2 Conservation Equations

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 2. Conservation Equations for Turbulent Flows C. P. T.
Groth 2018
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2. Conservation Equations for Turbulent Flows
Coverage of this section:

I Review of Tensor Notation
I Review of Navier-Stokes Equations for Incompressible and
Compressible Flows
I Reynolds & Favre Averaging and RANS & FANS Equations
I Turbulent Kinetic Energy and Reynolds Stresses
I Closure Problem and Turbulence Modelling
AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 2. Conservation Equations for Turbulent Flows C. P. T. Groth 2018
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2.1 Review of Tensor Notation
Tensor notation is used extensively throughout the textbook and

this course and is therefore briefly reviewed and compared to vector
notation before moving to a discussion of the conservation
equations for turbulent flows.
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Expression Vector Notation Tensor Notation
scalars π, c π, c
(zeroth-order tensor)
operations
π π
(+, −, ×, /) e.g., π − c, π − c,
c c
vectors ~a, ~x ai , xi
(3D space) (first-order tensor,
it is taken that i ∈ {1, 2, 3})
addition ~b = ~a + ~x bi = ai + xi = aj + xk
vector products P
inner product ~a · ~x = i ai xi = c ai xi = c
P
(scalar result) i ai xi = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 (Einstein notation: sum implied)
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2.1.1 Einstein Summation Convention
Einstein summation convention: repetition of an index in any term
denotes a summation of the term with respect to that index over
the full range of the index (i.e., 1, 2, 3).
Thus, for the inner product
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ai xi = ai xi = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3
i=1
the sum is implied and need not be explicitly expressed. Note that
using matrix-vector mathematical notation, the inner product of
two 3 × 1 column vectors, a and x, can be experssed as
 
x1
aT x = [a1 a2 a3 ]  x2  = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3
x3
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~i ~j ~k
cross product ~a × ~x = ~r = ijk aj xk = ri

a1 a2 a3
x1 x2 x3
(a2 x3 − a3 x2 )~i
(vector result) ~r = ijk = permutation tensor
−(a1 x3 − a3 x1 )~j
+(a1 x2 − a2 x1 )~k
(sum over j & k implied)
~
~x = ~J
N
outer product ~a~x = ~a aα xβ = Jαβ
(dyadic result, (second-order tensor,
vector of vectors) 9 elements,
6 elements for symmetric tensor)
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2.1.2 Dyadic Quantity: A Vector of Vectors
~
In vector notation, a dyadic quantity, ~d is essentially a ‘vector of
vectors’ as defined by the outer product:
~~
d = ~u~v
It is equivalent to the second-order tensor, dij ,
dij = ui uj
using tensor notation. In this case using matrix-vector notation,

the outer product of two 3 × 1 column vectors, u and v, can be
experssed as
   
u1 u1 v1 u1 v2 u1 v3
uvT =  u2  [v1 v2 v3 ] =  u2 v1 u2 v2 u2 v3 
u3 u3 v1 u3 v2 u3 v3
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~~
dyads d = ~u~v dij = ui uj
~~
dyad-vector products A · ~x = ~b Aαβ xβ = bα
(vector result) equivalent to Ax = b
~~
high-order tensors Q~ Qijk
(third-order tensor,
27 elements, 10 symmetric)
~~
~~
R Rijkl
(fourth-order tensor,
81 elements, 15 symmetric)
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contracted quantities ~h hi = qijj

(contacted 3rd-order tensor,
vector)
~~
P Pij = Rijkk
(contacted 4th-order tensor,
second-order tensor, dyad)
p p = Riikk
(double contacted tensor,
scalar quantity)
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2.1.3 Permutation Tensor
The permuation tensor, ijk , is a third-order tensor that is

introduced for defining cross products with the following properties
for its elements:
123 = 231 = 312 = 1 , even permutations
213 = 321 = 132 = −1 , odd permutations

111 = 222 = 333 = 0 , repeated indices
112 = 113 = 221 = 223 = 331 = 322 = 0 , repeated indices
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2.1.4 Kronecker Delta Tensor
The Kronecker delta tensor, δij , is a second-order tensor that is

defined as follows:

1 , for i = j
δij =
0 , for i 6= j
~
The Kronecker delta tensor is equivalent ot the identity dyad, ~I
and the 3 × 3 indentity matrix, I, in matrix-vector mathematical
notation given by  
1 0 0
I= 0 1 0 
0 0 1
Note also that
δii = trace(I) = 3
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2.1.5 − δ Indentity
The following identity relates the permutation and Kronecker delta

tensors:
ijk ist = δjs δkt − δjt δks
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differential operators
~ = ∇φ
~ ∂φ
gradient V Vi =
∂xi
~ · ~a ∂ai
divergence c =∇ c=
∂xi
~ ∂φ
~u · ∇φ ui
∂xi
~ × ~a ∂ak
curl ~g = ∇ gi = ijk
∂xj
~~ ~B~ ∂Bi
vector derivative P =∇ Pij =
∂xj
~ · ∇φ
~ ∂2φ
Laplacian c = ∇2 φ = ∇ c=
∂xi ∂xi
~ =∇
~ ·∇
~A~ ∂ 2 Ai
~a = ∇2 A ai =
∂xj ∂xj
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2.1.6 Other Notation
In the course textbook and elsewhere you will some time see the
use of the shorthand tensor notation:
~ = ∂p = p,i
∇p
∂xi
and
~ · ~u = ∂ui = ui,i
∇
∂xi
This notation will not be used by this instructor as it can be
difficult to follow and is more prone to errors.
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2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas
The Navier-Stokes equations describing the flow of compressible

