NUCLEAR ENGINEERING AND DESIGN 28 (1974) 278-288.

© NORTH-ItOLLAND PUBLISttlNG COMPANY

ANALYSIS OF VISCOPLASTIC EFFECTS IN PRESSURE VESSELS BY THE

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD*

O.C. ZIENKIEWICZ, D.R.J. OWEN

Department o f Civil Engineering, University o f Wales, Singleton Park, Swansea, UK

and

I.C. CORMEAU?
Universit? Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium

Received 10 September 1973

In this paper it is shown how the finite element technique can be employed in the solution of elastic-viscoplastic
problems. By attaining steady-state conditions the process offers an alternative method of solution for elasto-plastic
situations. The solution algorithm employed is relatively simple and possesses many advantages over the conventional
computational procedures utilized in elasto-plastic material analysis. Strain-softening materials present no difficulty
and it is indicated how viscoelastic-plastic situations could also be analyzed. Several examples of interest to pressure
vessel technology are presented and in particular the pressure loading of a spherical pressure vessel containing a flush
nozzle junction is considered.

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n finite element methods in the solution of engineering

For most structures the assumption of linear elastic
behaviour provides results which are adequate for
engineering and design purposes and the increased
solution costs associated with the inclusion of non-
linear effects are not warranted. Reactor vessel
technology is, unfortunately, one of the few branches
of engineering where the consideration of non-linear
material behaviour is often essential. For example, it
has been demonstrated [1] that creep in concrete can,
at the worst, completely reverse the thermal stress dis-
tribution, and therefore in pressure vessel design the
inclusion of time effects is of paramount importance.
Another important cause of non-linearity is plastic
yielding of steel components, a phenomenon which
has been well researched and adequately described for
irreversible loading at least, by the mathematical theory
o f plasticity. Much work has been done in employing
* Paper M314 presented at the Second International Confer-
ence on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology,
Berlin, Germany, 10-14 September, 1973.
t At present at the University of Wales, Swansea, UK.
structures subject to the two separate behaviours
[2-9].
However, to date, relatively little effort has been
expended on developing solution techniques combin-
ing both plasticity and time effects, probably due to
the acknowledged difficulties in obtaining analytical
solutions to non-trivial situations for anything but
the simplest laws. With the development o f numerical
techniques, such as the finite element method, this
barrier is removed and since experimental observa-
tions have for a long time indicated that plastic flow
is strain rate dependent such an approach is clearly
desirable. The complete description of such material
behaviour must clearly take micro effects (on a
statistical basis) into account but, at present, solution
to practical problems is afforded by continuum
theories.
One o f the earliest models in which both time and
plasticity effects were included was that o f the Bing-
ham solid [ 1O] in which the material stiffness is a
function on the shear flow rate. The flow o f such a
material in parallel sided conduits of arbitrary cross-
 O.C. Zienkiewicz et aL, Viscoplastic effects in pressure vessels
section has recently been solved by the finite element
method [11]. However, a model which is directly
applicable to the stress analysis of both steel and
prestressed concrete reactor vessels is that based on
the theory of viscoplasticity [12-14]. As well as
being of direct use in the analysis of metal structures,
such a constitutive law can be employed to describe
the post-elastic behaviour of both rock [ 15] and
concrete.
The finite element technique has recently been
utilized in the study of viscoplastic materials [ 16,17]
and this paper summarizes the process of solution as
applicable to pressure vessel analysis. The solution
algorithm employed is relatively simple and possesses
many advantages over the normal computational pro-
cedures for elasto-plastic material analysis. Strain-
softening materials present no difficulty and an
approach to the solution of viscoelastic-plastic
situations is also indicated. The theory is finally
illustrated by several numerical examples and in
particular the pressure loading of a spherical pressure
vessel containing a flush nozzle junction is considered.
2. Basic theory of elastic-viscoplastic solids
The first assumption made is that the body is purely
elastic before plastic yielding begins and becomes
elastic-viscoplastic after this limit has been exceeded.
The concept of viscoplastic materials is best introduced
by means of the one-dimensional rheological model
illustrated in fig. 1. The friction slider component
0"
I plasticity the constitutive relation for viscoplastic
