Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by Pierre Bourdieu
W i t h a preface by Raymond A r o n
B e a c o n Press Boston
F i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n F r a n c e i n 1958 u n d e r t h e title
Sociologie de L'Algérie
v
vi Preface
m e t r o p o l i t a n territory a n d d i v i d e d i n t o départements has pro-
gressively created the situation that Pierre B o u r d i e u analyzes
at the end of his book.
B e t w e e n the traditional c u l t u r e of all the peoples of A l g e r i a
a n d the c u l t u r e — F r e n c h a n d m o d e r n — t h a t the colons b r o u g h t
w i t h t h e m , there is a radical i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y . T h e E u r o p e a n s
d i d not u n d e r s t a n d a n d did n o t wish to u n d e r s t a n d the au-
thentic nature of the traditional culture. A s the d o m i n a n t mi-
nority, they feared that they w o u l d b e s w a m p e d by the majority
if they a c c o r d e d to the v a n q u i s h e d the civic equality w h i c h the
latter h a d l o n g d e m a n d e d . T h e Moslems, for their part, sus-
tained the shock of b o t h a f o r e i g n c u l t u r e and a h u m i l i a t i n g
status. T h e i r culture was shattered, partially b r o k e n u p by con-
tact w i t h the m o d e r n c u l t u r e of the d o m i n a n t g r o u p . T h e swift
g r o w t h of the M o s l e m p o p u l a t i o n (2.5 p e r cent a n n u a l l y ) also
h e l p e d to upset t h e traditional p a t t e r n , to i n c r e a s e the n u m b e r
of those w h o h a d n o r e g u l a r w o r k a n d w h o felt themselves lost
in a hostile w o r l d , w i t h o u t m e a n i n g in an i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e
society. T h u s , all the conditions were j o i n e d to a pitiless war,
i n which nationalists fought for the i n d e p e n d e n c e of their
country-to-be and for their d i g n i t y , and i n w h i c h the E u r o p e a n
m i n o r i t y defended its right to live on the land w h i c h their
fathers' toil had made productive. A s for the F r e n c h in the
h o m e l a n d : some w a n t e d to h a n g o n to the last segment of
e m p i r e , others w i s h e d to protect their c o m p a t r i o t s w h o h a d
settled o n the opposite shore of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , and still
others h o p e d passionately that France w o u l d p u r s u e her voca-
tion of l i b e r t y to its ultimate end.
W e already k n o w w h a t the horrors of the A l g e r i a n w a r
h a v e b e e n . W h a t the f u t u r e will b r i n g , n o one can tell. B u t ,
in spite of the b l o o d that has been spilled a n d the crimes that
h a v e b e e n committed, the mere fact of a final agreement be-
tween the A l g e r i a n r e p u b l i c a n g o v e r n m e n t a n d the F r e n c h
g o v e r n m e n t does not permit us to conclude o n a note of de-
spair. Precisely because the struggle has g i v e n them an aware-
ness of their o w n w o r t h , the Moslems of A l g e r i a henceforth are
o p e n to m o d e r n civilization. T h e F r e n c h , o n the other h a n d ,
d o n o t feel that they h a v e b e e n defeated. T h e y realized finally
Preface vii
that the conflict itself h a d lost its m e a n i n g a n d that the accession
of A l g e r i a to the status of n a t i o n was b o t h i n e v i t a b l e and just.
W i l l Algeria's E u r o p e a n m i n o r i t y resign itself to l i v i n g in a n
A l g e r i a n r e p u b l i c , or will its members r e t u r n to t h e m o t h e r
country? W h a t p r o p o r t i o n of E u r o p e a n s w i l l m a k e the decision
one way or the other? W i l l the g o v e r n m e n t of an i n d e p e n d e n t
A l g e r i a that e m e r g e d f r o m r e v o l u t i o n tolerate i n actuality the
preservation of a E u r o p e a n minority? W i l l the association w i t h
F r a n c e be a n y t h i n g m o r e than a brief a n d precarious transition
b e t w e e n the c o l o n i a l c o n d i t i o n and a socialism m o r e or less
totalitarian, a neutralism m o r e or less positive?
W e shall not a t t e m p t to p r e d i c t w h a t course of action w i l l
be followed. B u t let us c o n t i n u e to h o p e a n d , above all, let us
c o n t i n u e to p e r p e t u a t e the firm b o n d s w h i c h t h e d i a l o g u e ,
alternately peaceful and bellicose, has forged b e t w e e n the two
peoples.