gases are a non-linear set of partial-differential equations (PDEs)
governing the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy of the
gaseous motion. They consist of two scalar equations and one
vector equation for five unknowns (dependent variables) in terms
of four independent variables, the three-component position vector,
~x or xi , and the scalar time, t.
We will here review briefly the Navier-Stokes equations for a

polytropic (calorically perfect) gas in both tensor and vector
notation. Integral forms of the equations will also be discussed.
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2.2.1 Continuity Equation
The continuity equation is a scaler equation reflecting the

conservation of mass for a moving fluid. Using vector notation, it
has the form
∂ρ ~
+ ∇ · (ρ~u ) = 0
∂t
where ρ and ~u are the gas density and flow velocity, respectively.
In tensor notation, the continuity equation can be written as
∂ρ ∂
+ (ρui ) = 0
∂t ∂xi
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For the control volume and control surface above, the integral
form of the continuity equation can be obtained by integrating the
original PDE over the control volume and making using of the
divergence theorem. The following integral equation is obtained:
Z I
d
ρ dV = − ρ~u · ~n dA
dt
V A
which relates the time rate of change of the total mass within the
control volume to the mass flux through the control surface.
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2.2.2 Momentum Equation
The momentum equation is a vector equation that represents the
application of Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion to the motion of a gas.
It relates the time rate of change of the gas momentum to the
forces which act on the gas. Using vector notation, it has the form

∂ ~
~ · ρ~u~u + p~I − ~~τ = ρ~f
(ρ~u ) + ∇
∂t
where p and ~ ~τ are the gas pressure and fluid stress dyad or tensor,
respectively, and ~f is the acceleration of the gas due to body forces
(i.e., gravitation, electro-magnetic forces). In tensor notation, the
momentum equation can be written as
∂ ∂
(ρui ) + (ρui uj + pδij − τij ) = ρfi
∂t ∂xj
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For the control volume, the integral form of the momentum

equation is given by
Z I Z
d ~~ ~
ρ~u dV = − ρ~u~u + p I − ~τ · ~n dA + ρ~f dV
dt
V A V
which relates the time rate of change of the total momentum

within the control volume to the surface and body forces that act
on the gas.
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2.2.3 Energy Equation
The energy equation is a scalar equation that represents the
application of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics to the gaseous
motion. It describes the time rate of change of the total energy of
the gas (the sum of kinetic energy of bulk motion and internal
kinetic or thermal energy). Using vector notation, it has the form

∂ p
~ · ρ~u E +
(ρE ) + ∇ − ~~τ · ~u + ~q = ρ~f · ~u
∂t ρ
where E is the total specific energy of the gas given by

E = e + ~u · ~u /2 and ~q is the heat flux vector representing the flux
of heat out of the gas. In tensor notation, it has the form

∂ ∂ p
(ρE ) + ρui E + − τij uj + qi = ρfi ui
∂t ∂xi ρ
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2.2.3 Energy Equation
For the control volume, the integral form of the energy equation is
given by
Z I Z
d p
ρE dV = − ρ~u E + − ~~τ · ~u + ~q ·~n dA+ ρ~f ·~u dV
dt ρ
V A V
which relates the time rate of change of the total energy within the
control volume to transport of energy, heat transfer, and work
done by the gas.
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The Navier-Stokes equations as given above are not complete

(closed). Additional information is required to relate pressure,
density, temperature, and energy, and the fluid stress tensor, τij
and heat flux vector, qi must be specified. The equation set is
completed by
• thermodynamic relationships;
• constitutive relations; and
• expressions for transport coefficients.
When seeking solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations for either
steady-state boundary value problems or unsteady initial boundary
value problems, boundary conditions will also be required to
complete the mathematical description.
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2.2.4 Thermodynamic Relationships
In this course, we will assume that the gas satisfies the ideal gas
equation of state relating ρ, p, and T , given by
p = ρRT
and behaves as a calorically perfect gas (polytropic gas) with

constant specific heats, cv and cp , and specific heat ratio, γ, such
that
p p γp
e = cv T = and h = e + = cp T =
(γ − 1)ρ ρ (γ − 1)ρ
where R is the gas constant, cv is the specific heat at constant

volume, cp is the specific heat at constant pressure, and γ = cp /cv .
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2.2.5 Mach Number and Sound Speed
For a polytropic gas, the sound speed, a, can be determined using

r
p p
a = γ = γRT
ρ
and thus the flow Mach number, M, is given by

u u
M= =√
a γRT
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2.2.6 Constitutive Relationships
The constitutive relations provide expressions for the fluid stress

tensor, τij , and heat flux vector, qi , in terms of the other fluid
quantities. Using the Navier-Stokes relation, the fluid stress tensor
can be related to the fluid strain rate and given by

∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂uk
τij = µ + − δij (τii = 0, traceless)
∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xk
where µ is the dynamic viscosity of the gas. Fourier’s Law can be

used to relate the heat flux to the temperature gradient as follows:
∂T ~
qi = −κ or ~q = −κ∇T
∂xi
where κ is the coefficient of thermal conductivity for the gas.
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2.2.7 Transport Coefficients
In general, the transport coefficients, µ and κ, are functions of
both pressure and temperature:
µ = µ(p, T ) and κ = κ(p, T )
Expressions, such as Sutherland’s Law can be used to determine

the dynamics viscosity as a function of temperature (i.e.,
µ = µ(T )). The Prandtl number can also be used to relate µ and
κ. The non-dimensional Prandtl number is defined as follows:
µcp
Pr =
κ
and is typically 0.70-0.72 for many gases. Given µ, the thermal
conductivity can be related to viscosity using the preceding
expression for the Prandtl number.
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2.2.8 Boundary Conditions
At a solid wall or bounday, the following boundary conditions for

the flow velocity and temperature are appropriate:
~u = 0 , (No-Slip Boundary Condition)
and
T = Twall , (Fixed Temperature Wall Boundary Condition)
or
~ · ~n = 0 ,
∇T (Adiabatic Wall Boundary Condition)
where Twall is the wall temperature and ~n is a unit vector in the
direction normal to the wall or solid surface.
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2.3 Navier-Stokes Equations for an Incompressible Gas
For low flow Mach numbers (i.e., low subsonic flow, M < 1/4), the
assumption that the gas behaves as an incompressible fluid is
generally a good approximation. By assuming that
• the density, ρ, is constant;
• temperature variations are small and unimportant such that
the energy equation can be neglected; and
• the viscosity, µ, is constant;
one can arrive at the Navier-Stokes equations describing the flow
of incompressible fluids.
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Using vector notation, the continuity equation for incompressible

flow reduces to
~ · ~u = 0
∇
In other words, the velocity vector, ~u , is a solenoidal vector field
and is divergence free. In tensor notation, the solenoidal condition
can be expressed as
∂ui
=0
∂xi
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Using vector notation, the momentum equation for an

incompressible fluid can be written as
∂~u ~ u + 1 ∇p
~ = 1∇~ · ~~τ
+ ~u · ∇~
∂t ρ ρ
In tensor notation, the incompressible form of the momentum
equation is given by
∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂p 1 ∂τij
+ uj + =
∂t ∂xj ρ ∂xi ρ ∂xj
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2.3.3 Constitutive Relationships
For incompressible flows, the Navier-Stokes constitutive relation

relating the fluid stresses and fluid strain rate can be written as

∂ui ∂uj ∂ui ∂uj
τij = µ + = ρν + = 2ρνSij
∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi
where ν = µ/ρ is the kinematic viscosity and the strain rate tensor
(dyadic quantity) is given by

1 ∂ui ∂uj
Sij = +
2 ∂xj ∂xi
As in the compressible case, the fluid stress tensor for

incompressible flow is still traceless and τjj = 0.
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2.3.4 Vorticity Transport Equation
~ is related to the rotation of a fluid element

The vorticity vector, Ω,
and is defined as follows:
~ =∇
~ × ~u ∂uk
Ω or Ωi = ijk
∂xj
For incompressible flows, the momentum equation can be used to

arrive at a transport equation for the flow vorticity given by
~
∂Ω ~ = ν∇2 Ω
~ × ~u × Ω
−∇ ~
∂t
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2.3.4 Vorticity Transport Equation
~ =Ω
~ × ~u × Ω
Using ∇ ~ · ∇~
~ u − ~u · ∇ ~ the vorticity transport
~ Ω,
equation can be re-expressed as
~
∂Ω ~Ω
+ ~u · ∇ ~ −Ω
~ · ∇~ ~
~ u = ν∇2 Ω
∂t
Using tensor notation, this equation can be written as
∂Ωi ∂Ωi ∂ui ∂ 2 Ωi

+ uj − Ωj =ν
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj
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2.4 Reynolds Averaging
As discussed previously, turbulent flow is characterized by irregular,

chaotic motion. The common approach to the modelling of
turbulence is to assume that the motion is random and adopt a
statistical treatment. Reynolds (1895) introduced the idea that the
turbulent flow velocity vector, ui , can be decomposed and
represented as a fluctuation, ui0 , about a mean component, Ui , as
follows:
ui = Ui + ui0
One can then develop and solve conservation equations for the
mean quantities (i.e., the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
(RANS) equations) and incorporate the influence of the
fluctuations on the mean flow via turbulence modelling.
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2.4.1 Forms of Reynolds Averaging
1. Time Averaging: appropriate for steady mean flows
1 t+T /2
Z
FT (~x ) = lim f (~x , t 0 ) dt 0
T →∞ T t−T /2
2. Spatial Averaging: suitable for homogeneous

Z turbulent flows
1
FV (t) = lim f (~x , t) dV
V→∞ V V
3. Ensemble Averaging: most general form of averaging

N
1 X
FE (~x , t) = lim fn (~x , t)
N→∞ N
n=1
where fn (~x , t) is nth instance of flow solution with initial and
boundary data differing by random infinitessimal
perturbations.
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2.4.1 Forms of Reynolds Averaging
For ergodic random processes, these three forms of Reynolds

averaging will yield the same averages. This would be the case for
stationary, homogeneous, turbulent flows.
In this course and indeed in most turbulence modelling approaches,

time averaging will be considered. Note that Wilcox (2002) states
that “Reynolds time averaging is a brutal simplification that loses
much of the information contained in the turbulence.”
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2.4.2 Reynolds Time Averaging
In Reynolds time averaging, all instantaneous flow quantities,