INACTIVE
IF Up< Y
o'p
Fig. 1. Basic one-dimensional elastic-viscoplastic model.
279
develops a stress, Oe, becoming active only if o > Y
where o is the total applied stress and Y is some
limiting yield value. The excess stress o - Oe is carried
by the viscous dashpot. Instantaneous elastic response
is, of course, provided by the linear spring. Presence
of the dashpot allows the stress level to instantaneously
exceed the value predicted by plasticity theory, the
solution tending to this equilibrium level as steady-
state conditions are achieved in the system. This is a
physical phenomenon and readily experimentally
verified.
The complete three-dimensional theory is formu-
lated in refs [12-14] and only an outline is contained
in this paper. It is assumed that the total strain is the
sum of three components:
{e} = {e}e + (6}v p + (e}o , (1)
in which the subscripts e, vp and 0 represent the
elastic, viscoplastic and initial strain components
respectively. The total stress rate depends on the
elastic strain rate according to
{o} = [Dl {e}e, (2)
where [D] is the elasticity matrix and { "} represents
differentiation with respect to time. At this stage we
confine ourselves to linear elastic situations. The on-
set of viscoplastic behaviour is governed by the scalar
yield condition
F({o}, (e }vp, Y) = 0, (3)
in which Y is the yield stress value which may itself
be a function of a hardening parameter •. It is
assumed that viscoplastic flow occurs for values of
F > 0 only. Analogous to conventional non-associated
strain components is
(4)
in which Q = Q({o}, {e}vp, Y) is a 'plastic' potential.
For associated viscoplasticity the identity Q - F is
taken. The term Fo denotes a reference value of F
and ~ x ) is a positive monotonic increasing function
for x > 0. The notation <) implies
( ~ x ) ) = ¢(x) for x > 0
(~x)) = 0 for x ~ 0. (5)
28{) O. C Zienkiewicz et al., Viscoplastic effects in pressure vessels
Different forms of the function q~have been proposed
but the linear expression ~ x ) = x is generally adequate
for the description of many engineering materials.
Combining eqs (1), (2) and (4) results in the complete
constitutive relation
(e} = [D] -1 (o) + 7 ~ + {e}0.
Thus the solution of elastic-viscoplastic materials
reduces to the solution ofeq. (6) subject to the known
boundary and initial conditions.
3. Finite element discretization
The basic step of any finite element analysis [ 18] is
the unique description of the unknown variable
{u } - in this case the displacement field - within
each element in terms of parameters (6} associated
generally with the values of the function at the nodal
points, in the form
{u} = IN] (~),
in which the matrix [N] depends on the spatial co-
ordinates and whose components are known collect-
ively as the shape functions. With displacements
known at all points within the element, the strains at
any point can be determined, resulting in a relation-
ship of the form
(e) = [B] (6),
the matrix [B] generally being composed of deriva-
tives of the shape functions. If body and boundary
loads acting on an element are {R}b, assumed to be
concentrated at the nodes for the present discussion,
then for equilibrium it is required that
f[BlT{o) dV (R)b = O,
v over to viscoplastic situations. The use of numerical
in which {o) are the stresses associated with the
strains {e). As the constitutive relation for visco-
plastic problems has been specified in a time rate
form in eq. (6) it is convenient to rewrite eq. (9) as
IBI T d{o) {C)e dV {/~)b = O.
Noting eqs (1) and (2) and substituting from eq. (8)
in eq. (10) results in
[K] (g} - (R} = 0, (11)
where [K] is the stiffness matrix,
(6) [K] = f [BIT [D] [BI dV, (12)
v
and {/~) represents the total loading rate obtained on
addition of the strain components to be
{R) = {/~}b + f [B]T [D] (e}o dV
V
+ f [B] v [D] (e}vp dV. (13)
V
In finite element form eqs (2) and (4) become
{o} = [D] ([B] (~) - (e}vp - {e)o) (14)
and
(e)vp = [Dvp]-1 (o}, (15)
(7)
where [Dvp] is a state dependent symmetric positive
semi-definite matrix with structure similar to that of
[/9]. Integration of eq. (14) results in, for associated
viscoplasticity,
(o} = [D] ([B] { 8 } - (e}vp - {e}o) + {o'}, (16)
where (o') represents an arbitrary coordinate dependent
(8)
stress distribution.
Equations (11), (14) and (15) comprise a system
of three simultaneous matrix ordinary differential
equations and can be solved by time marching schemes
such as Euler extrapolation, Runge-Kutta, etc. In
conventional elasto-plastic analysis isoparametric
elements have proved to be remarkably efficient [5]
(91 and it is to be expected that this benefit be carried
integration techniques remove difficulties associated
with performing integrations in elements containing
both elastic and viscoplastic regimes. In isoparametric
formulation the same shape functions that are used to
express the displacement variation within an element
(10) are used to effect transformation from the parent
element to curvilinear space, so that the Cartesian
 O. C. Zienkiewicz et al., Viscoplastic effects in pressure vessels 281

