SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE

SOLUTIONS

KELLER VANDEBOGERT

1. Problem 1

Let {u1 , . . . , un } and {w1 , . . . , wm } be bases for U and W , respec-

tively. Without loss of generality, we may assume that {u1 , . . . , uk }
and {v1 , . . . , vk } form bases for U ∩ W . This implies

Span{u1 , . . . , uk } = Span{w1 , . . . , wk }

so that {u1 , . . . , un , wk+1 , . . . , wm } forms a basis for U + W . Counting

cardinalities,
dim(U + W ) = dim(U ) + dim(W ) − dim(U ∩ W )

=⇒ dim(U + W ) + dim(U ∩ W ) = dim(U ) + dim(W )

2. Problem 2

As S −1 M ∼
= S −1 R ⊗R M , we may assume without loss of generality
that R is local. Let m denote the maximal ideal; R/m is a field, so that
R/m ⊗R M is a vector space.
Choosing a basis yields a generating set for the preimage, and con-
versely, every generating set can be refined to a basis in R/m ⊗R M .
Since vector spaces have the invariant basis property, we deduce that
M does as well.

Date: January 14, 2020.

1
2 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

3. Problem 3

Since R is an integral domain, the homothety map s 7→ rs is injec-

tive. Extending by linearity over k, we have an injective map over a
finite dimensional vector space. But this means that we have an iso-
morphism, thus there exists s ∈ R such that rs = 1, whence R is a
field.

4. Problem 4

(a). Assume first that

f g
0 / M0 / M / M 00 / 0

splits, so that M ∼
= M 0 ⊕ M 00 . Then, take h : M ⊕ M 00 → M 0 as the
natural projection onto M 0 . By definition, hf ≡ id.
Similarly, we may take i : M 00 ,→ M 0 ⊕ M 00 to be the standard
inclusion. Again by definition, we have that ig ≡ id.
Assume no that f is left invertible, with left inverse h. Observe first
that for any m ∈ M ,


h m − f ◦ h(m) = h(m) − h(m) = 0

So that m − f (h(m)) ∈ Ker k. This immediately gives that M =

Ker h + Im f , since m = (m − f (h(m))) + f (h(m)). Indeed, we can
say even more, since if m ∈ Ker h ∩ Im f , then m = f (m0 ) for some
m0 ∈ M 0 , and

0 = h(m) = h(f (m0 )) = m0

So m0 = 0 =⇒ f (m0 ) = 0. Hence

M = Ker h ⊕ Im f
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 3

Since f is injective, M 0 ∼
= Im f . It remains to show that

Ker h ∼
= M 00

Since g is surjective, every m00 ∈ M 00 is of the form g(m) for some

m ∈ M . As M = Ker h ⊕ Im f and Ker g = Im f by exactness,

g(M ) = g(Ker h) = M 00

And, as g|Ker h is injective by exactness,

Ker h ∼
= M 00

so that M ∼
= M 0 ⊕ M 00 .
Suppose now that g is right invertible with right inverse i. Consider

m − i(g(m))

We again see that

g m − i(g(m)) = g(m) − g(m) = 0

So that m − i(g(m)) ∈ Ker g = Im f (by exactness). Also, if m ∈

Ker g ∩ Im i, then m = i(m00 ) for some m00 ∈ M 00 and

0 = g(m) = g(i(m00 )) = m00

So that m = 0 as well. Hence

M∼
= Ker g ⊕ Im i

Since Ker g = Im f and f is injective, Im f = M 0 . Similarly, we deduce

that
g(M ) = g(Im i) = M 00

and by the first isomorphism theorem, this must be an isomorphism.

Hence,
M∼
= M 0 ⊕ M 00
4 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

as desired.

(b). Let
M
i:E→ Ei
i
M
π: Ei → E
i

be the given maps. These are trivially R-module homomorphisms. We

also see
π ◦ i(x) = π(ψ1 x, . . . , ψm x)

= φ1 ◦ ψ1 x + · · · + φm ◦ ψm x
X 
= φi ψi (x)
i
=x

i ◦ π(x1 , . . . , xm ) = i(φ1 x1 + · · · + φm xm )

= ψ1 φ1 x1 , . . . , ψm φm xm )

= (x1 , . . . , xm )
Whence i and π are inverses of each other, so they are isomorphisms.
L
If each φi is the natural inclusion Ei ,→ i Ei and ψi the natural
L
projection i Ei → ei , we see

ψi φi = id, ψj ◦ φi ≡ 0 (i 6= j)
L
We also see for (e1 , . . . , em ) ∈ i Ei ,
φ1 ψ1 (e1 , . . . , em ) + · · · + φm ψm (e1 , . . . , em )

=φ1 (e1 ) + · · · + φm (em )

=(e1 , 0, . . . , 0) + · · · + (0, . . . , 0, em )