RAYMOND ARON
Maps and Graphs
Figure Page
1. P l a n o£ a Kabyle House 6
4. T h e T r i b e of the A l t Yahia 21
5. T h e T r i b e s of the Aures 26
Rechaich 86-87
Category 124
' Introduction xi
C h a p t e r 1. T h e K a b y l e s 1
T h e Social Structures 2
T h e Gentilitial Democracy 16
C h a p t e r 2. T h e S h a w i a 25
Domestic Organization 27
T h e Social Structures g2
C h a p t e r 3. T h e Mozabites 37
T h e Challenge of the Desert g 7
Chapter 4. T h e A r a b i c - S p e a k i n g Peoples . . . . 56
T h e Gity Dwellers
N o m a d s and Semi-Nomads . . . . . . 65
T h e N e w Sedentary Peoples 70
C h a p t e r 5. T h e C o m m o n C u l t u r a l H e r i t a g e . . . 92
C u l t u r a l Interpénétration and Kaleidoscopic
Mechanism g2
C h a p t e r 6. D i s i n t e g r a t i o n a n d Distress . . 119
T h e Colonial System 12o
W a r as C u l t u r a l Agent 155
End of a W o r l d 184
Selected B i b l i o g r a p h y 202
Index 204
Introduction
'It is obvious that Algeria, when considered in isolation from the rest
of the Maghreb, does not constitute a true cultural unit. However, I have;
limited my investigation to Algeria for a definite reason. Algeria is specifi-
cally the object of this study because the clash between the indigenous and
the European civilizations has made itself felt here with the greatest force.
T h u s the problem under investigation has determined the choice of subject.
This study, which is a conceptual outline of more extensive analyses,
includes a description of the original social and economic structures (Chap.
1-5) which, a l t h o u g h not the m a i n purpose of the book, is indispensable
for an understanding of the breakdown of the social structures caused by
the colonial situation and the influx of European civilization.
xi
xii Introduction
o n l y recently b e c o m e sedentary. A c c o r d i n g to the a n t h r o p o -
logical criterion, one finds antithesis b e t w e e n the local stock and
the additions f r o m the east (but a checkered history has b r o u g h t
a b o u t such a great i n t e r m i n g l i n g that o n e can rarely a n d w i t h
difficulty distinguish any perfectly p u r e types). A c c o r d i n g to
l a n g u a g e and culture, o p p o s i t i o n exists between B e r b e r - s p e a k i n g
and A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g peoples, b u t a m o n g the latter are a great
m a n y A r a b i c i z e d Berbers. A c c o r d i n g to different c u l t u r e traits,
such as women's r i g h t of inheritance, t h e r e is antithesis b e t w e e n
B e r b e r and M o s l e m law, b u t o n b o t h sides a system of counter-
acting balances w h i c h tends to abolish these differences. A c c o r d -
i n g to the degree of legislative p o w e r of the g r o u p , there is
a s i m i l a r opposition, b u t w i t h transitions of v a r y i n g degree.
A c c o r d i n g to artistic techniques, you discover contrast b e t w e e n
the b o l d , rectilinear o r n a m e n t a t i o n of B e r b e r art a n d the fine,
flowing lines of A r a b decoration. O n e c o u l d g o o n i n this way
contrasting the sharecroppers a n d the wage earners, the v a r y i n g
relationship of m a n to the soil, the magic-religious n a t u r e of the
oath, the judicial system, the d e g r e e of p e n e t r a t i o n of Islam.
A l l these lines traced o n a m a p w o u l d f o r m an almost i n e x -
t r i c a b l e maze, since n o t w o m a r k e d areas w o u l d o v e r l a p exactly
— f o r e x a m p l e , areas i n d i c a t i n g Berber-speakers a n d sedentary
peoples, or those i n d i c a t i n g Arabic-speakers and n o m a d s — a n d
since too the borders of these areas are seldom clearly defined.
