Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Geography
Grade 10
Learner’s Book
L Dube • K Marimuthu • A Mthembu
P Ranby • C Vlok
Solutions for all Geography Grade 10 Learner’s Book
11 13 15 17 16 14 12
2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1
Published by
Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd
Private Bag X19
Northlands
2116
Gauteng
South Africa
The publishers have made every effort to trace the copyright holders.
If they have inadvertently overlooked any, they will be pleased to make the necessary
arrangements at the first opportunity.
ISBN: 9781431006694
WIP: 3074M000
Photograph acknowledgements:
AAI Fotostock (pp 28, 51, 199, 218, 349, 351, 352)
Digital Source (pp 33, 34, 51, 188, 210, 211, 255, 281, 297, 308, 338)
Gallo Images (pp 1, 218, 219)
GeoEye (p 66)
INPRA (pp 52, 208, 209, 233, 259, 276, 298, 343, 347)
Macmillan (pp 54, 56, 66, 67, 167, 189, 265)
NASA (p 95)
Peter Ranby (p 321)
PixelBistro (p 87)
The Bigger Picture (pp 110, 199, 210)
VMS Images (pp 28, 29, 52, 173, 208, 219, 222, 223, 227, 234, 261, 268, 278, 279, 312, 332)
e-ISBN: 978-1-4310-1739-3
Contents
This year you will use your geographical skills and techniques throughout the
year. The first topic in this book gives you all the theoretical information and
background you need for these skills and techniques but these will be practised
and applied in all the other topics. Some examples are fieldwork in the
Atmosphere topic, contours in the Geomorphology topic, GIS in the Water
Resources topic – just to name a few! If you struggle with any of these skills and
techniques, your teacher will direct you to the relevant section in Topic 1 where
step-by-step guidelines are given for each skill and technique required by the
curriculum for Grade 10.
• How to read and interpret maps, and how to use maps to locate places and
recognise spatial patterns
• The four elements of maps: plan view, proportion, spatial distribution, map
language
• How to use maps to calculate distances, areas and directions
• The value and limitations of different map projections
• What atlases have to offer and how to make the most of an atlas index
• Aerial photographs and orthophoto maps as sources of spatial information
• How satellite remote sensing works
• What a Geographic Information System (GIS) is and the reasons for its
development
• How to represent the real world in a GIS as points, lines and areas.
The problem is that skills tend to get rusty rather quickly if you do not apply
them regularly. In this unit, as well as in subsequent units, we will give you
the opportunity to not only cement existing map skills but also to learn more
advanced map skills. Many of the explanations and examples of skills we are
sharing with you in this section are based on an extract from one of the
1:50 000 topographic maps of South Africa. It is the map of Nelspruit shown
on page 4. Ideally we should have provided explanations and examples based
on your local environment. It is of course impossible for us to do so for each
and every school in South Africa. In a later section, The South African map
reference system, you will learn how you can determine the reference number
of the 1:50 000 topographic map showing your school.
Word bank
18º11'
See Figure 1.3 for a key to the symbols used on the 1:50 000 map sheets.
Figure 1.2: Extract from the official 1:50 000 map 1:50 000 2530BD Nelspruit
Figure 1.3: A legend for the official 1:50 000 maps used in this book
(a) (b)
Homework activity 1
Draw the objects listed below in plan view. Look out for the three traps
we have set.
• a soccer field
• a tree
• an orchard
• a forest
• a rugby post
• a single-storey house
• a double-storey house
• a railway line
• a steep mountain pass
• a railway tunnel.
Word bank
(b)
0 10 20 40 60 80 100 m
Figure 1.5: A 1:1 000 line scale of an athletics track
The scale of the map tells us how much smaller than reality a map has been
drawn. Map scale simply means the size of a feature on the map as compared to
the size of the same feature on the Earth. Figure 1.5(a) shows a plan view of the
lanes for the 100 m sprint of an athletics track. Note that the 100 m (10 000 cm)
that the athletes have to run is shown as a map distance of 10 cm (0,1 m).
Compare the three maps shown in Figure 1.6. Note that the scales of the three
maps are 1:50 000, 1:250 000 and 1:1 000 000 respectively. It is obvious that the
features shown in Figure 1.6(a) have been reduced much less than those
shown in the other two figures. We can therefore say that Figure 1.6(a) has a
larger scale than Figure 1.6(b) and Figure 1.6(c). Did you notice that the
smaller the map scale, the larger the area that can be mapped and the lower
the level of detail?