=(e1 , . . . , em )
P
So that i φi ψi = id, as required.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 5

5. Problem 5

Proceed by induction on the maximal amount of linearly independent

element of A over R. For the base case n = 1, this is by definition.
Let {v1 , . . . , vm } be a maximal set of such elements. Consider any
subgroup A0 contained in the space generated by {v1 , . . . , vm−1 }. By
the inductive hypothesis, these can all be generated by integral linear
combinations.
Now, denote by S the subset of A such that

v = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm , ai ∈ R

0 6 ai < 1

0 6 am 6 m
0
Choose vm such that the coefficient am is minimal and nonzero in S.
Note that such an element exists since S is finite by assumption and if
every am = 0, {v1 , . . . , vm−1 } generates S and by scaling, {v1 , . . . , vm−1 }
generates A. Employing the inductive hypothesis would yield the re-
sult, whence we may find am > 0.
We want to now show that

0
{v1 , . . . , vm−1 , vm }

is a basis for A over Z. Let v ∈ A, so that v = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm .

Then we may find a sufficiently large N ∈ N such that v/N ∈ S; by
definition, am /N > a0m , where a0m is the mth coefficient of vm
0
.
Let k be the smallest positive integer such that ka0m > am /N . If
ka0m 6= am /N , then by minimality of k,

am
− ka0m < a0m
N
6 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

But this may not happen, so in fact

am
ka0m =
N
and if
0
vm = a01 v1 + · · · + a0m vm

for some coefficients a0i , we may multiply by the above by N k and use
that N ka0m = am and see

am vm = −N ka01 v1 − · · · − N ka0m−1 + N kvm

0

And, substituting this for the expression of v,

v = (a1 − N ka01 )v1 + · · · + (am−1 − N ka0m−1 )vm−1 + N kvm

0

0
Subtracting we see that v − N kvm ∈ A0 , so by the inductive hypothesis
we may find ji ∈ Z such that

0
v − N kvm = j1 v1 + . . . jm−1 vj−1

0
Whence we finally see v ∈ SpanZ {v1 , . . . , vm }, as desired.

6. Problem 6

Confer Lang’s Algebraic topology book for the correct statement.

The statement given here is not true.

7. Problem 7

(a). Let u, v ∈ W . Then,

|u − v| 6 |u| + |v| = 0

=⇒ |u − v| = 0
So this is a subgroup.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 7

(b). For convenience, we may assume M0 = {0}. Let M1 = (v1 , . . . , vr )

and let d ∈ Ann(M/M1 ). Then, dM ⊂ M1 , and we may choose nj,j to
be the smallest integer such that there exist

nj,1 , . . . , nj,j−1 ∈ Z

such that

nj,1 v1 + · · · + nj,j vj = dwj

for some wj ∈ M . Without loss of generality, we may assume 0 6

nj,k 6 d − 1. It remains to show our elements {w1 , . . . , wr } forms a
basis.
By selection

Span{w1 , . . . , wr } = Span{v1 , . . . , vr }

And, since the cardinality of the wi matches that of the vi , linear

independence is a triviality. Finally, since 0 6 nj,k 6 d − 1,
r
X nj,k 
|wi | =  vj 

j=1
d
r
X
6 |vj |
j=1

As desired.

8. Problem 8

(a). We certainly have that the kernel is ±1. Let (a, b) = (a0 , b0 ) = 1.
If x = a/b, y = a0 /b0 ,
h(xy) = log max |a||a0 |, |b||b0 |




6 log max |a|, |b| max |a0 |, |b0 |

= h(x) + h(y)
8 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

(b). M is certainly finitely generated, since if not, we could find an

infinite irredundant generating set for M1 , which is a contradiction.
Using Problem 7, after completing the xi to a basis for M , we may
bound any generating set appropriately.

9. Problem 9

(a). Define our localization as equivalence classes

m m0
= 0 ⇐⇒ ∃ r ∈ A such that r(s0 m − sm0 ) = 0
s s
This is given the trivial S −1 A-module structure
am am
:=
b s bs
Well definedness/distributeivity follow immediately from the fact that
M is itself an A-module.

(b). Let
φ ψ
0 / M0 / M / M 00 / 0

We exact. Then, φ and ψ extend to localized maps by defining

 m0  φ(m0 )
φ :=
s s
m ψ(m)
ψ :=
s s
And then extending by linearity. Suppose then that φ(m0 )/s = 0, so
that some t ∈ A must annihilate φ(m0 ), implying that φ(tm0 ) = 0.
Since φ is injective, tm0 = 0, whence m0 /s = 0, so the localized φ is
also injective.
Now let us check exactness at S −1 M . We have Im φ ⊂ Ker ψ by
definition. Suppose that ψ(m/s) = 0, so there exists t ∈ A such that
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 9

ψ(tm) = 0. By exactness, tm ∈ Im φ, so φ(m0 ) = tm for some m0 ∈ M 0 .