C e r t a i n relatively distinct " c u l t u r a l areas" d o , h o w e v e r , stand
o u t f r o m this maze in strongly m a r k e d patterns. I n d e e d , where-
ever the B e r b e r dialects h a v e been maintained, p r i n c i p a l l y i n
t h e m o u n t a i n massifs ( K a b y l i a , Aures), there h a v e b e e n conserved
not only special culture traits but a special m o d e of life. H e r e
may be noted, a m o n g other features, a certain i n d e p e n d e n c e in
regard to Islam (with the e x c e p t i o n of the Mzab) w h i c h is par-
ticularly evident in the judicial system, a peasant love of the
soil a n d of the desperately h a r d w o r k r e q u i r e d to m a k e it fertile,
the p r e d o m i n a n c e of direct f a r m i n g of the l a n d by its o w n e r ,
a social structure w i t h strong, equalitarian features based on
the concept of the territorial p a t r i m o n y . W h i l e it is true that the
n o m a d i c A r a b s h a v e i n t r o d u c e d a different system of v a l u e s — a
disdain for the l a n d and direct f a r m i n g that is characteristic of a
Introduction xiii
pastoral civilization, an aristocratically m i n d e d s o c i e t y — i t w o u l d
b e dangerous to exaggerate the o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n A r a b s a n d
Berbers. B e t w e e n these two ways of life there are f r e q u e n t transi-
tions and deeply rooted affinities. Is it possible to i m a g i n e the
A r a b tribe, for e x a m p l e , as b e i n g separated f r o m its territorial
p a t r i m o n y , lands that are strictly defined to g u a r d against r i v a l
encroachment? O n the other h a n d , is it not true that the social
structures of the Berbers, like those of the A r a b s , h a v e b e e n
d e v e l o p e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the g e n e a l o g i c a l pattern? B e t w e e n
the t w o systems there is a constant i n t e r a c t i o n based o n a close
affinity b u t characterized by a conflicting m o t i v a t i o n : the temp-
tation to adopt the ways of one's n e i g h b o r a n d the desire to
r e t a i n o n e ' s o w n identity.
A l g e r i a is a l o n g , n a r r o w strip of l a n d b r o k e n u p i n t o a
tangle of small sections, with plains of any appreciable size only
at its western and eastern tips. By reason of its g e o g r a p h i c a l
multiplicity this country has, n o doubt, always seemed pre-
disposed to social particularisms. C e r t a i n factors, h o w e v e r , have
opposed this tendency: the intense m o v e m e n t that animates the
w h o l e territory, the migrations of shepherds, the cycle of markets
w h i c h are the occasion for cultural a n d judicial e x c h a n g e s (the
role of the meddah comes to m i n d i n this connection); the far-
r e a c h i n g influence of the cities w h i c h are centers of religious
o r t h o d o x y a n d Eastern civilization; the unity of faith; the fact
that the m a n y dialects use the one sacred l a n g u a g e of the K o r a n
as an i m p l i c i t reference. T h e result is that these t w o anti-
thetical a s p e c t s — u n i t y a n d p l u r a l i t y , continuity a n d d i v i s i o n —
c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d only w h e n considered i n relation to one an-
other. N o c o m p l e t e l y closed a n d , therefore, p u r e and intact
society exists i n the M a g h r e b ; h o w e v e r isolated a n d w i t h d r a w n
i n t o itself a g r o u p may be, it still thinks of itself a n d j u d g e s
itself by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h other g r o u p s . E a c h g r o u p seeks to
establish and base its o w n identity on the ways in w h i c h it differs
f r o m others; the result is diversification rather than diversity.
T h u s , w h i l e o u r analyses w i l l define these differences, it will b e
only to discover above a n d b e y o n d them the basic identity
that these differences conceal or seek to conceal.
W e h a v e n o i n t e n t i o n of r e d u c i n g to this p a t t e r n either the
XIV Introduction
contacts b e t w e e n the E u r o p e a n a n d the indigenous civilizations
or the u p h e a v a l s caused by c o l o n i z a t i o n , a n d w e are n o t i g n o r a n t
of the fact that, just as the o l d d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n Berbers and
A r a b s was u n e q u a l , so the n e w d i a l o g u e is u n e q u a l , but for
other reasons a n d w i t h m o r e absoluteness. Nevertheless, o n e of
the keys to the p r e s e n t d r a m a may b e f o u n d in the p a i n f u l
debate of a society w h i c h is c o m p e l l e d to define itself by refer-
ence to another, is torn between self-doubt a n d c o m p l a c e n t self-
p r i d e , between a d h e r e n c e to others a n d the fierce defense of its
besieged self. Its d r a m a is t h e acute conflict w i t h i n a n alienated
conscience, l o c k e d i n contradictions a n d c r a v i n g for a way to
re-establish its o w n identity, even by means of excess a n d vio-
lence.