Classroom activity 2
Do this with a friend.
1 Draw a 1:250 000 line scale. Do not forget to add the necessary
annotations (labels)!
2 Use an atlas to find maps of the following three areas: the world,
Africa and South Africa. Write down the scales of each of the maps.
(a) Which map has the largest scale?
(b) Which map has the smallest scale?
(c) What is your conclusion regarding the relationship among the
size of an area shown on a map, the scale of the map and the
amount of detail the map shows?
Studying the distribution of two or more phenomena at the same time is even
more useful. A comparison of the distribution and capacity of schools with the
distribution of the population between the ages of 7 and 18 might reveal those
areas that are in desperate need for one or more additional schools.
You will be fascinated by the patterns that atlas maps reveal. Different maps can
show the distribution pattern of deserts, where rainfall occurs, the distribution
of population and where different types of economic activity occur.
The spatial distribution patterns shown on a map can only be accurate if the
spatial location of individual features is correct. In Geography we can describe
the location of features in relative and in absolute terms.
Classroom activity 3
Do this in a group. Consult an atlas to help you.
1 Describe the spatial distribution of the harbours of South Africa.
2 Discuss the spatial variation of the harbours of South Africa. In other
words, discuss how the harbours differ from each other.
3 Describe the spatial distribution of the homes of your best friends.
Word bank
Compass directions
We can also use compass directions to describe relative location. In lower
grades you learned about eight compass directions – these eight are all
labelled in blue in Figure 1.8. Imagine we discovered an old document in
which the location of a buried treasure has been vaguely described. We
interpreted the description and plotted the probable location of the treasure as
point B in Figure 1.8. By walking in a north-eastern direction from point A to
point B we might pass point B without even seeing it. We can expand the
compass rose by assigning eight additional directions – see the directions
labelled red in Figure 1.8. By walking in a north-northeast direction from point
A, the chance of finding the treasure is much better.
Bearings
A more accurate way of describing the location of the hidden treasure is to
take bearings. In Figure 1.9 we divided the circle representing the globe into
360°. By placing a protractor in such a way that (1) the centre is on point A and
(2) the baseline coincides with the north-south baseline; and reading the
degree measurements clockwise, we
North
will see that angle DAB is exactly 25°.
We can now state that the treasure is
probably buried somewhere at a site
along 25°. This type of reference to
bearing is called full circle bearing.
Because there are so many ways to
describe direction it might be worth
your while to provide additional
information to avoid any confusion.
An alternative is to refer to the
baseline and whether measurement
has been made clockwise or anti-
clockwise. The reference N 25° E will
therefore also be correct. We refer to
such referencing as quadrant
referencing.
Measure Measure
clockwise. anti-clockwise.
Orientation is Orientation is
west of south. east of south.
mean magnetic
declination 8° west
of true north 8°
north
true north
magnetic
Figure 1.11: True north, magnetic
north and magnetic declination
Study Figure 1.12 very carefully. It shows the true and magnetic bearings from
point A onto points B, C and D.
Classroom activity 4
To be able to answer the next questions you will need a protractor to
make some measurements on Figure 1.12. Do this with a friend.
1 How would you describe (referring to full circle bearing as well as
quadrant bearing) the direction of point E from point A when you are
using a printed map?
2 How would you describe the direction (referring to full circle
bearing) of point E from point A when you are using a magnetic
compass in the field?
Word bank
You are now equipped to describe and locate location by referring to not only
degrees and minutes but degrees, minutes and seconds.
Homework activity 3
To be able to answer the next four questions you will need a protractor to
make some measurements on Figure 1.12.
1 How would you describe the direction of point F (see Figure 1.12)
from point A when you are using a printed map?
2 How would you describe the direction of point F (see Figure 1.12)
from point A when you are using a magnetic compass in the field?
3 How would you describe the June 2012 direction (refer to full circle
bearing) of Sierlik station (see block B2 on the map of Nelspruit
shown on page 4) relative to Mataffin station (see block A2) when
you are using a magnetic compass in the field?
4 What is the absolute location of point A in Figure 1.14?
5 What constructed phenomenon on the map of Nelspruit do you
associate with the location of approximately 25°28'27"S; 30°58'10"E?