Then,
m tm
=
s ts
φ(m0 )
=
tsm 
=φ ∈ Im φ
ts
So our sequence is exact at M . It remains to show that ψ is surjective.
Observe that ψ on M is surjective, so given m00 ∈ M 00 , there exists
m ∈ M such that ψ(m) = m00 . Then,
m00 ψ(m) m
= =ψ ∈ Im ψ
s s s
So that
φ ψ
0 / S −1 M 0 / S −1 M / S −1 M 00 / 0

is exact.

10. Problem 10

(a). Our map is

Y
M→ Mp
p∈m-Spec(A)
m
m 7→
1 p∈m-Spec(A)

Now, suppose m 7→ (0). Then for each p ∈ m-Spec(A), there exists

ap ∈
/ p such that ap m = 0. But then Ann(m) is not contained in any
maximal ideal, whence Ann(m) = A, so m = 0, yielding surjectivity.

(b). We already know the forward direction from part (b) of the pre-
vious problem. Let φ, ψ be our maps φ : M 0 → M , ψ : M → M 00 , and
consider the converse.
10 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

Firstly, suppose φ(m0 ) = 0 for some m0 ∈ M 0 . Then for all p ∈

/ p such that ap m0 = 0. To see this, note
m-Spec(A), there exists ap ∈
that
 m0 
φ(m0 ) = 0 =⇒ φ
1
m0
=⇒ = 0 for all p ∈ m-Spec(A)
1
By identical reasoning as in part (a), Ann(m0 ) = A, so that m0 = 0,
and φ is injective.
We know that Ker ψ ⊂ Im φ. For the reverse inclusion, note that
 m0 
ψ◦φ =0
1
ψ ◦ φ(m0 )
=⇒ = 0 for all p ∈ m-Spec(A)
1
=⇒ Ann(ψ ◦ φ(m0 )) = A
whence Im φ ⊂ Ker ψ, giving exactness at M . Finally, surjectivity is a
tautology, so that
φ ψ
0 / M0 / M / M 00 / 0

is exact.

(c). Suppose that M → Mp and m 7→ m/1 = 0. Then, there exists

ap ∈
/ p such that ap m = 0. Since M is torsion free, m 6= 0 implies that
ap = 0. But then ap ∈ p, which cannot happen, so we deduce that
m = 0 and our natural inclusion is thus injective, as desired.

11. Problem 11

Let p ∈ m-Spec(o). Then Mp is still finitely generated and torsion

free over op . By problems of the previous chapter, op is a PID, and
hence Mp is projective (since it is free). Let
f
F / M / 0
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 11

be exact. We want to show that f is right invertible. We know that

the induced map fp is right invertible by freeness of Mp .
Hence for all p ∈ m-Spec(o), there exists gp such that fp gp = idMp .
We can then find cp ∈ o with cp ∈
/ p and

cp gp (M ) ⊂ F

(this is merely by definition), since gp (Mp ) ⊂ Fp . Then, we want to

show that {cp }p∈Spec(o) generate all of o; this follows since {cm }m∈m-Spec(o)
is not contained in any maximal ideal, hence generates all of o. Thus
there exist xi , cpi ∈ o such that
X
xi cpi = 1
i
P
Set g := i xi cpi gpi . Then for all a/b ∈ o, m ∈ m-Spec(o):
a 1 X
(f ◦ g)m = fm ◦ (xi cpi gpi (a))
b b i
1X
= xi cpi fpi gpi (a)
b i
aX a
= xi cpi =
b i b

Since the maximal ideal m was arbitrary, we deduce that f ◦ g ≡ idM .

12. Problem 12

(a). We have the following short exact sequence

0 / a∩b / a⊕b / a+b / 0

Assume then that a and b are coprime, so that a ∩ b = ab, a + b = o.

As o is projective, the sequence above splits, so

a ⊕ b = o ⊕ ab
12 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

Now, employing exercise 19 of the previous chapter, choose x, y ∈ o

such that xa and yb are coprime. Then,
a ⊕ b = xa ⊕ yb

= o ⊕ xyab

= o ⊕ ab
Whence the general case. Indeed, by induction, one easily sees

a1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ an = on−1 ⊕ a1 a2 . . . an

(b). Let f : a → b be our isomorphism. Then, fk |a = f , and

fk (a) = fk (1) · a = ca

for each a ∈ a. Hence, f is merely the homothety mc : x 7→ cx, where

c := fk (1).