i. The Kabyles
T h e Social Structures
A K a b y l e h o u s e is g e n e r a l l y r a t h e r s m a l l : 23 to 25 f e e t l o n g a n d 16
f e e t w i d e . T h e w a l l s a r e f r o m 10 to 12 feet i n h e i g h t a n d f r o m ii/2 to 2
feet thick. T h e y are c o n s t r u c t e d b y laying t w o p a r a l l e l rows of stones
cemented t o g e t h e r by clay or m u d .
T h e h o u s e is d i v i d e d i n t o t w o parts, the stable, adainin (2), and the
taqaats, the area reserved for the h u m a n s . A b o v e the stable is the loft,
taaricht (sA), made of planks and partly hidden by jars (7), ikufan,
N o r is i t s u r p r i s i n g that a m a r r i a g e s h o u l d in n o w a y c h a n g e
the family. M a r r i e d or u n m a r r i e d , the i n d i v i d u a l remains b o u n d
to the a g n a t i c g r o u p a n d s u b j e c t to the same p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y ;
the w i f e , for h e r p a r t , is considered as a means of i n c r e a s i n g the
size of the f a m i l y a n d of t i g h t e n i n g its ties. Such is the true con-
t e x t in w h i c h marriage a n d the m a t r i m o n i a l compensation must
be i n t e r p r e t e d . C e r t a i n authors have seen in the K a b y l e m a r r i a g e
(and in the M o s l e m m a r r i a g e i n general) a k i n d of sale, w i t h the
Compensation (paid by the father of the g r o o m to the father of
T h e Kabyles 9
the bride) constituting a true purchase price; others, a sort of
contract for hiring out of services; others, an original contract
designed to m a k e the father take a n interest i n the good conduct
of his d a u g h t e r (thereby a l l o w i n g h i m to k e e p the marriage pay-
m e n t ) ; still others consider this p a y m e n t as a sort of j o i n t guaran-
tee b o t h for the h u s b a n d — t h e bride's father b e i n g i n d u c e d to
w a t c h over the c o n d u c t of his d a u g h t e r — a n d for the wife, w h o
may, according to certain customary laws, d e m a n d the use of the
m a r r i a g e p a y m e n t w h e n her f a m i l y a p p e a r s to b e deserting her.
T h e first i n t e r p r e t a t i o n must be rejected; the others a p p e a r to b e
stressing certain "secondary f u n c t i o n s , " to w h i c h s h o u l d b e a d d e d
the e c o n o m i c f u n c t i o n (circulation of capital). T h e m a r r i a g e
p a y m e n t should really b e u n d e r s t o o d in the c o n t e x t of the " h o n -
orable e x c h a n g e " w h i c h implies the e x c h a n g e of gifts and coun-
tergifts: one e x a m p l e of this i n s t i t u t i o n is the taousa, the gift
that the guest makes to his host w i t h great fanfare o n festive or
ceremonial occasions. T h e s e gifts create a m o r a l a n d religious
b o n d a n d i m p l y the duty of g i v i n g back m o r e than has b e e n
received in the way of deferred exchanges. N o t e , h o w e v e r , the
" m a r r i a g e by e x c h a n g e " in w h i c h an i n d i v i d u a l gives his sister
i n marriage to a n o t h e r whose sister he in turn marries w i t h o u t
any marriage p a y m e n t . M a r r i a g e is just o n e m o r e occasion for
such reciprocal e x c h a n g e s , w h i c h are requisites of social existence
and the n o r m a l m e t h o d of transferring goods a n d chattels, a m o n g
w h i c h wives must be included. T h e s e transactions do n o t b e l o n g
i n the logic of e c o n o m i c calculation; the marriage p a y m e n t is
a countergift a n d marriage is an e x c h a n g e w h i c h creates alliances
b e t w e e n groups (consequently, the simulated struggles w h i c h , in
the rites c o n n e c t e d w i t h the m a r r i a g e ceremony, p o r t r a y the
o p p o s i t i o n of the clan of the g r o o m to that of the b r i d e ) a n d takes
the f o r m of reciprocal gifts, because the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the
marriage and the m a t r i m o n i a l compensation is n o t an arbitrary
one, the m a r r i a g e b e i n g considered as a n integral part of the gifts
that a c c o m p a n y it.