coordinates corresponding to values of curvilinear the solution of the standard elastic situation) result-
coordinates t and 77(ranging from - 1 to + 1) are ing in known values for {6}°, (R} °, {e}°, {o} ° and
/,/ { ~ } o = 0.
X= E [Nil {X/}, Solution to the system of eqs (11), (14) and (15)
i:I (17) can then be effected by a time marching procedure.
Y= E [Ni] {Yi}, Let an equilibrium situation be known at time t n
i=l
giving
for the two-dimensional case. The vectors {xi} and
{Yi} are the Cartesian coordinates of the n nodal (8}n, { R ) n, {e}~, {e }vnp, {o) n. (21)
points of an element. Introducing the Jacobian matrix
[J] as Using the integrated form of eq. (13) the current
values of the total 'pseudo' loads { V} n are computed.

{V) n = ( R ) n + f [B] T [D] {e)~ dV

[J] = , (18) V
ay ay
+ f [B] T [D] {e}~,p d V - ~ [B] T {o'}dV. (22)
V V
it can then be shown that the elemental volume can The increments in the various variables are calculated
be expressed, for plane cases, as over a time interval, At n = tn+ 1 - tn, to give updated
aNi aNj aN,. values:
d V = i_ 1=~ x~yi dt dn (19)
at an - -on
- at

with a similar expression for axisymmetric situations.

{ d ~ , ÷' = {c}~% + {+}gea. ~Xt.,
The matrix [B] depends on the Cartesian derivatives
of the shape functions, which can be written (R } n+l = (R ) n + (R)meanAtn,