6 What is the absolute location of Mataffin station? Express your
answer to the nearest minute.
Cartographers classify the features they want to map either as points, lines or
areas. If you think carefully about this, it makes a lot of sense. A road is
actually a line, a dam covers an area and, in the context of the globe, a house is
only a tiny point or dot. Study the map legend on page 5 to familiarise
yourself with these symbols. Literally hundreds of different map symbols can
be designed by changing one or more of the following symbol characteristics:
the colour; the shape; the size; and the orientation of the symbol. Figure 1.15
illustrates how size and orientation of symbols can be used to distinguish
between different phenomena.
Homework activity 4
You work as a cartographer specialising in Text for tourist guide
tourist maps. The editor of a new tourist guide Leave the Metropolitan area by
has given you the text and has asked you to travelling eastwards along the national
draw a 1:50 000 map indicating all the road. At the crossing with the R26 (the
phenomena which are mentioned in the text. secondary tarred road) you turn left on
the road leading to the picturesque
Being a very systematic cartographer, you have
fishing town called Something Fishy.
decided to first create a legend block that The road winds between cultivated
contains the title, scale bar, symbols and symbol fields, orchards, indigenous forests
descriptions. and two magnificent freshwater lakes.
Approximately 1.2 km after crossing
the railway line you should be on the
Use the following guidelines to help you: lookout for the 12 km long circular
Read the text attentively. gravel road leading to several hiking
• trails, picnic spots, a bird-watching
• Make a list of all the features for which hide and a scenic lookout. Please note
symbols are required. that Mthimkhulu (Big Tree) is the only
picnic spot offering braai facilities.
• Arrange the symbols into logical groups.
Mthimkhulu and the scenic lookout are
• Design the symbols making use of the four the only sites with toilet facilities. The
basic characteristics of map symbols. scenic lookout is the highest point
(1 780 m above sea level) in the
• Write the descriptions that will explain region and offers a magnificent view of
each symbol. the mighty Fish River and its
Organise the symbols and their tributaries. From the scenic lookout
• you should also be able to see the
descriptions in a balanced layout.
rocky coast of Something Fishy with its
• Do not forget the map title and the scale sheltered sandy bays, the lighthouse
bar. and the recently developed mussel
farm.
1 While buying stamps at the Post Office (it is indicated with a ‘P’ in
block C3 of the 1:50 000 map of Nelspruit – see Figure 1.2 on page 4)
you are approached by an anxious tourist whose wife urgently needs
medical attention. Write down the directions you would give the
husband to help him to drive to the nearest hospital via the shortest
route.
2 We are thinking of a place shown on the 1:50 000 map of Nelspruit.
The place is surrounded by orchards. The true bearing on this place
from Sierlik station (situated in block B2) is 66°E. The place is
situated 3.8 km from Sierlik station. Of which place are we thinking?
3 The ‘as the crow flies’ distance between Mataffin station (block A2)
and Sierlik station (block B2) on the 1:50 000 map of Nelspruit is 1.75
km (50 000 × map distance of 3.5 cm). How much further is it to
travel from Mataffin to Sierlik by train?
4 Do the following scale conversions:
(a) a word scale of ‘1 cm on the map measures 4 km in reality’ to a
ratio scale (representative fraction) and to a line scale;
(b) a ratio scale of 1:5 000 to a word scale using the words
‘centimetre’ and ‘metre’.
5 What is the approximate area in square metres (m2) covered by a
1” × 1” square? A hint: use the line scale of the 1:50 000 map of
Nelspruit.
Word bank
Contour line: a line joining all places which are the same height
above sea level
Contour interval: the difference in height between two adjacent
contours. On the official 1:50 000 topographic maps
of South Africa it is 20 m
Relief: relief refers to the three dimensional shape of the
landscape and includes elements such as height,
slope (steepness) and aspect. It tells us more about
where and how the high land and low land is found
Trigonometrical
beacons (stations): on topographic maps the location of constructed
trigonometrical stations is indicated by an open
triangle. The identifying number of the station
appears next to the triangle while its height above sea
level is written below the triangle
Word bank
Spot height: a spot height also shows height above sea level. You
can recognise it on maps as a small black dot with a
height value written close to it. Unlike trigonometrical
stations, spot heights are not marked on the ground.