(c). Let f ∈ Hom(a, o). Certainly 1 ∈

/ a, and we may extend f to all
of k by linearity as in (b). Then the association

f 7→ fk (1) ∈ a−1

is an isomorphism. Note that well definedness follows since if f (a) ∈ o

for a ∈ a, then fk (1) · a ∈ o, so that fk (1) ∈ a−1 by definition.
Injectivity is easy since if fk (1) = gk (1), then for all a ∈ a, fk (1) · a =
gk (1) · a =⇒ f (a) = g(a), whence f ≡ g. Surjectivity follows from
part (b), so this is indeed an isomorphism.
In particular,

Hom(a, o) = a−1

and

a∨∨ = (a−1 )−1 = a =⇒ a∨∨ = a

 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 13

13. Problem 13

M is projective, hence a direct summand of a free module F . This

immediately gives that M is torsion free, so the free module F 0 gen-
erated by the non torsion elements is contained in M . By definition
(since we have only removed torsion elements) the rank of F ad F 0
must coincide, since else F 0 would have nontrivial torsion. Thus, there
exists F and F 0 free such that

F 0 ⊂ M ⊂ F, rank F = rank F 0

(b). Proceed by induction on the rank of M . When n = 1, there is

nothing to prove.
Assume now that M has rank n. Choose generators e1 , . . . , en−1
linearly independent with span denoted by N . We have the short exact
sequence
0 / N / M / M/N / 0

By the inductive hypothesis, N = a1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ an−1 . Also, counting ranks

yields that M/N has rank 1, whence we may choose a generator of
M/N . Its preimage will by linearly independent with N since it has
nonzero class in M/N , in which case we see that M ∼
L
= i ai .
As o is Noetherian, an is finitely generated and M/N is torsion free/
Thus M/N is projective, so our sequence splits

=⇒ M = a1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ an

As desired.

(c). We may assume without loss of generality that the ai are pairwise
coprime. By Problem 12 part (a),

M = on−1 ⊕ a
14 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

where a = a1 . . . an . Suppose now that for any two fractional ideals a,

b ∈ o, that on−1 ⊕ a = om−1 ⊕ b. We want to show that this is possible
if and only if a = b and n = m.
If on−1 ⊕ a = om−1 ⊕ b, taking the rank of both sides immediately
yields m = n. If we take the (n + 1)th exterior power, we find that
D1 on−1 ⊗ a = D2 on−1 ⊗ b, Di ∈ o

=⇒ a = b
where we have used the fact that the exterior power converts our direct
sum to a tensor product (the Di are our determinants). Whence the
map M 7→ [a] is an isomorphism, and we are done.

14. Problem 14

We have the following commutative diagram with exact rows, which

will referenced each part of this problem:
φ ψ
M0 / M / M 00 / 0
f g h
 φ0  ψ0

0 / N0 / N / N 00

(a). Suppose that f and h are monomorphisms. Let m ∈ Ker g. By

commutativity, there exists m0 ∈ M 0 with φ(m0 ) = m. By commuta-
tivity,
φ0 (f (m0 )) = 0

Since φ0 is injective by exactness, f (m0 ) = 0.

But f is also injective, so that m0 = 0 and φ(0) = 0 = m, and g is
also a monomorphism.

(b). Suppose that f and h are surjective. Let n ∈ N . Then, ψ 0 (n) Im Im h,

since h is surjective, so there exists m00 ∈ M 00 such that h(m00 ) = ψ 0 (n).
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 15

By exactness, ψ is surjective, so there exists m ∈ M such that

ψ(m) = m00 . By commutativity of the diagram, ψ 0 (g(m)) = ψ(n),
so that g(m) − n ∈ Ker ψ 0 = Im φ0 , so there exists n0 ∈ N 0 such that
φ0 (n0 ) = g(m) − n, and since f is surjective, there exists m0 ∈ M 0 such
that f (m0 ) = n0 . By commutativity of the diagram,
g ◦ φ(m0 ) = g(m) − n

=⇒ n = g(m − φ(m0 )) ∈ Im g
So that g is surjective.

(c). Assume 0 → M 0 → M and N → N 00 → 0 are exact. By the Snake

Lemma,

0 / Ker f / Ker g / Ker h

δ/ / / /
Coker f Coker g Coker h 0
is also exact. However, we observe that if any of the above two kernels
and cokernels vanish, so must the other. Hence the statement is a
triviality.

15. Problem 15

The diagram that will be referenced in each part of this question is

the following:
a1 a2 a3 a4
M1 / M2 / M3 / M4 / M5
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5
 b1
 b2
 b3
 b4

N1 / N2 / N3 / N4 / N5
Note the above is commutative with exact rows. The format of the
solutions will be a string of implications so as to make it very easy
for the reader to follow along the diagram. Also, any element of its
16 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

corresponding set will be denoted with the lower case letter with the
same index (ie, m3 ∈ M3 always).