{V} "+I = { V } " +((R)mean+ f [O] T [D] {e}mean

0 ,dV
ax Det [J] j=l j--i
V
(2O) + f [ B ] T[D] {e}vp
" mean dr) at.. (23)
V
ay Det [J] i:1 i:~ " The mean rates in eq. (23) can be calculated in several
ways. The simplest approximation is afforded by
Eqs (19) and (20) then allow the explicit expression Euler's rule in which the mean rate is taken as the
of eqs (11), (14) and (15). The integrations cannot value at the beginning of the interval
be carded out in closed form and are conveniently
(.~r)mean = (.~)n. (24)
performed by the use of Gaussian quadrature
numerical integration techniques. A minimum order
This scheme becomes unstable for time steps exceed-
of numerical integration is required to ensure con-
ing a critical value, and also tends to overestimate the
vergence in the limit as element size is reduced to
viscoplastic strain {e ~n+l
~Vp • However, the process still
produce constant strain conditions [19].
remains attractive due to its simplicity.
More accurate results can be obtained by following
a predictor-corrector technique. In the first instance
4. Computation procedure the Euler approximation is used to predict quantities
at the end of the time step.
Solution to the problem must begin from the known
initial conditions at time t = 0 (which are, of course, (,07 +~= ( x ) " + at.(JO'. (25)
 282 O. C. Zienkiewicz et aL, Viscoplastic effects in pressure vessels
Then a series of correction cycles are performed to
refine the final values:
(x)n+~ ~= (X) ~ + ~A t- n [(x)n + (i")n+ll, i=1,2 ....
(26)
in which the subscript i denotes the number of
correction cycles carried out. For most situations
only one correction cycle is performed for computa-
tional economy, as continued iteration does not
guarantee greater final accuracy.
Using eqs (8), (11), (16) and (23) the total dis-
placements, stresses and strains are then recalculated
at time tn+ I according to
{8}n+~ = [K]-I {V}.+l,
{e} "+~ = [B] {8} "+1, (27)
{o} n+l = [D] ({e} n+l - {e}-vp
n + l - {e}~ +1) + (o'}.
This procedure has the distinct advantage of exactly
maintaining nodal equilibrium at all stages of the
computations and differs from the 'initial strain'
technique normally employed in the solution of
viscous problems.
The choice of suitable time steps, A t n , is import-
ant. The use of constant time steps, though simple,
has the disadvantage that if the step is sufficiently
small to give accurate results at transient stages then it
will be uneconomical as steady-state conditions are
approached. Thus a variable time step is desirable, with
a method of estimating the maximum permissible
value. Two empirical methods have been successfully
employed.
4.1. Limitation of the incremental v&coplastic strains
This criterion limits the time step according to
A t n < 7"[(eii/(eii)v
" p)] min,
1/2 (28)
in which eii is the first total strain invariant and (eii),,p
is the first viscoplastic strain rate invariant. The
minimum in eq. (28) is the minimum taken over all
integrating points in the solid and r is a time incre-
ment parameter chosen by the user. Practical experi-
ence indicates that 0.1 < r < 0.2 leads to good, but
not too expensive, results.
4.2. Limitation of the growth of successive steps
In this approach the maximum size of any particular
time step is limited according to the previous incre-
ment size used,
Atn+l <- kAtn, (29)
where k is a specified constant. For the examples
cited in this paper a value o f k = 1.5 was employed.
In transient creep analysis successful results have been
reported [9] for 1.2 ~<k ~<2.
5. Examples
In reactor technology frequent problems of interest
are the internal pressurizing of spheres and cylinders
in which, due to the presence of thermal fields, the
inclusion of viscous effects is essential. The first
problem considered is the behaviour of a thick sphere
under the action of an internal pressure which exceeds
the collapse value. The triangular constant stress
element mesh employed is illustrated in fig. 2 where
a 5° segment was considered and the problem solved
as a two-dimensional axisymmetric problem. A linear
viscoplastic creep law was employed and the material
properties assumed are also listed in fig. 2. The finite
element displacement variation with time is compared
with the analytical values of Wierzbicki [20] and
excellent agreement is apparent. The redistribution
of the hoop stress with time is illustrated in fig. 3
where a tendency to a constant stress distribution is
evident.
Figure 4 indicates the behaviour of a viscoplastic
cylinder under the action of an internal pressure below
the collapse value. The displacement of the internal
surface with time is shown, with the pressure being
increased as soon as steady-state conditions were
achieved during any increment. Fig. 5 indicates how
the viscoplastic solution technique can be employed
in the analysis of conventional plasticity problems.
By allowing steady-state conditions to be achieved
solution is obtained to the equivalent static plasticity
situation. The load deformation charactmistics as
obtained from a conventional plasticity analysis [21 ]
are compared with the steady-state viscoplastic sol-
ution in fig. 5 where excellent agreement is apparent.
 r=1

o ~RY o ~°,,

Ul0: o

o/o/o/ofo~ °
/ /ofo/O//°

iii~i~¢°~°
$t10 3 FINITE ELEMENT MESH AND BOUNDARY
I t I [ I I I CONDITIONS
0 1 2 3 /. 5 6 7

DISPLACEMENT -'flME CURVES

Fig. 2. Thick sphere under internal pressure exceeding the collapse value. E = 2.1 x 106 kg/cm 2, v = 0.3, yon Mises yield function.
Perfect plasticity with F o = Y= 2800 kg/cm 2. Linear creep, 7 = 0.01, r = 20%. Pressure = 11 200 kg/cm 2.

/,.5
\ o

z,.O _
\\ \ \
o ELEMENT
PRESSURE=~

0"8

",,o.\ °\ X,o
3"5

3.0
~t 2'66 I0-3

°~
o~ ~t 0-97 10-3

I I I I o-..~ St = 0
2"5
1.0 1.1 1.2 I -3 1"4 I .5
r
Q

Fig. 3. Time-dependent circumferential stress distribution in thick sphere.

284 O.C Zienkiewicz et aL, Viscoplastic effects in pressure vessels

u(d).104

7 ~ ~0.76

,/j
_

f
Ol .l .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 ~.t. 10 z

Fig. 4. Thick cylinder under internal pressure below the collapse value. E = 2 x 107 kg/cm 2, v = 0.3, yon Mises yield function.
Perfect plasticity with E = Y = 2000 kg/cm 2. Linear creep "r = 0.0001, r = 10%, 7r = PlY.