They show the height of easily identifiable landmarks
such as hilltops, fences and road crossings
Different ways of
showing relief and
landforms on maps
There are literally hundreds of
different landforms, each having
unique characteristics. Think about
the landforms we associate with wind
(dunes), running water (rivers,
meanders and floodplains), wave
action (beaches and coastal caves),
Figure 1.18: A hill-shaded map showing relative relief general erosion and weathering
(valleys, canyons, mesas), glaciation
(fjords) and volcanoes (volcanic
craters and cones). In this section we
will share knowledge about the
different mapping techniques that are
used to show the relief of the land so
that map readers can identify unique
landforms on maps.
The simplest way to represent relief on maps is, of course, by indicating the
position and measured height of spot heights and trigonometrical beacons
(stations) on a map. The symbol used to indicate trigonometrical beacons on
the 1:50 000 maps of South Africa is shown in Figure 1.3 on page 5. Note that
the symbol for spot heights does not appear in the legend. The dot with the
value of 873 written next to it in block C4 on the map of Nelspruit is an
example of a spot height.
Figure 1.20 illustrates a map using all four methods of indicating relief. It is
now easy to see from the map that the source of the river is in the high
mountain areas towards the south and that it flows in a northerly direction
through gaps in the two mountain ranges situated more towards the north.
Classroom activity 6
Do this with a friend.
1 What is the highest point on the map of Nelspruit (Figure 1.2 on
page 4)?
2 Describe the relative location of this point and give the number of the
relevant spot height or trigonometrical beacon.
3 Speculate why layer-colouring is not practical on the official 1:50 000
maps of South Africa.
100
80
60
40
20
0
(a) A concave slope (b) A convex slope (c) A steep slope (d) A stepped slope (e) A gentle slope
100 100 100 100
80 80
80
60
80 20
40 60 60
60 40
40
20
40
20
20 20
0 0 0 0 0
Depressions
Depression contours are distinguished
from regular contours by short ticks at
right angles to the contour line. As
illustrated in Figure 1.23, the ticks
should, of course, point towards the
lower lying areas – towards the
Figure 1.23: Contours associated with depressions bottom of the depression.
ed
ersh
wat
cliff
Figure 1.24: Contour patterns representing Figure 1.25: Contour patterns representing
a waterfall a cliff
Saddle/neck
A saddle also occurs in a range of mountains or hills and
may be described as a low-lying ridge between two
higher-lying peaks or spurs. Unlike a poort, a saddle lies
at a higher elevation than the surrounding countryside
and it forms part of the watershed. On a contour map
(see Figure 1.29) a saddle can easily be distinguished
from a poort by the fact that the V-shaped contour lines
which increase in height usually jut inwards like
tongues between the two spurs. In fact, one can see two
sets of Vs, one either side of the saddle, which point Figure 1.27: Contour patterns representing
towards each other. a poort
Figure 1.30: The Transvaal Drakensberg Figure 1.31: Contour patterns representing
escarpment an escarpment
Classroom activity 7
Answer the following questions based on the 1:50 000 map of Nelspuit
(Figure 1.2 on page 4). A hint: you need to look at contour patterns.
1 Explain why the railway line bends towards the river in block A2
instead of keeping parallel to the N4 national road.
2 Why does the layout of the streets in the central business district (see
block C3) look so different from the layout of the streets in the West
Acres residential area (see block B4)?
3 What evidence can you provide of excavating activity in Nelspruit?
4 What is the highest point on the Nelspruit map?
5 Give the height of the experimental farm in block D1 in the north-
eastern corner of the map.
6 Why do you think there are no residential areas in block C4 on the
map?
7 Give the height of the trigonometrical beacon 101 in block B1 on
the map.
The contour map shown as Figure 1.32(a) has a scale of 1:50 000. We want to
show how the shape of the land varies between the two points marked as A
and B.
The data we need to draw the graph or cross-section is shown in Table 1.1. The
co-ordinates we need to plot on our graph are the ten points where line AB
(called a section line) crosses the contour lines [see Figure 1.32(a)]. For each
co-ordinate we must know how far the co-ordinat is situated from point A
(our x variable) and how high the co-ordinate is situated above sea level (the y
variable). We have plotted the data values listed in Table 1.1 in Figure 1.32(b).