T h e m a t r i m o n i a l c o m p e n s a t i o n restores a b r o k e n b a l a n c e
in that it is used as a p l e d g e , a substitute for the w o m a n w h o
s h o u l d h a v e b e e n p r o v i d e d by the b r i d e g r o o m ' s family in ex-
change for the b r i d e . T h e continuity of the g i f t a n d countergift
io T h e Algerians
m e c h a n i s m is t h u s m a i n t a i n e d by t h e m a t r i m o n i a l compensation.
P r o o f of this is the fact that if the h u s b a n d dies first the m a r r i a g e
p a y m e n t is r e t u r n e d and the wife goes b a c k to her family, b u t
t h e r e is n o r e t u r n of this m o n e y if the wife dies first, the h u s b a n d ' s
f a m i l y thereby s t a n d i n g definitely as the loser. H e n c e the ex-
t r e m e l y i n s u l t i n g n a t u r e of the berrou bat'el ( r e p u d i a t i o n of the
w i f e w i t h o u t asking for r e t u r n of the m a r r i a g e p a y m e n t ) , w h i c h
breaks the system of reciprocity by g i v i n g w i t h o u t r e c e i v i n g in
r e t u r n as h o n o r d e m a n d s . T h e wife thus r e p u d i a t e d , a gift that
has been r e t u r n e d and for w h i c h there is n o possible counter-
gift, is e x c l u d e d f r o m the cycle of m a t r i m o n i a l exchanges
(tamaouokt). O n the o t h e r h a n d , to r e t u r n the m a t r i m o n i a l
c o m p e n s a t i o n w h e n the h u s b a n d dies, or the wife is r e p u d i a t e d ,
shows that the " c o n t r a c t " is b r o k e n b u t that the system of reci-
procity instituted by the m a r r i a g e continues u n c h a n g e d .
T h e m a r r i a g e p a y m e n t is also a pledge i n another sense: the
wife remains a m e m b e r of h e r original g r o u p w h i c h , t h r o u g h her,
secures a h o l d over the m a g i c p o w e r of the g r o u p that accepts her,
since the gift still remains a t t a c h e d to the giver; the p a y m e n t of
m a t r i m o n i a l compensation thus restores the b a l a n c e i n magic
powers. I n the same c o n t e x t it appears also to b e a compensation
i n t e n d e d to atone for the v i o l a t i o n of the sexual taboo. T h u s , in
the A u r e s , the n u p t i a l gift consists of a "douro," called the haqd-
dkhoul (right of entry) a m o n g the Beni-Bou-Slimane and a
"douro lahlil" {douro m a k i n g lawful) a m o n g the T o u a b a . L i k e -
wise, the M o z a b i t e jurists m a i n t a i n that " t h e n u p t i a l d o w r y is
the c o n d i t i o n that actually m a k e s the m a r r i a g e l e g i t i m a t e and
confers the r i g h t to intercourse w i t h the b r i d e . " A n d finally,
s h o u l d it n o t be considered that this gift m a d e to m e n is in reality
b e i n g offered t h r o u g h t h e m to the powers of n a t u r e , in order
that they m a y g r a n t as a s u p r e m e blessing a fruitful marriage?
It is n o t surprising, then, that the f a m i l y g r o u p s h o u l d b e t h e
f o c a l p o i n t of K a b y l e society: primacy of the f a m i l y g r o u p , w h i c h
rules out celibacy and w h i c h , t h r o u g h the father, exercises the
r i g h t of m a t r i m o n i a l c o m p u l s i o n and arranges for the girls to b e
m a r r i e d at t h e e a r l y age of t w e l v e or thirteen; p r i m a c y of the
g r o u p , w h i c h g r a n t s a b s o l u t e authority to the h u s b a n d and in-
vests h i m w i t h the r i g h t of r e p u d i a t i o n because of the fact t h a t
T h e Kabyles 11
it is n o t the married c o u p l e , b u t the c o n t i n u i t y of the f a m i l y
g r o u p , that m u s t above all be p r o t e c t e d ; primacy of the g r o u p ,
w h i c h t h r o u g h various legal devices ensures the p r o t e c t i o n of the
family p a t r i m o n y against any outside intrusion, and w h i c h
excludes w o m e n f r o m i n h e r i t i n g in order to p r e v e n t a r e d u c t i o n
in the size of the property.