P
Y

~ o asc~eep
/ ISS~'illgoing on

/ :S:,7o':':,7,,on

Fig. 5. Pressure-displacement curve for thick cylinder, von Mises yield function, no hardening.

Fig. 6 shows the steady-state hoop-stress distributions
for various pressure values. Progression o f the elasto-
plastic interface across the section is evident and again
the results are in agreement with those of static
plasticity.
The n e x t p r o b l e m considered is of the type associ-
ated with penetrations in pressure vessels. Fig. 7
illustrates a perforated strip u n d e r a tensile loading
suddenly applied. Simple elements were e m p l o y e d
and the steady-state distribution of plastic zones is
shown in fig. 7(a). The redistribution of stress from
plastic to elastic zones is apparent from fig. 7(b) where
a relaxation o f stress in plastic element 'p' to the
steady-state value is shown together with a corres-
 O.C. Zienkiewicz et aL, Viscoplastic effects in pressure vessels 285
%
Y ponding increase in the elastic element 'e'. Fig. 7(c)
shows the convergence of the axial stress distribution
X~76 across the minimum section A B to the steady-state
.7 value.
The next example considered is the practical
problem of the plastic deformation of a spherical
pressure vessel with a flush nozzle junction and the
/ geometry of the vessel is illustrated in fig. 8. This
/
.. /" vessel had previously been the subject of both an
J , , , / i /
I I
O
I experimental investigation by Dinno and Gill [25]
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1!6 1~ 1.8 1.9 2.0
and a static plasticity analysis [23]. For the present
// viscoplastic study, a linear flow rule was adopted and
/¢
/
the material properties assumed are shown in fig.8.
/
/ In this case quadratic isoparametric elements were
f'
// employed in solution with Euler's mle being used
/
/ resiclual for time stepping. The steady-state displacement
I
/ profile of the nozzle junction is shown in fig. 8 for
/
-tO. three internal pressure values. Fig. 9 shows the
steady-state load deformation characteristics o f the
Fig. 6. Steady-state elasto-plastic hoop stress distribution in
thick cylinder for various applied pressures, yon Mises yield point A on the vessel, and good agreement with the
function, no hardening. static plasticity analysis is evident.
0"
1"6

1'4
b
D,
0"1"2 0"0~"0
Y
1.0 "°~O~o_o~O__o__ oIN E L E M E N T 'p'

0.8 ~o.o_O_O~O_O__O__O__O IN ELEMENT ' e '

r°" ilt 10 2
I I I l l i I I
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
STRESS TIME CURVES IN BOTH ELASTIC
AND VISCO-PLASTIC REGIONS