Figure 1.32(c) shows how the cross- Table 1.1: The co-ordinates we need for our graph of the profile
section is drawn by joining the co- of the landscape.
ordinates with a line. This line is the Co-ordinates Distance from Height in
profile of the landscape between A in mm: metres:
points A and B. It is also important to X Y
add the necessary labels or 1 (point A) 0 1 825
annotations for the x-and y-axes. Note
2 3 1 800
that without this information
somebody else would not be able to 3 10 1 750
read our graph. 4 12 1 700
5 20 1 650
6 24 1 600
7 33 1 550
8 38 1 500
9 47 1 450
10 (point B) 48,5 1 425*
* Note that point B is situated halfway between the 1 400 m and
1 450 m contours. The height of point B is therefore 1 425 m.
Homework activity 5
Activities 1 and 2 are based on the
(c) 1:50 000 map of Nelspruit (Figure
1.2) shown on page 4.
1 Draw a cross-section (profile)
of the relief of the landscape
between the 698 m spot height
in block A2 and the 661 m
spot height in column D. Note
that the spot height in block
A2 is at the intersection of the
(b) N4 and the centre road (next
to the 8 of 698) leading to
Mataffin. Some guidelines:
Use a scale of 1:50 000 for
your x axis and a scale of 1 cm
for a height of 100 metres on
the y axis. Do not forget to
annotate (label) the profile.
2 What is the difference in
height between the highest
and lowest spot heights on the
(a)
1:50 000 map of Nelspruit?
3 Some of the contour values
are not correctly orientated on
Figure 1.20. Identify the
mistakes and explain how
they should be rectified.
Based on the above knowledge, we need to accept that when making a map of
the Earth globe, characteristics such as distance, area, shape and direction will
be distorted.
k
Chec lf
myse
The image taken from outer space proves that the Earth is not flat. We cannot
see the entire Earth when looking at it from a position in outer space. To
flatten a spherical object such as a soccer ball you will have to tear it apart, and
it might be difficult to recognise even then the flattened outer skin as
originally being a soccer ball. Try to fold a fairly large piece of paper around a
soccer ball without tearing the paper and leaving no folds or wrinkles.
Classroom activity 8
Let’s work together. Choose one person to demonstrate (or explain) how to
determine the approximate distance between Cape Town and Johannesburg
by using a globe or the distance between two spots on a soccer ball. We
assume you have a globe in the classroom. If not, you need to make a plan to
get one. No Geography classroom should be without a globe.
(a) (b)
Word bank
To conclude, we can share the following generic ‘rules’ regarding the selection
of a map projection:
• There is no ‘best projection’. The selection of the best map projection
depends upon the purpose for which the map is to be used.
• For navigation, correct directions are important.
• On road maps, accurate distances are the major concern.
• On thematic maps showing area-related data, preservation of the size and
shape of regions is important.
• The extent and location of the area to be mapped, also impact on
projection choice. The larger the area being mapped, the more significant
is the curved surface of the Earth and, therefore, the greater the distortion
of the desirable properties. Cylindrical projections are best to show low
latitude locations; conical projections for mid latitude locations and
azimuthal (planar) projections for high latitude polar regions.
Classroom activity 9
Figure 1.35 illustrated that different projection types project the graticule
differently. A comparison of the arrangement of lines of latitude and
longitude, on a globe and a map respectively, is a clever strategy to spot
distortions.
1 Discuss the arrangement of lines of latitude and longitude on a globe.
2 List as many characteristics as possible that can be used to evaluate
map projections.
Word bank
Figure 1.38: Working out the unique references of South Africa’s 1:50 000 maps
Classroom activity 10
If you do not have maps of your local area in the classroom you need to
obtain some. The Chief Directorate: National Geo-spatial Information
(NGI), provides maps (free!) to schools on request. You will need to provide
the geographic co-ordinate of your school. Find out what it is (you can
Google it or use a GPS) and ask your teacher to contact NGI.
Homework activity 7
Word bank
44 • Using atlases
Topic 1
Atlases differ from one another but a good atlas should tell you how to use
the index. The atlas we are using contains the following information:
1. Notes on how to use the index
2. The list of abbreviations used for features. Example: T for town
3. The list of abbreviations used for locations. Example: UK for United
Kingdom
For the sake of legibility, the alphabetically sorted entries are often arranged
in columns. Our atlas index has seven columns. The first entry in our atlas is
the name Aachen. The first row of the table shows the Aachen entry. In row
two we explain the meaning of the individual column entries.