φ(xi , t) and a(xi , t), will be represented as a sum of mean and
fluctuating components, Φ(xi ) and φ0 (xi , t) and A(xi ) and a0 (xi , t),
respectively, such that
φ(xi , t) = Φ(xi ) + φ0 (xi , t) or a(xi , t) = A(xi ) + a0 (xi , t)
For the flow velocity, we have
ui (xα , t) = Ui (xα ) + ui0 (xα , t)
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The time averaging procedure is defined as follows and yields the

time averaged quantities:
Z t+T /2
1
φ(xi , t) = Φ(xi ) = lim φ(xi , t 0 ) dt 0
T →∞ T t−T /2
Z t+T /2
1
a(xi , t) = A(xi ) = lim a(xi , t 0 ) dt 0
T →∞ T t−T /2
By definition, time averaging of mean quantities merely recovers

the mean quantity:
Z t+T /2
1
Ui (xα ) = lim Ui (xα ) dt 0 = Ui (xα )
T →∞ T t−T /2
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Similarly by definition, time averaging of time-averaged quantities

yields zero:
Z t+T /2
1
ui0 (xα , t) = lim ui (xα , t 0 ) − Ui (xα ) dt 0 = 0

T →∞ T t−T /2
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2.4.3 Separation of Time Scales
In practice, the time period for the averaging, T , is not infinite but
very long relative to the time scales for the turbulent fluctuations,
T1 ( i.e., T T1 ).
This definition of time averaging and T works well for stationary

(steady) flows. However, for non-stationary (unsteady flows), the
validity of the Reynolds time averaging procedure requires a strong
separation to time scales with
T1 T T2
where T2 is the time scale for the variation of the mean.
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T1
u(x,t)
T2
T1 T T2
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Provided there exists this separation of scales, the time averaging

procedure for time-varying mean flows can be defined as follows:
Z t+T /2
1
φ(xi , t) = Φ(xi , t) = φ(xi , t 0 ) dt 0
T t−T /2
Z t+T /2
1
a(xi , t) = A(xi , t) = a(xi , t 0 ) dt 0
T t−T /2
with T1 T T2 .
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2.4.4 Properties of Reynolds Time Averaging
Multiplication by a scalar:
Z t+T /2
c
c a(xi , t) = a(xi , t 0 ) dt 0 = cA
T t−T /2
Spatial differentiation:
!
Z t+T /2 Z t+T /2
∂a 1 ∂a 0 ∂ 1 ∂A
= dt = a dt 0 =
∂xi T t−T /2 ∂xi ∂xi T t−T /2 ∂xi
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2.4.4 Properties of Reynolds Time Averaging
Temporal differentiation:
1 t+T /2 ∂ui 0
Z
∂ui
= dt
∂t T t−T /2 ∂t
Ui (xi , t + T /2) − Ui (xi , t − T /2) u 0 (xi , t + T /2) − ui0 (xi , t − T /2)
= + i
T T
∂Ui
≈
∂t
~ and T T2 .
The latter is obtained by assuming that |~u 0 | |U|
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2.4.5 Single-Point Correlations
What about time-averaged products?
a(xi , t)b(xi , t) = (A + a0 ) (B + b 0 )
= AB + a0 B + b 0 A + a0 b 0
= AB + Ba0 + Ab 0 + a0 b 0
= AB + Ba0 + Ab 0 + a0 b 0
= AB + a0 b 0
In general, a0 and b 0 are said to be correlated if
a0 b 0 6= 0
and uncorrelated if
a0 b 0 = 0
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2.4.5 Single-Point Correlations
What about triple products? Can show that
a(xi , t)b(xi , t)c(xi , t) = ABC + a0 b 0 C + a0 c 0 B + b 0 c 0 A + a0 b 0 c 0
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2.5 Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Equations
2.5.1 Derivation
Applying Reynolds time-averaging to the incompressible form of

the Navier-Stokes equations leads to the Reynolds Averaged
Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations describing the time variation of
mean flow quantities.
Application of time-averaging to the continuity equations yields
∂ui
=0
∂xi
or
∂Ui
=0
∂xi
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2.5.1 Derivation
For the incompressible form of the momentum equation we have
∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂p ∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂p 1 ∂τij

+ uj + = + uj + =
∂t ∂xj ρ ∂xi ∂t ∂xj ρ ∂xi ρ ∂xj
Considering each term in the time-averaged equation above we

have:
∂ui ∂Ui
=
∂t ∂t
1 ∂p 1 ∂p 1 ∂P
= =
ρ ∂xi ρ ∂xi ρ ∂xi
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2.5.1 Derivation
1 ∂τij 1 ∂τij 2 ∂Sij ∂ S̄ij

= = ρν = 2ν
ρ ∂xj ρ ∂xj ρ ∂xj ∂xj
where the mean strain, S̄ij , is defined as

1 ∂Ui ∂Uj
S̄ij = +
2 ∂xj ∂xi
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2.5.1 Derivation
∂ui ∂ ∂uj ∂ 0 0

uj = (ui uj ) − ui = Ui Uj + ui uj
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj
∂ ∂ 0 0
= (Ui Uj ) + ui uj
∂xj ∂xj
∂Ui ∂Uj ∂ 0 0
= Uj + Ui + ui uj
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj
∂Ui ∂ 0 0
= Uj + ui uj
∂xj ∂xj
Thus we have
∂Ui ∂Ui 1 ∂P 1 ∂ 0 0