o
/ o" ~t:3"09 10.3
1.5 /
o//c ^. ~ . t : 9 " 6 8 10 .3
: ._.41~~ _ ~ _ ~ 10-3

G
1.0 oy
Y

0"5

10

I
A B
A B AXIAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION
Fig. 7. Perforated tension strip. Mesh containing 144 elements 91 nodes. Shaded elements are those in which plastic flow occurred.
E = 7000 kg/mm2, v = 0.2, yon Mises yield function. Perfect plasticity with F = Y = 24.3 kg/mm 2. Linear creep 7 = 0.01, r = 20%.
Applied tension o 0 = 9.5 kg/mm 2.
286 O.C. Zienkicwicz et aL, Viscoplastic effects in pressure vessels
II \ _ _
l l/' 0±Oo,,0, ...... ,,
/Ilk., t\ {magnlflC~, on 20 )
TI~,V"\ T -. r ~'ERTI~L
Z vessel.
D 6. Discussion oi results and conclusions
2:813 D.12"
! ~£'°"
t ~ ~0!9 P Z
Fig. 8. Elastic/visco-perfectly plastic spherical pressure vessel
with a flush nozzle junction. All materials: E = 2.912 x 107
psi, u = 0.3; branch material; Y = 38 750 psi; weld material:
Y = 40 540 psi; sphere material: Y = 42 340 psi; perfect
von Mises plasticity; linear flow rule 0(x) = x; mesh: 54
quadratic isoparametric elements, 2 x 2 Gaussian inte-
gration; loading: internal pressure applied incrementally or
in one step.
The final example indicates, briefly, how rock
or concrete structures can be solved, assuming an
associated Coulomb-type failure law. Using 63 iso-
parametric elements and adopting the linear flow rule
~ x ) = x the problem o f rock relaxation around a lined
tunnel was studied. The geometry and material
properties assumed are shown in fig. 10. Also
indicated is the deformation pattern at steady state
together with the plastic zones developed. A detailed
examination of the results indicate a transfer of com-
pressive stress from the side wall lining to the roof
and floor linings with increasing time.
! ,30~: r f
:Li / × J. . . . . eqt~l eastoplas,Lc F E [:?~1
c~ ~ incremerltol visco.pJcstic relaxctior ~[~ 0(:31
500i / -- >teOdysta te
i _~_ Conliqd r'g VlSCO~piasticMow
i 0
z
001
~
002
,
003
•
004
DISPLACEMENT OF POINT 'A~ [ INCHES)
Fig. 9. Pressure displacement curves for point A on pressure
The paper summarizes the finite element method of
solution of elastic-viscoplastic problems. The examples
presented indicate that the technique can be applied
with confidence to engineering problems. The tech-
nique also provides an alternative method of analysis
for static plasticity situations and preliminary experi-
ence indicates that the cost of solution by both
approaches is comparable.
For reactor analysis the inclusion of viscoelastic
as well as viscoplastic behaviour is desirable, in view
of the fact that even when approaching collapse con-
ditions a large proportion of a pressure vessel is still
operating elastically. Such an effect could be incor-
porated by the addition of a Kelvin element in series
with the model shown in fig. 1. Or a more general
model would be one based on several Kelvin models
and several viscoplastic elements in series. This would
allow the power law type of metallic creep to be
readily dealt with. The computation approach would
follow the method in ref. [7] with a running total of
stress and strain rates being evaluated and stored for
each element.
A further possibility is to adopt the overlay concept
described in ref. [24]. In this approach (for computa-
tional convenience only) the solid is assumed to be
composed of several layers, or overlays, each of which
may have different material characteristics. Each over-
lay is assumed to undergo the same deformation
resulting in different stress fields in each. The total
stress is then the sum o f each overlay contribution.
By forming a composite containing at least one elastic,
viscoelastic and viscoplastic overlay a viscoelastic-
plastic model could be generated.
 O.C. Zienkiewicz et al., Viscoplastic effects in pressure vessels 287

p= /.9500 p.s,f.

oI

V °°'

!
100ft

Fig. 10. Rock relaxation around a lined tunnel. Mesh subdivisions (63 quadratic elements); deformed mesh (exag. 100); lining:
E = 4.32 x 10s p.s.f., u = 0.15; rock. E = 0.72 x 10s p.s.f., u = 0.20, C = 14400 p.s.f., ¢ = ~' = 30°, Mohr - Coulomb perfect
plasticity (associated); Fo = C cos ~; ~ (x) = x; Euler's rule; time increment parameter ~"= 0.05.

Many further modifications to the model presented
are possible. Situations which are at present being
envisaged include the introduction of thermal coup-
ling effects which would have many direct applications
in reactor technology. Also of interest would be exten-
sion to the case of anisotropic materials and composites.
However a basic need is a better mathematical formula-
tion of constitutive relationships for materials, the
applicability of sophisticated numerical techniques
presently available being limited by the absence of
complete material laws. This is particularly so regard-
ing the behaviour of concrete and rock and the non-
linear range of the composite action of reinforced
concrete.
References
[1] O.C. Zienkiewicz and J. Dundurs, Thermal deforma-
tions and stresses in visco-elastic plates, Proc. Conf.
Thermal Loading and Creep of Structures, Inst. Mech.
Eng., London (1964) 241.
[2] J.H. Atgyris and D.W. Scharpf, Methods of elasto-
plastic analysis, Symp. on Finite Element Techniques,
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[3] F. Bauer and E.L. Reiss, On the numerical determina-
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[4] O.C. Zienkiewicz, S. Valliappan and I.P. King, Elasto-
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[7] O.C. Zienkiewicz, M. Watson and I.P. King, A numerical
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[8] G.A. Greenbaum and M.F. Rubinstein, Creep analysis
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[9] W.H. Sutherland, AXICRP. Finite element computer
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