Using atlases • 45
Classroom activity 11
Use an atlas to do these activities in your groups.
1 List two international and three local places or regions that recently
made headlines in the news. Use an atlas index to find out exactly
where the five places or regions are located. Describe the relative
location of each place or region.
2 Compare the index of the atlas you are using with the one we
described. List and explain the differences.
3 What range of scales is used to map the world on single and double
pages respectively?
The advantage of having a range of maps of the same area is that it makes it so
much easier to answer the ‘Why are they where they are?’ question. In most
cases spatial distribution (where things are) can only be answered by
understanding the spatial association between two or more phenomena. In
other words, to better understand a certain aspect of our world we need to
look at the bigger picture by comparing different themes of maps of the same
area. It is easy to explain:
• the distribution of sinkholes once you compare it with a geology map – the
sinkholes are mostly confined to dolomite areas;
• the distribution of diamond mines once one spots that diamond-bearing
mines are associated with the carrot-shaped vertical kimberlite pipes
shown on geology maps.
46 • Using atlases
Topic 1
Classroom activity 12
Let’s work together looking for spatial associations by using an atlas.
Study the geography of the region on the African continent that borders
the Tropic of Cancer. You need to look at as many maps as possible.
1 Make notes about the population density, the settlement pattern, the
climate and the agricultural activities of the region. Answer questions
such as: Why are people living here? Are there any climatic factors
causing differences in population density? Does the relief of the land
influence types of agricultural activities?
2 Now analyse your notes and try to make connections between the
physical, land use and population patterns.
3 Share this information in a class discussion.
Homework activity 8
1 Use your atlas to make lists of the five thematic maps and three
diagrams about South Africa that you find most fascinating. Your
teacher will suggest a structure for your two lists.
2 We are interested in the geography of the food and beverages you are
going to enjoy during the coming weekend. You will have to read the
labelling and then make a list of the places where the food were
produced and/or processed. You then have to draw a rough map to
show the location and distribution of the places.
Using atlases • 47
Figure 1.40: Extract from the Macmillan School Atlas showing climatic regions of the world
48 • Using atlases
Topic 1
Figure 1.41: Extract from the Macmillan School Atlas showing natural vegetation regions of the world
Using atlases • 49
Aerial photographs
What you know already
Aerial photographs: Our bird’s eye view of
landscapes
From the knowledge gained in lower grades regarding aerial photographs
you:
• Know what oblique and vertical aerial photographs look like.
• Identified natural and constructed features on photographs and learned
that interpreted photographs is the main source of information when
making our 1:50 000 topographic maps.
• You were also exposed to orthophoto maps (images) of South Africa and
learned that they are made from vertical aerial photographs.
Word bank
Oblique aerial photographs: photos taken from the air with the camera
at an angle
Orthophoto map: a vertical aerial photograph showing
features of a topographic map such as
contour lines
Photogrammetry: the process of obtaining reliable
information about physical objects and the
environment through processes of
recording, measuring and interpreting of
photographic images and patterns
Stereopairs: an overlapping pair of vertical aerial
photographs
Terrestrial photographs: conventional photographs of features
normally taken from ground level. Since it
lacks the plan view it cannot be used to
make maps
Vertical aerial photographs: photographs taken from the air with the
camera pointing directly down onto the
Earth
50 • Aerial photographs
Topic 1
Aerial photographs • 51
Figure 1.42: Terrestrial photographs (cont.)
Terrestrial photographs
We are sure you can imagine the power of the photographs above as elements
of reports or letters pointing out extreme water or air pollution, lack of road
maintenance or poverty. These photographs are called terrestrial photographs
and can communicate hard facts and generate strong emotions. Geographers
can definitely use them too. However, since such photographs do not show
location or the plan view of maps we referred to earlier, they cannot be used to
make maps.
Figure 1.43: A low-angle oblique view Figure 1.44: View of FNB stadium in Johannesburg,
extracted from a high-angle oblique photograph
52 • Aerial photographs
Topic 1
Aerial photographs • 53
•54
Aerial photographs
Figure 1.47: A vertical aerial photograph of the Nelspruit area
Topic 1
Orthophoto maps
Orthophoto maps combine all the advantages of maps and aerial
photographs. On orthophoto maps the detailed photographic background has
been rectified to remove scale distortion. Accurate measurements can
therefore be made. Additionally, background such as a co-ordinate grid,
contours (5 m interval), spot heights, place names and road numbers that we
associate with maps have also been added. An example of such an orthophoto
is provided in Figure 1.48 on page 56.