(a). We have:

m3 ∈ Ker f3

=⇒ f4 (a3 (m3 )) = 0 (commutativity)

=⇒ a3 (m3 ) = 0 (injectivity of f4 )

=⇒ m3 ∈ Im a2 (exactness)

=⇒ a2 (m2 ) = m3 (by definition)

=⇒ b2 (f2 (m2 )) = 0 (commutativity)

=⇒ b1 (n1 ) = f2 (m2 ) (exactness)

=⇒ f1 (m1 ) = n1 (surjectivity of f1 )

=⇒ f2 (a1 (m1 )) = f2 (m2 ) (commutativity)

=⇒ f2 (a1 (m1 ) − m2 ) = 0

=⇒ a1 (m1 ) = m2 (injectivity of f2 )

=⇒ m2 ∈ Im a1 = Ker a2 (exactness)

=⇒ m3 = a2 (m2 ) = 0

=⇒ f3 is injective
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 17

(b). Employing the same convention as in part (a), we see

n3 Im N3

=⇒ f4 (m4 ) = b3 (n3 ) (surjectivity of f4 )

=⇒ f5 (a4 (m4 )) (exactness and commutativity)

=⇒ a4 (m4 ) = 0 (injectivity of f5 )

=⇒ a3 (m3 ) = m4 (commutativity)

=⇒ b3 (f3 (m3 ) − n3 ) = 0

=⇒ b2 (n2 ) = f3 (m3 ) − n3 (exactness)

=⇒ f2 (m2 ) = n2 (surjectivity of f2 )

=⇒ f3 (a2 (m2 )) = f3 (m3 ) − n3 (commutativity)

=⇒ n3 = f3 (m3 − a2 (m2 ))
So that f3 is surjective.

16. Problem 16

Let {Si , (fji }i∈I denote our inverse system, where each fji : Sj → Si
are all surjective. By simplicity, this implies that each fji is either
trivial or an isomorphism.
If every Si = 1, then we are done. Hence, suppose not. Given Si ,
Sj , there exists k such that k > i, j. Then

Sk ∼
= Si , Sk ∼
= Sj

=⇒ Si ∼
= Sj

Then any two nontrivial groups in our inverse system are necessarily
isomorphic. Let S denote the common isomorphism. By assumption
S is simple, it remains only to show that

lim Si = S
←−
18 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

The isomorphism is not so difficult to specify. Choose i such that Si is

nontrivial. The inclusion

I :S ,→ lim Si
←−
x 7→ (x)i∈I
is injective, since any nonzero element must represent a nonzero class
in some Si . It remains to show surjectivity. Let (xi ) ∈ lim Si . For
←−
every j 6 i, fji (xj ) = xi , and for every k > i, fik (xi ) = xk . Inverting
yields fki (xk ) = xi , so that every element is completely determined by
the ith spot; whence i(xi ) = (xi ), and we have an isomorphism.

17. Problem 17

(a). We have the inverse system

(Z/pn , πnm )

with

πnm (a + (pn )) = a + (pm )

By definition, πnn ≡ id. Now, set Zp := lim Z/pn . Let

←−
n
ρn :Zp → Z/p

(a + (pm ))m∈N 7→ a + (pn )

This is certainly surjective as any m + (pn ) has preimage

(n + (pn ))n∈N

There are no zero divisors, since if k is a zero divisor, then pn |k for all
n ∈ N, which is possible only if k = 0.
The maximal ideal is merely pZp , since one immediately sees that

Zp /pZp = Z/pZ
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 19

which is, in particular, a field. This is also the unique maximal ideal
since any other

x = (xi + (pn ))n∈N

is pointwise invertible by merely noting that Zp is isomorphic to Z/p[[p]].

An element in the ring of formal power series is invertible if and only
if the first term is a unit, which corresponds to elements x ∈
/ pZp , so
that every element not contained in pZp is a unit, so this is maximal.
This also gives that p is the only prime in this ring, since any other
prime would generate an idea contained in pZp , and hence divide p.
Finally, for the UFD property, we can actually do better, since Zp
is a PID. To see this, merely note that every ideal must be an ideal
in each entry, and ideals in every entry are principal. Hence, Zp is
principal, hence a UFD.

(b). By the Chinese Remainder theorem,

Z/(a) ∼
M
= Z/(pαi i )
i

where a = pα1 1 . . . pαk k is the prime factorization of a. Using this and

the fact that inverse limits preserve direct products,
Y
lim Z/(a) = lim Z/(pn )
←− ←−
(a) p prime n
Y
= Zp
p prime

As asserted.
20 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

18. Problem 18

(a). The diagram

An+1 × Mn+1 / Mn+1

 
An × Mn / Mn
commutes, so that

gn+1,n (an+1 mn+1 ) = fn+1,n (an+1 ) · mn

Then, let lim An act on lim Mn by

←− ←−
(an )n∈N (mn )n∈N := (an mn )n∈N

By the above commutative diagram, this action is well defined and

preserves the structure of the inverse limit.