T h e superior role of the g r o u p also appears clearly in the
m a t t e r of emigration. I n d e e d , if i n N o r t h A f r i c a those w h o emi-
grate for temporary periods are for the most part sedentary Ber-
bers and p a r t i c u l a r l y K a b y l e s , it is because the strong cohesion
and the solidarity of the agnatic g r o u p guarantees to the e m i g r a n t
that the family he has left b e h i n d o n the c o m m u n a l p r o p e r t y —
w h i c h provides subsistence for each m e m b e r of the g r o u p — w i l l
be protected in his absence by those of his m a l e relatives w h o
h a v e r e m a i n e d on the land. I t is the t h o u g h t of the f a m i l y that
sustains h i m d u r i n g his e x i l e , that inspires h i m t o w o r k desper-
ately h a r d and save his money. Finally, it has b e e n n o t e d that
w h e n they are j o i n e d together i n F r a n c e to f o r m c o m m u n i t i e s
w h i c h are p a t t e r n e d on the family structure and w h i c h recreate
that system of solidarity a n d m u t u a l support w h i c h animates
K a b y l e life, the emigrants will u n d e r g o severe p r i v a t i o n i n order
to send back to their families the greater part of their earnings.
Since it is aware of the e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n of the
agnatic family, the g r o u p does e v e r y t h i n g i n its p o w e r to d e f e n d
it and to continually proclaim those values o n w h i c h it is based,
particularly the virtues of solidarity and m u t u a l a i d w h i c h can-
n o t be a b a n d o n e d w i t h o u t t h r e a t e n i n g the r u i n of the entire
social organism and the destruction of that b a l a n c e b e t w e e n m a n
a n d his e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h is m a i n t a i n e d o n l y b y c o o r d i n a t e d
effort. I n a d d i t i o n to the m u t u a l loans and contracts of all types,
certain tasks (construction of houses, road b u i l d i n g , w e e d i n g ,
harvesting, g a t h e r i n g of the olive crop, etc.) are carried o u t
t h r o u g h the c o o p e r a t i o n of the whole clan or village; l a b o r that"
is g i v e n g r a t u i t o u s l y b u t w h i c h has been m a d e m a n d a t o r y b y
c u s t o m — a m u t u a l l e n d i n g of services, a fraternal system of m u -
tual aid i n v o l v i n g for the beneficiary o n l y the necessity to p r o v i d e
f o o d a n d the o b l i g a t i o n to r e c i p r o c a t e — t h e tiouizi is a gift of
l a b o r to w h i c h a c o u n t e r g i f t w i l l later c o r r e s p o n d . T h e conclu-
12 T h e Algerians
sion of those tasks w h i c h are a c c o m p a n i e d by acts of r i t u a l is
celebrated by ceremonies a n d by a c o m m o n repast. T h u s the
collective task becomes b o t h a form of collective celebration and
prayer and, above all, an occasion for the solemn reaffirmation
of family, clan or v i l l a g e solidarity. I n all these customs is
expressed the strong desire to keep the ties of the g r o u p tightly
d r a w n . Doubtless their l i m i t e d m e t h o d s of p r o d u c t i o n h a v e neces-
sitated this c o l l a b o r a t i o n and association, b u t in a deeper sense
this cult of solidarity may b e regarded as the reverence of this
society for their c o m m o n ancestor, w h e t h e r real or mythical,
f r o m w h o m all solidarity and fertility e m a n a t e and t h r o u g h
w h o m this society worships itself.
The family as structural model.—The most restricted as well
as the widest social units have been conceived o n the m o d e l of
the family u n i t . G e n e a l o g y is resorted to i n an attempt to ration-
alize the social structure by s h o w i n g that it is rooted in the past.
H e n c e there is a certain lack of precision in the p o l i t i c a l n o m e n -
clature, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n regard to the g r o u p i n g s of families, the
takharroubt and the adroum; these terms designate social units
of a size that varies b o t h w i t h the r e g i o n and w i t h the social
structure a n d history of the villages. T h i s is because the transi-
tion takes p l a c e i n a g r a d u a l and c o n t i n u o u s m a n n e r f r o m the
narrowest to the most e x t e n s i v e u n i t s , a l t h o u g h p o t e n t i a l points
of s e g m e n t a t i o n d o exist, any one of w h i c h c o u l d b e c o m e real
g i v e n the p r o p e r occasion or situation.