+ Uj + = 2µS̄ij − ρui uj
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2.5.2 Summary
In summary, the RANS describing the time-evolution of the mean

flow quantities Ui and P can be written as
∂Ui
=0
∂xi
∂Ui ∂Ui 1 ∂P 1 ∂
+ Uj + = (τ̄ij + λij )
where τ̄ij is the fluid stress tensor evaluated in terms of the mean
flow quantities and λij is the Reynolds or turbulent stress tensor
given by
λij = −ρui0 uj0
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2.6 Reynolds Turbulent Stresses and Closure Problem
2.6.1 Closure or RANS Equations
The Reynolds stresses

λij = −ρui0 uj0
incorporate the effects of the unresolved turbulent fluctuations
(i.e., unresolved by the mean flow equations and description) on
the mean flow. These apparent turbulent stresses significantly
enhance momentum transport in the mean flow.
The Reynolds stress tensor, λij , is a symmetric tensor incorporating

six (6) unknown or unspecified values. This leads to a closure
problem for the RANS equation set. Turbulence modelling provides
the necessary closure by allowing a means for specifying λij in
terms of mean flow solution quantities.
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2.6 Reynolds Turbulent Stresses and Closure Problem

2.6.2 Reynolds Stress Transport Equations
Transport equations for the Reynolds stresses, λij = −ρui0 uj0 can be
derived by making use of the original and time-averaged forms of
the momentum equations.
Starting with the momentum equation for incompressible flow
governing the time evolution of the instantaneous velocity vector,
ui ,
∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂p 1 ∂τij
+ uj + =
and noting that
2
∂ 2 ui

1 ∂τij µ ∂ ∂ui ∂uj ∂ ui ∂ ∂uj
= + =ν + =ν
ρ ∂xj ρ ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj
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one can write
∂ui ∂ui 1 ∂p ∂ 2 ui
+ uk + −ν =0 (1)
∂t ∂xk ρ ∂xi ∂xk ∂xk
Similarily,
∂uj ∂uj 1 ∂p ∂ 2 uj
+ uk + −ν =0 (2)
∂t ∂xk ρ ∂xj ∂xk ∂xk
Thus, uj0 × (1) + ui0 × (2) can be written as
2u

∂ui ∂u i 1 ∂p ∂ i
0 = uj0 + uk + −ν
∂t ∂xk ρ ∂xi ∂xk ∂xk
2u

∂u j ∂uj 1 ∂p ∂ j
+ui0 + uk + −ν
∂t ∂xk ρ ∂xj ∂xk ∂xk
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The various terms appearing in the preceding equation can be

expressed as follows:
∂ui ∂uj ∂ ∂
uj0 ui0 uj0 0 0 0

+ = Ui + ui + ui Uj + uj
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
∂Ui 0 ∂ui0 ∂Uj 0 ∂uj0
= u + uj 0 + u + ui0
∂t j ∂t ∂t i ∂t
0
0 ∂ui0 0
∂uj
= uj + ui
∂t ∂t
∂
= ui0 uj0
∂t
1 ∂λij
= −
ρ ∂t
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uj0 ∂p ui0 ∂p uj0 ∂ ui0 ∂

+ = 0
(P + p ) + (P + p 0 )
ρ ∂xi ρ ∂xj ρ ∂xi ρ ∂xj
∂P 0 1 0 ∂p 0 ∂P 0 1 0 ∂p 0
= uj + uj + u + u
∂xi ρ ∂xi ∂xj i ρ i ∂xj
1 0 ∂p 0 0

∂p
= uj + ui0
ρ ∂xi ∂xj
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∂ 2 ui ∂ 2 uj ∂2 ∂2
νuj0 + νui0 = νuj0 (Ui + ui0 ) + νui0 Uj + uj0
∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk
∂ 2 Ui 0 0
∂ 2 ui0 ∂ 2 Uj 0 0
∂ 2 uj0
= ν u + νuj +ν u + νui
∂xk ∂xk j ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk i ∂xk ∂xk
2 0
∂ 2 ui0 ∂ uj
= νuj0 + νui0
∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk
∂ 2
0 0
∂ui0 ∂uj0
= ν ui uj − 2ν
ν ∂ λij2
∂ui0 ∂uj0
= − − 2ν
ρ ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk
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∂ui ∂uj ∂ ∂
uj0 uk + ui0 uk = uj0 (Uk + uk0 ) (Ui + ui0 ) + ui0 (Uk + uk0 ) Uj + uj0
∂ ∂Ui ∂Uj
= Uk ui0 uj0 + uj0 uk0 + ui0 uk0
∂xk ∂xk ∂xk
∂Ui 0 ∂Uj 0 ∂
+Uk uj + Uk ui + uk0 ui0 uj0
∂xk ∂xk ∂xk
Uk ∂λij λjk ∂Ui λik ∂Uj
= − − −
ρ ∂xk ρ ∂xk ρ ∂xk
∂ ∂u 0
+ ui0 uj0 uk0 − ui0 uj0 k
∂xk ∂xk
Uk ∂λij λjk ∂Ui λik ∂Uj ∂ 0 0 0
= − − − + ui uj uk
ρ ∂xk ρ ∂xk ρ ∂xk ∂xk
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Combining all of these terms, can write