(b). Using part (a), we consider our maps. Observe that Mn = A for
each n, and, An = /bbz/(pn ). Then, we have
ψ :A → A

a 7→ pa

φ :Z/(pn ) → Z/(pn+1 )

m + (pn ) 7→ m + (pn+1 )
with trivial action
Z/(pn ) × A → A

(m + (pn ), a) 7→ ma
We then see that

(m + (pn ), a) 7→ ma 7→ pma

and

(m + (pn ), a) 7→ (m + (pn+1 ), pa) 7→ pma

 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 21

Whence the diagram in part (a) commutes, and using the result of (a),
lim A := Tp (A) is a module over lim Z/(pn ) = Zp .
←− ←−

(c). We see that

(m + (pn ), a, b) 7→ m(a, b) 7→ pm(a, b)

and,

(m + (pn ), a, b) 7→ (m + (pn+1 ), pa, pb) 7→ m(pa, pb)

And, since pm(a, b) = m(pa, pb), the diagram in (a) commutes so the
result follows immediately.

19. Problem 19

By definition, if a 7→ 0 ∈ lim An , then fik (a) = 0 for some k > i.

−→

20. Problem 20

Note that

lim lim Aij and lim lim Aij

−→ −→ −→ −→
i j j i

both satisfy the following universal property: for all (i, j) 6 (r, s), there
exist maps f(i,j) and f(r,s) for every

f(i,j),(r,s) : Aij → Ars

making the following commute:

limi limj Aij

−→9 − → e
f(i,j) f(r,s)

Aij / Ars
f(i,j),(r,s)
22 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

limj limi Aij

−→9 − → e
f(i,j) f(r,s)

Aij / Ars
f(i,j),(r,s)

And any other object satisfying the above must factor through the
direct limits. Whence they factor through each other, and we have a
natural isomorphism

lim lim Aij ∼

= lim lim A
−→ −→ −→ −→ ij
i j j i

Similarly, if we merely reverse the directions of the arrows in the above

diagram, limi limj Aij and limj limi Aij also satisfy the same universal
←− ←− ←− ←−
property, and are hence naturally isomorphic.

21. Problem 21

First, we need some notation. Elements of our direct limit can be

written as classes [Mi , mi ] with mi ∈ Mi and group operation

[Mi , mi ] + [Mj , mj ] := [Mk , φik (mi ) + φjk (xj )]

with k > i, j. By definition of direct limits, this is well defined. We

also have induced maps u, v such that

u[Mi0 , m0i ] = [Mi , ui (m0i )]

v[Mi , mi ] = [Mi00 , vi (mi )]

where
ui vi
0 / Mi0 / Mi / Mi00 / 0

is exact for every i. Now we may prove exactness. Suppose first that
u([Mi , mi ]) = 0. Then,

[Mi , ui (m0i )] = 0 =⇒ fij (ui (m0i )) = 0

 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 23

for j > i. But,

fij (ui (m0i )) = uj (fij (m0i )) = 0

and since each uj is a monomorphism, fij (m0i ) = 0 for every > i, and
we see that

[Mi0 , m0i ] = [Mi0 , 0]

so that u is a monomorphism. We also see:

vu([Mi0 , m0i ]) = v([Mi , ui (m0i )])

= [Mi00 , vi ui (m0i )]

= [Mi00 , 0]
where the last equality follows from the fact that Im ui ⊂ Ker vi for
every i, and we thus deduce that Im u ⊂ Ker v. Let us consider the
reverse inclusion now; suppose
v([Mi , mi ]) = [Mi00 , vi (mi )]

= [Mi00 , 0]
Then, for all j > i, gij (vi (mi )) = vj (gij (ui )) = 0, so that given gij (mi ) ∈
Ker vj , there exists m0j ∈ Mj0 such that uj (m0j ) = gij (mi ), in which case
[Mi , mi ] = [Mj , uj (m0j )]

= u([Mi0 , m0i ]) ∈ Im u
So that Ker v = Im u. Finally, let [Mi00 , m00i ] ∈ lim Mi . Then for each i,
−→
00
ui (mi ) = mi for some mi ∈ Mi , so that
[Mi00 , m00i ] = Mi00 , ui (mi )]

= u([Mi , mi ]) ∈ Im u
And we conclude that

0 / lim Mi0
v / lim Mi
u / lim Mi00 / 0
−→ −→ −→
is also exact.
24 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

22. Problem 22

(a). Consider the universal property of the direct sum. If we apply

the contravariant functor Hom(−, N ), we reverse the direction of the
inclusion maps in our universa property. We then get an induced map
M Y
u : Hom( Mi , N ) → Hom(Mi , N )
i i

We also get an inverse map

Y M
Hom(Mi , N ) → Hom( Mi , N )
i i
(fi ) 7→ f
P L
Where f (mi ) = i fi (mi ), (mi ) ∈ i Mi . Whence,