A m o n g these segmentation points there are some, h o w e v e r ,
w h i c h m a r k o u t true thresholds d e n n i n g m o r e stable groups. So
it is that the most vital u n i t is the s i m p l e or c o m p l e x clan (tak-
harroubt or adroum). U p to a relatively recent date the clan was
the f r a m e w o r k i n w h i c h social life d e v e l o p e d , and a great m a n y
of its features p r o v e d that it had its o w n separate existence: it
h a d its tajmadt, its cemetery, its o w n section in the village, its
fountains, a n d sometimes its o w n festivals a n d customs, a n d e v e n
its o w n l e g e n d of its origin. T h e members of the same c l a n feel
j o i n e d together i n an actual b r o t h e r h o o d that makes for very
familiar relationships and leads to attitudes of spontaneous soli-
darity, w h e t h e r it be a q u e s t i o n of a v e n g i n g b l o o d that has b e e n
shed or carrying o u t a c o m m u n a l task. T h e timechret'—the com-
T h e Kabyles 13
m u n a l sharing of meat and the act of commensality, w h i c h defines
the limits of the c o m m u n i t y a n d at the same time asserts its
u n i t y — w a s formerly carried out w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of the
clan.
T h e v i l l a g e u n i t was p r i m a r i l y territorial. O n e m u s t be
o n g u a r d against false analogies suggested by w h a t a n u m b e r of
features w o u l d seem to indicate: t h e v i l l a g e , p r o v i d e d w i t h its
o w n council h o u s e a n d w i t h the l a w s t h a t are l a i d d o w n by its
o w n council (qanoun), w h i c h differ f r o m Islamic l a w a n d w h i c h
g o v e r n d a i l y b e h a v i o r in great detail, calls to m i n d the i d e a of
the rural c o m m u n e . Bjit_in_j3oint of fact the clan exists alongside
itjsjidgjtiborjs^
social unit. C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e t h e r g r o u p e d together or sepa-
rated f r o m one a n o t h e r (toufiq), the c l a ^ J o j H L ^ ^ o r d e j d e r a t i o n
rather t h a n a c o m m u n i t y . Different influences h a v e resulted in
the factid^mFa good n u m b e r of practices and institutions p r o p e r
to the clan n o l o n g e r exist today e x c e p t at the level of the village,
w h i c h is b e c o m i n g progressively a true p o l i t i c a l u n i t (see F i g . 2).
M o r e fragile and m o r e v a g u e l y defined than the clan, the
t r i b e — a confederation of villages that exists in n a m e o n l y and
has n o tangible e m b o d i m e n t — i s o n l y activated in special circum-
stances and for special purposes, so that it is defined p r i n c i p a l l y
t h r o u g h its o p p o s i t i o n to h o m o l o g o u s groups. It m a y b e seen,
then, that cohesion and a feeling of solidarity are in inverse ratio
to the size of the g r o u p . Y e t a quarrel c o n c e r n i n g the larger
g r o u p will b r i n g to a halt any quarrels a m o n g the lesser g r o u p s
(see F i g . 10).