∂λij ∂λij ∂Ui ∂Uj ∂ ∂λij
+ Uk + λjk + λik = ν + ρui0 uj0 uk0
∂t ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk
∂p 0 ∂p 0
+uj0 + ui0
∂xi ∂xj
∂ui0 ∂uj0
+2µ
∂xk ∂xk
The preceding is a transport equation describing the time evolution
of the Reynolds stresses, λij .
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While providing a description for the transport of λij , the Reynolds

stress equations introduce a number of other correlations of
fluctuating quantities:
0 ∂p 0
uj : symmetric second-order tensor, 6 entries
∂xi
ρui0 uj0 uk0 : symmetric third-order tensor, 10 entries
∂ui0 ∂uj0
2µ : symmetric second-order tensor, 6 entries
∂xk ∂xk
leading to 22 additional unknown quantities. This illustrates well
the closure problem for the RANS equations.
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2.7 Turbulence Intensity and Kinetic Energy
2.7.1 Turbulent Kinetic Energy
Turbulent kinetic energy contained in the near-randomly

fluctuating velocity of the turbulent motion is important in
characterizing the turbulence.
The turbulent kinetic energy, k, can be defined as follows:

1 0 0 1 02 0 2 0 2
1 λii 1
k = ui ui = u +v +w =− = − (λxx + λyy + λzz )
2 2 2 ρ 2ρ
where u 02 = −λxx /ρ, v 02 = −λyy /ρ, and w 02 = −λzz /ρ.
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2.7 Turbulence Intensity and Kinetic Energy

2.7.2 Turbulence Intensity
Relative turbulence intensities can be defined as follows:
p p p
2 2
u0 v0 w 02
û = , v̂ = , ŵ =
U◦ U◦ U◦
where U◦ is a reference velocity.
For isotropic turbulence, u 02 = v 02 = w 02 , and thus

s
2 k
û = v̂ = ŵ =
3 U◦2
For flat plate incompressible boundary layer flow, U◦ = U∞ ,

û > 0.10, and the turbulence is anisotropic such that
u 02 : v 02 : w 02 = 4 : 2 : 3
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2.7.2 Turbulence Intensity
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2.8 Turbulent Kinetic Energy Transport Equation

2.8.1 Derivation
Can derive a transport equation for the turbulent kinetic energy

through contraction of the Reynolds stress transport equations
using the relation that
1 1 λii
k = ui0 ui0 = −
2 2 ρ
The following equation for the transport of k can be obtained:
∂ui0 ∂ui0

∂k ∂k λij ∂Ui ∂ ∂k 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
+Ui = + ν − p ui − ui uk uk −ν
∂t ∂xi ρ ∂xj ∂xi ∂xi ρ 2 ∂xj ∂xj
As for the Reynolds stress equations, a number of unknown

higher-order correlations appear in the equation for k requiring
closure.
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2.8 Turbulent Kinetic Energy Transport Equation
2.8.2 Discussion of Terms
Terms in this transport equation can be identified as follows:

∂k
: time evolution of k
∂t
∂k
Ui : convection transport of k
∂xi
Production:
λij ∂Ui
: production of k by mean flow
ρ ∂xj
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Diffusion:
∂k
ν : molecular diffusion of k
∂xi
1 0 0
p u : pressure diffusion of k
ρ i
1 0 0 0
u u u : turbulent transport of k
2 i k k
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Dissipation:
∂ui0 ∂ui0
ν = : dissipation of k at small scales
∂xj ∂xj
where is the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy.
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2.9 Kinetic Energy Spectrum and Kolmogorov -5/3 Law

2.9.1 Definition
Further insight into the energy contained in the unresolved
turbulent motion can be gained by considering the turbulent kinetic
energy spectrum. The turbulent kinetic energy can be expressed as
Z ∞
k= E (κ)dκ
0
where E (κ) is the spectral distribution of turbulent energy,

κ is the wave number of the Fourier-like energy mode, and ` is the
wave length of the energy mode such that
E (κ)dκ = turbulent energy contained between κ and κ + dκ
and where
1
`=
κ
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68
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Slope 2
Slope -5/3
E(κ)
Energy-containing range Inertial subrange Dissipation

range
κEI κDI η
κ
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2.9.2 Range of Turbulent Scales
The large-scale turbulent motion (κ → 0) contains most of the

turbulent kinetic energy, while most of the vorticity resides in the
small-scale turbulent motion (κ → 1/η), where η, the Kolmogorov
scale, is the smallest scale present in the turbulence.
The dissipation of the turbulence kinetic energy occurs at the