Mi , N ) ∼
M Y
Hom( = Hom(Mi , N )
i i

(b). We have a similar universal property. When we apply the covari-

ant functor Hom(N, −), we preserve the direction of our arrows and
get an induced map
Y Y
u : Hom(N, Mi ) → Hom(N, Mi )
i i

And we have an inverse map

Y Y
Hom(N, Mi ) → Hom(N, Mi )
i i
(fi ) 7→ f
where f is such that
Y
f (n) = (fi (n)) ∈ Mi
i

and we conclude

Hom(N, Mi ) ∼
Y Y
= Hom(N, Mi )
i i
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 25

23. Problem 23

We have the diagram

limi Mi
←−

{ #
Mj / Mi

for i 6 j. Applying Hom(N, −), we have the induced diagram

Hom(N, limi Mi )
←−

v (
Hom(N, Mj ) / Hom(N, Mi )

So by the universal property, there exists a map

u : Hom(N, lim Mi ) → lim Hom(N, Mi )

←− ←−
i i

And we construct an inverse

lim Hom(N, Mi ) → Hom(N, lim Mi )
←− ←−
i i
[Hom(N, Mi ), fi ] 7→ f
where f is such that

f (n) = [Mi , fi (n)]

whence

Hom(N, lim Mi ) ∼
= lim Hom(N, Mi )
←− ←−
i i

24. Problem 24

Let M be an R-module. Consider the set of finitely generated sub-

modules of M , ordered by inclusion. We have the direct system

{Mi , iij }
26 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

where iij is the natural inclusion Mi ,→ Mj . We want to show that

M = lim Mi . The map is naturally defined as
−→
m 7→ [Mi , mi ]

Now, if m 7→ [Mi , 0], then m is 0 is some finitely generated submodule

of M , hence m = 0.
S
Now, given [Mi , mi ] ∈ lim Mi , note that M = i Mi , and we may
−→
take the preimage as mi ∈ M for any i. This is well defined, since if
i 6 j, iij (mi ) = mj , but iij (mi ) = mi , merely viewed as an element of
Mj . Hence,
M = lim Mi
−→

25. Problem 25

We have an exact sequence

0 / K / F / M / 0

Consider the poset

S := {(N, I) | |I| < ∞, N ⊂ K ∩ RI , N f.g}

Under the partial order

(N, I) 6 (N 0 , I 0 )

⇐⇒ N 6 N 0 and I ⊂ I 0
Now consider lim RI /N . We want to show that this is isomorphic to
−→
F/K, as F/K ∼ = M . The map is trivial, we merey send

f + K 7→ [RI /N, f + N ]

and by identical steps as in the previous problem, this is an isomor-

phism. For each RI /N , we have the exact sequence

N / RI / RI /N / 0
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 27

As N ⊂ K ∩ RI , this is a finite presentation.

26. Problem 26

We first show this is a monomorphism. Consider

lim Hom(E, Mi ) → Hom(E, lim Mi )

−→ −→
[Hom(E, Mi ), fi ] 7→ f

where f (n) = [Mi , fi (n)]. Suppose [Hom(E, Mi ), fi ] 6= 0, so fi 6= 0 for

some i. Then there exists n ∈ E such that fi (n) 6= 0, and injectivity
follows by taking the contrapositive.
Suppose now that E is finitely generated and free, so that E = Rn
for some n ∈ N. We then see

lim Hom(E, Mi ) = lim Hom(Rn , Mi )

−→ −→
 n
= lim Hom(E, Mi )
−→
= lim Min
−→
 n
= lim Mi
−→

and

Hom(E, lim Mi ) = Hom(Rn , lim Mi )

−→ −→
 n
= Hom(R, lim Mi )
−→
 n
= lim Mi
−→

So that these are indeed isomorphic in the free and finitely generated
case. Suppose E is finitely presented and choose a presentation

F0 / F1 / E / 0
28 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

Apply the left exact contravariant functor Hom(−, Mi ) and then the
exact functor (by Problem 21) lim to get the commutative diagram
−→

0 / lim Hom(E, Mi ) / lim Hom(F0 , Mi ) / lim Hom(F1 , Mi )

−→ −→ −→

  
0 / Hom(E, lim Mi ) / Hom(F0 , lim Mi ) / Hom(F1 , lim Mi )
−→ −→ −→
Where the vertical arrows are the natural maps. Then, using exactness
we easily deduce that first vertical arrow must be a surjection, since
we have already shown that the second 2 are. Whence we have an
isomorphism

lim Hom(E, Mi ) ∼
= Hom(E, lim M)
−→ −→ i

27. Problem 27

Define the product

(x + An−1 )(y + Am−1 ) := xy + An+m−1

This is well defined and preserves the graded structure as xy ∈ An+m ,

so
An Am An+m
· ⊂
An−1 Am−1 An+m−1
And this is the multiplication rule for the associated graded module
gr(A).

