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1.1 Groups
A group is a set G with binary operation
µ : G × G → G,
1. Associativity: a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c;
2. Identity (unit, neutral) element: ∃e ∈ G, e · a = a · e = a for ∀a ∈ G.
3. Inverse elements: ∀a ∃a∗ s.t. a · a∗ = a∗ · a = e.
4. Commutativity a · b = b · a.
Examples
1. (N, +) is not a group, but (Z, +), as well as (Q, +), (R, +), is.
3. The set
Zn = {0, 1, 2, ... , n − 1}
with following ”summation” operation
(
a+b if a + b < n
a+b=
a + b − n if a + b ≥ n
is an abelian group.
4. The set of nonsingular n × n matrices with respect to matrix multipli-
cation is a nonabelian group. It is denoted by GL(n).
Hint for (a). Suppose there are two units e and e0 , consider e · e0 .
Hint for (b). Suppose for an a ∈ G there are two inverses a∗ and a¯∗ ,
consider a∗ · a · a¯∗ .
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1.1.1 Homomorphisms
f (a · b) = f (a) · f (b).
f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b).
Hint for (a). Act with f on a ·e = e and then multiply both sides by f (a−1 )
from the left.
Hint for (b). Act with f on a · a−1 = e and use the uniqueness of inverse.
Examples
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1.1.2 Subgroups
A subgroup H ⊂ G is a subset, which itself is a group with respect to same
operation.
In other words H is closed with respect to µ, contains e and a−1 for each
a ∈ H:
a, b ∈ H ⇒ a · b ∈ H, e ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H.
In additive setting
a, b ∈ H ⇒ a + b ∈ H, 0 ∈ H, −a ∈ H.
Example
For the group Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} only the following subsets are sub-
groups:
{0}, {0, 2, 4}, {0, 3}, {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
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Theorem 5 A group homomorphism f : A → B is injective iff Ker f = 0.
1.1.3 Factorgroup
Let A be an abelian group and B ⊂ A be its subgroup. Consider the following
relation a ∼ a0 if a − a0 ∈ B.
a ∼ a0 ⇒ a − a0 ∈ B ⇒ a0 − a = −(a − a0 ) ∈ B ⇒ a0 ∼ a.
Example
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1.2 Rings and Fields
A ring (R, +, ·) is a set R with two operations: ”summation” and ”multipli-
cation” which satisfy the following axioms
4. Commutativity of multiplication a · b = b · a.
∃1 ∈ R, 1 · a = a · 1 = a
for ∀a ∈ R.
Examples
1. (Z, +, ·), (Q, +, ·), (R, +, ·) all are rings but Q and R are fields.
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3. Let X be an arbitrary set, R be a ring and
M ap(X, R) = {f : X → R}
be the set of all maps from X to R. Then M ap(X, R) is a ring with respect
to the following operations
If H ∈ R is just a subring then the factorgroup R/H does not inherit the
product from R, i.e. this factorgroup is not generally a ring. But
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1.3 The Field of Complex Numbers
C = {a + ib, a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1}.
Summation (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d).
Multiplication (a + ib) · (c + id) = (a · c − b · d) + i(a · d + b · c).
Inverse element (c + id)−1 and the formula for division (a + ib) : (c + id)
find yourself.
Exercises
1. In Z5 2 + 4 equals to
(a) 6 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) 3.
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13. Which from these rings has zero divisors
(a) Z4 (b) Z6 (c) Z (d) Z2 .
14. 3 · 4 in Z5 equals to
(a) 12 (b) 2 (c) 0 (d) 3.
19. In Z7 3 − 5 is
(a) 0 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) 5.
20. In Z7 3 : 2 is
(a) 0 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) 5.