Kolmogorov scale and it follows from Kolmogorov’s universal
equilibrium theory and his first similarity hypothesis that
1/4
ν3

dk
= − , and η =
dt
70
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For high Reynolds number turbulence, dimensional analysis and

experimental measurements confirm that the dissipation rate, ,
turbulent kinetic energy, k, and largest scale representing the large
scale motions (i.e., scale of the largest eddies), `0 , are related as
follows:
k 3/2
∝
`0
When discussing features of turbulence, it was noted that it
contains a wide range of scales. This implies that
`0 η
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Using the expression above for `0 , an examination of the length

scales reveals that
!1/4 !3/4
`0 `0 `0 k 3/2 1/2
k `0 3/4
= 3 1/4 ≈ 3/4 ≈ ≈ Ret
η (ν /) ν `0 ν
where Ret is the turbulent Reynolds number. Thus `0 η for high

turbulent Reynolds number flows (i.e., for Ret 1). The latter is
a key assumption entering into Kolmogorov’s universal equilibrium
theory and his three hypotheses.
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2.9.3 Kolmogorov -5/3 Law
Kolmogorov also hypothesized an intermediate range of turbulent

scales lying between the largest scales and smallest scales where
inertial effects dominate (this is the basis for the second similarity
hypothesis). He postulated that in this inertial sub-range, E (κ)
only depends on κ and . Using dimensional analysis he argued
that
2/3
E (κ) = Ck 5/3
κ
or
E (κ) ∝ κ−5/3
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74
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2.9.3 Kolmogorov -5/3 Law
Although the Kolmogorov -5/3 Law is not of prime importance to

RANS-based turbulence models, it is of central importance to DNS
and LES calculations. Such simulations should be regarded with
skeptism if they fail to reproduce this result.
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2.10 Two-Point Correlations
2.10.1 Two-Point Velocity Correlations
So far we have only considered single-point or one-point

correlations of fluctuating quantities. Two-point correlations are
useful for characterizing turbulence and, in particular, the spatial
and temporal scales and non-local behaviour. They provide formal
definitions of the integral length and time scales characterizing the
large scale turbulent motions.
There are two forms of two-point correlations:

I two-point correletions in time; and
I two-point correlations in space.
Both forms are based on Reynolds time averaging.
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2.10.1 Two-Point Velocity Correlations
Two-Point Autocorrelation Tensor (In Time):
Rij (xi , t; t 0 ) = ui0 (xi , t)uj0 (xi , t + t 0 )
Two-Point Velocity Correlation Tensor (In Space):
Rij (xi , t; ri ) = ui0 (xi , t)uj0 (xi + ri , t)
For both correlations,

1
k(xi , t) = Rii (xi , t; 0)
2
77
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2.10.2 Integral Length and Time Scales
The integral length and time scales, τ and `, can be defined as

follows: Z ∞
3 Rii (xi , t; r )
`(xi , t) = dr
16 0 k(xi , t)
Z ∞
Rii (xi , t; t 0 ) 0
τ (xi , t) = dt
0 2k(xi , t)
√
where r = |ri | = ri ri and 3/16 is a scaling factor.
78
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2.10.3 Taylor’s Hypothesis
The two types of two-point correlations can be related by applying

Taylor’s hypothesis which assumes that
∂ ∂
= −Ui
∂t ∂xi
This relationship assumes that |ui0 | |Ui | and predicts that the
turbulence essentially passes through points in space as a whole,
transported by the mean flow (i.e., assumption of frozen
turbulence).
79
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2.11 Favre Time Averaging
2.11.1 Reynolds Time Averaging for Compressible Flows
If Reynolds time averaging is applied to the compressible form of

the Navier-Stokes equations, some difficulties arise. In particular,
the original form of the equations is significantly altered. To see
this, consider Reynolds averaging applied to the continuity
equation for compressible flow. Application of time-averaging to
the continuity equations yields
∂ρ ∂
+ (ρui ) = 0
∂t ∂xi
∂ 0
∂ h 0 0
i
ρ̄ + ρ + (ρ̄ + ρ ) Ui + ui = 0
∂t ∂xi
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2.11.1 Reynolds Time Averaging for Compressible Flows
The Reynolds time averaging yields

∂ ∂ h 0 0
i
(ρ̄) + ρ̄Ui + ρ ui = 0
∂t ∂xi
The introduction of high-order correlations involving the density
fluctuations, such as ρ0 ui0 , can complicate the turbulence modelling
and closure. Some of the complications can be circumvented by
introducing an alternative time averaging procedure: Favre time
averaging, which is a mass weighted time averaging procedure.
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2.11.2 Definition
Favre time averaging can be defined as follows. The instantaneous

solution variable, φ, is decomposed into a mean quantity, φ̃, and
fluctuating component, φ00 , as follows:
φ = φ̃ + φ00
The Favre time-averaging is then

Z t+T /2
1
ρφ(xi , t) = ρ(xi , t 0 )φ(xi , t 0 ) dt 0 = ρφ̃ + ρφ00 = ρ̄φ̃
T t−T /2
where
Z t+T /2
1
φ̃(xi , t) ≡ ρ(xi , t 0 )φ(xi , t 0 ) dt 0 , ρφ00 ≡ 0
ρ̄T t−T /2
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2.11.3 Comparison of Reynolds and Favre Averaging
I Decomposition
Reynolds : φ = φ̄ + φ0 , Favre : φ = φ̃ + φ00
I Time Averaging
Reynolds : φ = φ̄ + φ0 = φ̄ , Favre : ρφ = ρ(φ̃ + φ00 ) = ρ̄φ̃
I Fluctuations
Reynolds : φ0 = 0 , Favre : ρφ00 = 0
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Further comparisons are possible. For Reynolds averaging we have
ρφ = ρ̄φ̄ + ρ0 φ0
and for Favre averaging we have
ρφ = ρ̄φ̃
Thus
ρ̄φ̃ = ρ̄φ̄ + ρ0 φ0
or
ρ0 φ0
φ̃ = φ̄ +
ρ̄
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We also note that