28. Problem 28

(a). We have the natural definition

gri (L) :gri → gri (B)

a + Ai−1 7→ L(a) + Bi−1

 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 29

Let us show this is well defined. Suppose that a + Ai−1 = a0 + Ai−1 .

Then a − a0 ∈ Ai−1 , so that

L(a − a0 ) ∈ Bi−1 =⇒ L(a) + Bi−1 = L(a0 ) + Bi−1

So this is well defined.

(b). Let b ∈ Bi , and without loss of generality assume that b ∈

/ Bi−1 .
Since gri (L) is an isomorphism, there exists a0 ∈ Ai such that b −
L(a0 ) ∈ Bi−1 . Similarly, we may find a1 ∈ Ai−1 such that

(b − L(a0 )) − L(a1 ) ∈ Bi−2

Iterating this, after i + 1 times we have found ak ∈ Ai−k such that

i
X
b− L(ak ) ∈ B−1 = {0}
k=0
Pi
Whence b − k=0 L(ak ) = 0, implying that
i
X 
b=L ak
k=0

so that L is surjective.
Suppose now that L(a) = 0 for a ∈ A. Then, a ∈ Ai for some i, and
since gri (L) is an isomorphism, a ∈ Ai−1 . Iterating this, we see that
a ∈ Aj for all j 6 i, and in particular, a ∈ A−1 = {0}, so that a = 0,
and L is an isomorphism.

29. Problem 29

(a). These are algebras just by definition, and indeed we see that
det(N − λI) = λn for N ∈ ni , whence N n = 0.
30 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

(b). Closure follows from

(I + X)(I + Y ) = I + X + Y + XY

Since n is an algebra, this remains in our set. Associativity follows

from associativity of matrix multiplication. Lastly, I = I + 0 is the
identity element.
Finally, suppose that X is nilpotent of degree i; we have

(I + X)(I − X + X 2 − · · · + (−1)i−1 X i−1 ) = I − X i = I

So all elements are invertible, and we have a group.

(c). Note that exp is a polynomial function, where

∞
X Xn
exp(X) =
n=0
n!
The sum is not actually infinite since X is nilpotent, so we have a
polynmial function. To show this is a bijection, we only need show
that log is the inverse. We see:
∞
X (−1)n+1
n
log(exp(X)) = exp(X) − I
n=1
n
∞ n
(−1)n+1 X
 
n−k n
X
= (−1) · exp(kX)
n=1
n k=0
k
∞ n ∞
(−1)n+1 X Xm m
  X
n−k n
X
= (−1) · ·k
n=1
n k=0
k m=0
m!
∞ mX m n  
X X 1 X n m
=− (−1)k k
m=0
m! n=1
n k=0
k
∞ n   
X 1 X n m
+ (−1)k k
n=m+1
n k=0 k
Now, consider
n  
X n
(−1)k k m xk
k=0
k
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 3 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 31
 m
d
This is the resulting of applying the operator x dx so (1−x)n . When
n < m, we see that the end result will still have a factor of 1 − x, so
that, setting x = 1, whenever m < n we have
n  
X n
(−1)k k m = 0
k=0
k
And the above sum becomes
∞ m n
Xm X 1 X
 
k n
X
− (−1) km
m=0
m! n=1 n k=0 k
∞ m n
Xm X X
 
k1 n−1
X
=− (−1) km
m=0
m! n=1 k=0 k k−1
∞ m m 
Xm X

X
k m−1
X n−1
=− (−1) · k
m=0
m! k=1 n=k
k−1
Now consider
m  
X n−1
n=k
k−1
k−1
This is the coefficient of x in the sum

(1 + x)k−1 + (1 + x)k + · · · + (1 + x)m−1

which, by the geometric sum formula, is just equal to

(1 + x)m−k+1 (1 + x)k−1
−
x x
This has no degree k − 1 terms, but for the form before that, xk−1 has
coefficient
   
m−k m
=
k k
So we find
m    
X n−1 m
=
k=n
k−1 k
and our sum becomes
∞ m
Xm X
 
m−1 m
X
k
− (−1) · k
m=0
m! k=1
k
32 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

Now, when m > 1, we have already shown above that

m   X m  
m−1 m m−1 m
X
k k
(−1) · k = (−1) · k =0
k=1
k k=0
k
and, when m = 1,
1  
k 1
X
(−1) = −1
k=1
k
So that all terms of order m > 1 vanish, and we are merely left with
X. Hence, log(exp(X)) = X. Also by rearranging the terms in our
series, we also see that

log(exp(X)) = exp(log(X)) = X

so this log is a left and right inverse, giving that exp is indeed a bijec-
tion, as desired.