Aerial photographs • 55
Figure 1.48: Extract from orthophoto 2530BD CITRUS. The area shown is the same as the
small framed area in Figure 1.2 on page 4.
56 • Aerial photographs
Topic 1
9. See whether you can identify spatial patterns and spatial relationships.
The layout of the streets or the lack of development in certain areas might
be explained by the relief of the landscape. By looking at sites that have
been cleared for development you might detect that the development
tends to be either linear or concentrated in a certain area. In other words,
do not look at a single feature in isolation – try see the bigger picture.
Classroom activity 13
In this activity you need to compare a vertical aerial photograph with a
topographic map of the same area. You can do it with a friend or in small
groups.
1 Which area on the 1:50 000 map of Nelspruit (Figure 1.1 on page 4) is
shown by the vertical aerial photograph (Figure 1.47 on page 54).
Simply write down the most appropriate alphanumeric block
reference/s from the topographic map.
2 Estimate (guess) the approximate scale of the vertical aerial
photograph of Nelspruit.
3 See if you can identify the following features on the aerial
photograph. Describe what they look like: a railway line, a bridge, a
parking area, agricultural land, a residential area, the central business
district.
Homework activity 9
Aerial photographs • 57
Extra practice activity 6
58 • Aerial photographs
Topic 1
There are many different forms of remote sensing. Your eye-brain system is a
wonderful example of remote sensing. You can gather information about the
vegetable garden in the backyard at home by simply looking at it. You might
notice that the leaves of the spinach are wilted and yellowish in colour. You
can act on your observation by deciding to water the spinach and add organic
fertiliser because there is a nutrient deficiency in the soil. Another example is a
medical doctor taking an x-ray image of your knee that got in the way of a
cricket ball that had been fiercely driven to the boundary.
Can you still remember the different types of satellite images?
k
Chec lf Meteorological (weather) satellites give us images of very
myse large areas so that we can see and predict weather conditions.
Earth resource satellites such as SPOT and LANDSAT provide
detailed images of much smaller areas so that we can monitor
our use (and often abuse!) of natural resources.
7. 8.
3. Interaction at the
Earth’s surface
1
3000 000 mm 3 × 10–6 µm The eight elements of a
gamma
rays satellite remote sensing
1
0,28 µm long-wave 300 000 mm 3 × 10–5 µm
system
ultraviolet
0,40 µm
X rays 1. A source of energy – element 1 in Figure
1.49. To be able to see things we need light.
0,45 µm 0,01 µm
ultraviolet
To produce light we need energy. The sun is
0,50 µm 0,28 µm our primary source of energy. The sun
0,40 µm radiates electromagnetic energy that travels
visible
0,58 µm near
0,70 µm through the atmosphere in the form of
0,59 µm
infrared 1,50 µm electromagnetic waves. The total range
short-wave
infrared (spectrum) of waves is known as the
0,62 µm 3,00 µm
middle electromagnetic spectrum (see Figure 1.50).
infrared
5,50 µm We can distinguish between different waves
thermal
infrared on the basis of their wavelength. Some are
1 mm 1 × 103 µm
long low energy waves (e.g. radio waves
measured in kilometres) whereas others are
microwave very short high energy waves (e.g. x-rays
0,70 µm (incl. radar)
measured in μm). Only a very tiny portion
reflected
(near) of the waves in the electromagnetic
infrared 1m 1 × 106 µm spectrum can be seen with our naked eyes.
1,50 µm That part is known as the visible
wavelengths or visible spectrum and
radio
waves consists of the colours of the rainbow.
3 000 km 1 × 1012 µm
The concept of a data file is shown in Figure 1.51. We have zoomed into a
satellite image and extracted data from it. Figures 1.51(a), (b) and (c) show
the reflectance values as measured in three spectral bands. Low values
represent little reflection whereas larger values represent high reflection.
(d) Band 3 (e) Band 4 (f) Band 5 (g) A false colour image
using bands 3, 4 and 5
Figure 1.51: Satellite images are matrixes of numerical values representing reflection
measured in different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum.