarriage among certain families there
is even some likelihood that the matronym
would be identical. In addition the same given
names have been used repeatedly over many
generations in particular families. Thus, two
of the reputedly oldest inhabitants, Miguel
Carpio Mendieta (MCM) and Gabriel Erazo
Aldean (both claimed to be about " 125 to 130"
in 1974), were the sons of Miguel Carpio Al-
dean and Gabriel Erazo Rojel respectively.
MCM incidentally had a brother of the same
name who was born a year earlier (1882) than
he, but who died. Both local officials and
foreign scientists have been misled into mis-
taking records of a parent for those of a child,
or those of an aunt or uncle for those of a niece
or nephew. Leaf (1975) pointed out how
Micaela Quezada Mendieta, who claimed to be
104 in 1974, had been mistakenly identified
with an aunt (Micaela Quezada Patino who
was born in 1870). That aunt died in 1934 at a
supposed age of "75" (actually 64). An addi-
tional problem sometimes resulted since later-
born children frequently were given the name
of siblings who had died. Thus MCM was
known to have a brother named Jose who was
10 years younger than he. The records showed
that such a brother was born to the parents of
MCM in 1874, so the authorities and others
had presumed that MCM was born about 1864.
This would have made him 112 at his death in
95
1976. This younger brother Jose, named after
his deceased sibling, was actually born about
1893 and died at "60" (actually about 50) in
1944. MCM was in fact born in 1883, about
10 years prior to Jose.
Actual birth records were obtained for 95
living adults over age 30 and for 24 recently de-
ceased persons over the age of 50 years. Esti-
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mated years of birth were derived for an addi-
tional 32 living persons and 28 dead persons.
In five cases from recent years the stated age
of the living subject was available together
with the official age at death. There did not
appear to be any clear pattern of exaggeration
from these few cases. Jose Toledo who claimed
to be 107 while alive in 1970 (Leaf, 1975) was
recorded officially as 140 when he died in 1971,
while Miguel Carpio M., who claimed to be 127
while still alive in 1976, was officially recorded
as 112 at death. In the entire sample 81% were
over "60" years, 60% were over "70" years,
40% were over "80" years, and 22% were over
"90" years (stated age). These results include
nearly all reported cases of current (past
decade) "centenarians" from Vilcabamba.
There were 23 such cases, 13 living and 10
deceased.
The estimated year of birth, obtained from
written records when the subject was a young
adult (20 to 50 years), was fairly precise. In
seven cases multiple records (4 to 7) were
obtained on an individual; the standard devia-
tion for the estimated year of birth ranged from
0.8 to 3.0 years, with an average of 2.0 years
(SD = 0.8 years). In 44 cases an actual birth
record was obtained together with an estimated
year of birth from written records. About 61%
of these cases (27 of 44) were from the 19th cen-
tury with a range from 1874 to 1925. The corre-
lation between the actual and estimated year of
birth was 0.99 and the standard error of esti-
mate (SEE) was 1.9 years. About 75% of the
deviations fell within two years and none ex-
ceeded five years. The slope of this regression
(1.01) was very close to the expected identity
line. This analysis indicated that not only were
the estimated years of birth precise, but that
they could be used reliably in place of actual
birth records. The overall error involved was
about two years. However, these records were
not useful if the stated age was about 50 or 60
years. For example, one man who gave his age
as "50" in 1906 died at a reputed age of "95"
in 1928, another who correctly gave his age as
96 MAZESS AND FORMAN

120

110

100

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46.8
r=0.75; SEE=4.8yrs

LIVING • n = 127
DEAD • n = _5£
179

30
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
STATED AGE (YEARS)
Fig. 1. The stated age vs the actual age in Vilcabamba. Actual ages were derived from birth records or were estimated
using collateral records. Age exaggeration after 70 years was evident, and is described by the regression line for cases
above 70.

"35" in 1928 was reportedly 60 in 1944 when in mated age was 77, while at "100" and "130"
fact he was actually 51. years the estimates were 84 and 95 years, re-
spectively. The high correlation (r = 0.75) and
small standard error of estimate (4.8 years)
RESULTS suggested that this regression would be useful
Linear regressions were calculated between in interpreting grouped data (e.g., from census
the stated age (or the reported age at death) or death records) from this population, and for
and the age based on the actual or estimated correcting the systematic age exaggeration.
birthdate. There was no difference between the Such a regression cannot be used for individual
regression based on actual birthdates and those cases, particularly those beyond "110" years,
based on the estimated year of birth. There because of the large confidence limits.
was only a slight difference between the re- Records could be found relating to the ages
gression for living subjects and that for the of many of the noted "centenarians" of Vil-
recently deceased. Fig. 1 shows the stated age cabamba. The birth record for Miguel Carpio
(or age at death) plotted against the age pro- Mendieta was not directly available, but for-
vided by the records. There was little age exag- tunately had been copied down by the Catholic
geration evident up to 60 or 70 years, but after priest prior to its disappearance. MCM had
this systematic age exaggeration was evident. claimed to be in excess of " 120" years up until
A regression was calculated for the 110 cases his death at about "130" in 1976; the official
above "70" years. At a stated age of 80 the esti- death record places him at "112" years. His
 LONGEVITY IN VILCABAMBA
actual year of birth was 1883; seven written
records from 1905 to 1915 place his estimated
birth at 1884, very close to the actual date. His
brother Jose, younger by 10 years, was born
in 1893. Apparently MCM did not begin exag-
gerating his age until later in life. When he was
61 in 1944 he reported an age of "70", and five
years later he was reputedly "80". In 1970, at
age 87, he was reputedly "121", while in 1974,
at 91, he was "127". The mother of MCM was
in fact born at least five years after (about 1855)
his own claimed date of birth.
Another famous "centenarian" Gabriel
Erazo Aldean was born in 1882 though he was
reputedly "132" (actually 95) at his death in
1977. Early records place his birth at 1884
thereby confirming the birth certificate. An old-
er sister was born in 1878. Manuel Ramon, who
currently claims to be between "110 and 140"
was about the same age as Carpio and Erazo
(he was in the same school class). Jose Toledo
Avendano claimed to be about "107" in 1970
and was ascribed an age of about "140" before
he died in 1971. Early records placed his birth
in 1875, so that he probably died at age 96. The
records of a Jose Toledo born in 1859 were not
those of the man who died in 1971. Various
other famous "centenarians" (Clodevea
Herrera E; Maria Abarca M; Dolores Mendieta
R.; Hermelinda Leon O.; Jose Maria Roa A;
Augustin Mendoza R.; Damian Lanche R.;
Leonor Cartuche A.) were shown to be in their
late 80s or early 90s. None of the 23 "cente-
narians" investigated had in fact survived to
100 years. Similary none of the 15 "nonage-
narians" investigated had in fact reached 90
years.
DISCUSSION
This study has demonstrated a systematic
age exaggeration beginning at about 70 years
in the Vilcabamba population. This exaggera-
tion occurred both among stated ages of the
living and in the ages at death. The regression
established here may be useful in examining
earlier census results from this population.
For example, the population pyramid could be
corrected for age exaggeration using predicted
values, or the mortality data from the past 70
years could be similarly corrected even in the
absence of specific documentation of individ-
ual ages. Our results also demonstrated the
great potential of collateral records (marriage,
death of relatives, births of children) which
97
contain references to the ages of younger
adults. Systematic documentation of such
records seems merited. The error (precision
and accuracy) in using such records was about
two years. Similar records no doubt exist for
other populations, for example in Soviet
Georgia, and could be used in provide age esti-
mates in the absence of birth records.
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In Vilcabamba it was extremely important
to obtain geneologies for the living population
and to reconstruct geneologies further into the
past where possible. This enabled positive
identification of the individuals on birth re-
cords and on collateral records. Without such
identification misidentification was not only
possible, but probable. A deviation of more
than five years between an estimated year of
birth and a birth record would suggest mis-
identification of the individual. In Vilcabamba,
where misidentification has been a common
problem in previous investigations (Leaf,
