676 Ch.

12 Quantum Hall Effect

basically the following: let the surface be the 2-y plane. By the ap-
plication of a voltage, or some other means, it is possible to create a
sharp potential well at the surface (or interface). The potential well
does not hinder the motion of the electrons in the z-y plane, but it
prevents their escape in the z-direction. More precisely, the z-motion is
quantized into widely spaced levels, while the motion in the z-y plane
is essentially free-electron-like. It is possible to create circumstances in
which only the lowest quantized level is occupied by electrons. Then
we have a truly two-dimensional electron system, where the degree of
freedom associated with the z-coordinate is playing no role6.
Given that we can restrict our attention to two-dimensional systems,
the following simple argument gives us a feeling of where the quantized
value e 2 / h may be coming from:
Let the plane be the z-y plane, and the magnetic field H applied in
the z-direction. In classical mechanics, the Lorentz force provides the
centripetal force which keeps the electrons moving in circular cyclotron
orbits. The angular velocity w is determined by

evH
- - -- erwH = m r w 2 . (12.13)
C C

Thus
eH
w, = - (12.14)
mc
the so-called cyclotron frequency, is independent of the radius r. Faster
electrons move in larger orbits: = ru. There is no restriction on r.
In quantum mechanics, only a discrete set of cyclotron orbits is per-
mitted. Using quasi-classical quantization, the radius ro of the smallest
orbit should belong to the angular momentum h

(12.15)

What is the area A of the smallest cyclotron orbit? Not because mi,
the radius rg belongs to the maximum of the wave function; roughly
'It is quite realistic to assume that the separation of the lowest two levels is about
100K.At temperatures around T N l K , thermal excitation to the next surface level
is negligible.