φ00 6= 0
To see this, start with
00 ρ0 φ0
φ = φ − φ̃ = φ − φ̄ −
ρ̄
Now applying time averaging, we have
ρ0 φ0 ρ0 φ0 ρ0 φ0
φ00 = φ − φ̄ − = φ̄ − φ̄ − =− 6= 0
ρ̄ ρ̄ ρ̄
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Returning to the compressible form of the continuity equation, we

can write
ρui = ρ̄Ui + ρ0 ui0 = ρ̄ũi
and therefore the Favre-averaged form of the continuity equation is
given by
∂ ∂
(ρ̄) + (ρ̄ũi ) = 0
∂t ∂xi
It is quite evident that the Favre-averaging procedure has
recovered the original form of the continuity equation without
introducing additional high-order correlations.
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2.12 Favre-Averaged Navier-Stokes (FANS) Equations

Continuity Equation:
∂ ∂
(ρ̄) + (ρ̄ũi ) = 0
∂t ∂xi
Momentum Equation:
∂ ∂ ∂ 00 00

(ρ̄ũi ) + (ρ̄ũi ũj + p̄δij ) = τ̄ij − ρui uj
∂t ∂xj ∂xj
Favre-Averaged Reynolds Stress Tensor:
λ = −ρui00 uj00
Turbulent Kinetic Energy:

1 00 00 1
ρui ui = − λii = ρ̄k̃
2 2
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2.12 Favre-Averaged Navier-Stokes (FANS) Equations

Energy Equation:

∂ 1 1 00 00 ∂ 1 ũj 00 00
ρ̄ ẽ + ũi ũi + ρui ui + ρ̄ũj h̃ + ũi ũi + ρui ui
∂t 2 2 ∂xj 2 2
∂ h i
= τ̄ij − ρui00 uj00 ũi − q̄j
∂xj

∂ 1
+ −ρuj00 h00 − ρuj00 ui00 ui00 + ρui00 τij
∂xj 2
Turbulent Transport of Heat and Molecular Diffusion of Turbulent

Energy:
qtj = ρuj00 h00 , ρui00 τij
Turbulent Transport of Kinetic Energy:
1 00 00 00
ρu u u
2 j i i
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2.13 Turbulence Modelling
Turbulence Modelling provides a mathematical framework for

determining the additional terms (i.e., correlations) that appear in
the FANS and RANS equations.
Turbulence models may be classified as follows:

I Eddy-Viscosity Models (based on Boussinesq approxmiation)
I 0-Equation or Algebraic Models
I 1-Equation Models
I 2-Equation Models
I Second-Moment Closure Models
I Reynolds-Stress, 7-Equation Models
89

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AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING 2. Conservation Equations for Turbulent Flows C. P. T.

2. Conservation Equations for Turbulent Flows

Coverage of this section:

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

Tensor notation is used extensively throughout the textbook and

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

Expression Vector Notation Tensor Notation

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

It is equivalent to the second-order tensor, dij ,

using tensor notation. In this case using matrix-vector notation,

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

Expression Vector Notation Tensor Notation

contracted quantities ~h hi = qijj

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

2.1.3 Permutation Tensor

The permuation tensor, ijk , is a third-order tensor that is

123 = 231 = 312 = 1 , even permutations

213 = 321 = 132 = −1 , odd permutations

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

The Kronecker delta tensor, δij , is a second-order tensor that is

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

The following identity relates the permutation and Kronecker delta

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

2.1 Review of Tensor Notation

2.1.6 Other Notation

2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas

The Navier-Stokes equations describing the flow of compressible

We will here review briefly the Navier-Stokes equations for a

2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas

2.2.1 Continuity Equation

The continuity equation is a scaler equation reflecting the

2.2.1 Continuity Equation

2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas

2.2.2 Momentum Equation

For the control volume, the integral form of the momentum

which relates the time rate of change of the total momentum

2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas

where E is the total specific energy of the gas given by

2.2.3 Energy Equation

2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas

The Navier-Stokes equations as given above are not complete

2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas

and behaves as a calorically perfect gas (polytropic gas) with

where R is the gas constant, cv is the specific heat at constant

2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas

2.2.5 Mach Number and Sound Speed

For a polytropic gas, the sound speed, a, can be determined using

and thus the flow Mach number, M, is given by

2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas

The constitutive relations provide expressions for the fluid stress

where µ is the dynamic viscosity of the gas. Fourier’s Law can be

2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas

µ = µ(p, T ) and κ = κ(p, T )

Expressions, such as Sutherland’s Law can be used to determine

2.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Compressible Gas

At a solid wall or bounday, the following boundary conditions for

~u = 0 , (No-Slip Boundary Condition)

T = Twall , (Fixed Temperature Wall Boundary Condition)

2.3 Navier-Stokes Equations for an Incompressible Gas

2.3 Navier-Stokes Equations for an Incompressible Gas

2.3.1 Continuity Equation

The permuation tensor, ijk , is a third-order tensor that is

123 = 231 = 312 = 1 , even permutations

213 = 321 = 132 = −1 , odd permutations