1973, 1975), the combined use of geneologies
and collateral records seems advisable.
It has not been possible to completely re-
solve the controversy concerning longevity
in Vilcabamba, but we were able, using the
above approach, to show that the elderly had
overstated their ages. This was expected,
since it has been so often the case in other
populations. In fact, none of the 23 investi-
gated cases of living or recently deceased
"centenarians" had survived over 100 years.
The average age of these reputed centenarians
was 86 (SD ± 5) years with a range of from
75 to 96 years. Among nonagenarians (n = 15)
the mean age was actually 81.5 (SD = ± 4)
years with a range of from 72 to 88 years. These
results, together with the age regression, sug-
gested that reported ages over 90 years must
be viewed with extreme caution. Such ages
were typically overstated by at least a decade,
and in many cases by as much as two decades.
The reasons for such age exaggeration were
unclear, but some investigators have suggested
that the tendency has been worsened by recent
scientific and tourist incursions. Examination
of the death records from the first half of this
century, however, showed many deaths occur-
ring at above 90 or 100 years of age. This sug-
gested that the exaggeration has been tradi-
tional, and that it was so while the area was still
isolated from surrounding zones.
While extreme longevity is questionable, our
results do provide some support for previous
98 MAZESS AND FORMAN
census findings of a high percentage of persons
over 60 years in Vilcabamba; the value of
11.4% in 1971 was far higher than the national
and regional averages of about 6% (Instituto
Nacional de Estadistica, 1971; Salvador, 1972).
Since exaggeration does not occur until age 70
it would not affect thisfigurefor the proportion
of elderly. Our incomplete census of the town
confirmed this elevated percentage (10.6% in
1974), however, when account was taken of
the outmigration of younger adults to urban
areas and the immigration of older persons
from surrounding rural areas, the adjusted
figure was 7%. This figure was only slightly
higher than that for the surrounding region
and for the nation, and suggested that the popu-
lation was not especially long-lived. On the
other hand it appeared that many older individ-
uals had died in the past decade. The propor-
tion of elderly may have been higher prior to
1970 when extensive contact with surrounding
areas became common. Studies are being un-
dertaken to reconstruct the demography of
this population.
There may have been, and may still be, some
centenarians in the Vilcabamba region; our
results do not exclude this possibility. The
occurrence of even one centenarian would be
exceptional given the small population base.
Our results, however, suggest that all such
claims must be viewed with great skepticism
and that the purported documentation must be
subject to scrutiny. The apparent absence of
centenarians in Vilcabamba, where the nom-
inal incidence was over 25 times greater than
in Soviet Georgia and over 15 times greater
than among the Hunza, leads us to suspect that
careful documentation of ages in the latter
areas might result in similar findings. On the
other hand Vilcabamba, and perhaps the other
centers of supposed longevity, seem excep-
tional in having a relatively large group of
elderly inhabitants who remain physically
active and who seem to maintain cardiovas-
cular and musculoskeletal health. Hopefully,
both longevity and health will be studied in all
these communities with greater exactitude in
the future.
SUMMARY
The extent of age exaggeration was exam-
ined in an Ecuadorian population renowned for
its apparent extreme longevity. A household
survey was done in the town of Vilcabamba
in order to obtain the reported ages of the resi-
dents and to provide a basis for construction
of geneologies. Collateral records (marriage,
births of children, deaths of relatives) were
extremely useful in documenting the ages of
older individuals for whom birth records were
not available. Use of the geneologies permitted
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unequivocal identification of each individual
in the church and civil records. Systematic
age exaggeration was found beginning at about
70 years; at a stated age of 100 the estimated
actual age would be only 84 years. The regres-
sion relating actual and reported ages could be
used for interpretation of previous census and
mortality records from this population. We
were able to demonstrate that nearly all cases
of reported centenarians in Vilcabamba were
in their 80s or 90s. It should be noted, however,
that the existence of even a single centenarian
in this small population would be exceptional.
Consequently every such case merits careful
investigation. There was a higher than usual
proportion of Vilcabamba residents over 60
compared to the Ecuadorian average but this
seemed to reflect factors (migration patterns)
other than longevity.
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