T h e c o m p l e x i t y of this system, w i t h the v a r i e d rights of ini-
tiative it confers, is greatly increased by the interaction of the
coffs—diffused a n d abstract organizations, systems of political
a n d agonistic alliances, w h i c h may d i v i d e the village, the c l a n o r
even the f a m i l y a n d w h i c h are organized i n t o t w o general leagues,
a n " u p p e r " and " l o w e r " l e a g u e ; organizations that are p r i m a r i l y
o n o m a s t i c (name-related) in n a t u r e and h a v e a p o t e n t i a l r a t h e r
than an actual existence. T h e s e " a s s o c i a t i o n s " (in the sense of " a
social u n i t that is n o t based o n the factor of k i n s h i p " ) come i n t o
action on every occasion and at every level, w h e n e v e r a q u a r r e l
breaks out b e t w e e n m e m b e r s of different foffs, h o w e v e r trifling
F i g . a. P l a n of a K a b y l e V i l l a g e : A l t H i c h e m
T h e s i t u a t i o n of this t y p i c a l v i l l a g e i n t h e D j u r d j u r a r e g i o n of
K a b y l i a a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n d e c i d e d u p o n to m e e t s e v e r a l c o m b i n e d
r e q u i r e m e n t s . A fortress a n d o b s e r v a t i o n post, it is b u i l t at t h e s u m m i t
of a 4,000-foot crest a n d , as a result, is c o m p l e t e l y isolated f r o m o t h e r
v i l l a g e s , w h i c h are also p e r c h e d o n the s u m m i t of o t h e r p e a k s . T h e
scarcity of arable l a n d p r o v i d e s a n a d d i t i o n a l reason for c h o o s i n g this
unfertile soil of shale a n d s a n d s t o n e as a site for t h e houses of t h e
14
T h e Kabyles !5
v i l l a g e . M o r e o v e r , the p e a s a n t c a n w a t c h o v e r t h e fields a n d o r c h a r d s
w h i c h s u r r o u n d the peak o n w h i c h t h e v i l l a g e stands. T h e p r o x i m i t y
of w a t e r p o i n t s a n d of c o m m u n i c a t i o n routes does n o t a p p e a r to b e a
factor d e t e r m i n i n g the p o s i t i o n of the s e t t l e m e n t : i n d e e d the s p r i n g s ,
w h i c h are n u m e r o u s o n the h i l l slopes, are often q u i t e a d i s t a n c e a w a y
f r o m the v i l l a g e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d b y p a t h s r u n n i n g
a l o n g t h e crest of the hills.
E v e n the l a y o u t of t h e v i l l a g e is t h e result of different t e c h n i c a l
a n d social r e q u i r e m e n t s . O f t e n , as i n t h e adroum of the A i t M a h d i in
the p r e s e n t e x a m p l e , t h e m a i n street f o l l o w s the crest l i n e w i t h t h e
h o u s e s r u n n i n g d o w n the s l o p e s i n a h e r r i n g b o n e p a t t e r n . I n t h e p a r t
of t h e v i l l a g e o c c u p y i n g the side of the crest, t h e h o u s e s are b u i l t at
r i g h t a n g l e s to t h e c o n t o u r l i n e s , w h i c h are m a r k e d o u t , a p p r o x i m a t e l y ,
b y a l l e y w a y s just w i d e e n o u g h to a l l o w a l a d e n m u l e to pass. I n b o t h
cases, the a r r a n g e m e n t of the houses is such t h a t the stable is n a t u r a l l y
sited l o w e r d o w n t h a n t h e p a r t reserved f o r h u m a n h a b i t a t i o n a n d t h e
l i q u i d m a n u r e , t h e dirty w a t e r a n d t h e r a i n c a n r u n d o w n t o w a r d s t h e
g a r d e n s (situated b e h i n d the houses a n i n the area of t h e A'it M a d h i ) o r
to the r o a d t h a t serves for d r a i n a g e .
T h e m a i n t h i n g to b e n o t e d is t h a t t h e p l a n r e v e a l s the social
structure. M a r k e d o u t b y t w o p a r a l l e l h o u s e s a n d b y t h i c k w a l l s o r
else b y t h r e e h o u s e s p l a c e d at r i g h t a n g l e s , t h e c o u r t y a r d is a l w a y s
c o m m o n to m e m b e r s of t h e same l a r g e f a m i l y , n a m e l y the families o f
t h e f a t h e r a n d h i s m a r r i e d sons o r the f a m i l i e s of s e v e r a l brothers. T h e
p l a n t h e n s h o w s u p as c l e a r l y as w o u l d a g e n e a l o g i c a l tree t h e s u b -
d i v i s i o n s of the v i l l a g e c o m m u n i t y — t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y , t h e l i n e a g e
(takharroubt), the c l a n (adroum)—with the n e i g h b o r i n g g r o u p s a l l
b e i n g g r o u p s b a s e d o n b l o o d ties.
T h e village i n c l u d e s a n e n d o g a m o u s family of a m a r a b o u t a n d
strangers w h o have f o u n d r e f u g e (as the r e s u l t of a m u r d e r , f o r e x a m p l e )
w i t h a related family. T h e isolated houses h a v e been constructed m o r e
r e c e n t l y b y i n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a v e n o t f o u n d a n y p l a c e w i t h i n the v i l l a g e .
T h e v i l l a g e is s u r r o u n d e d b y s e v e r a l h o l y places: (1) " t h e w h i t e
stone," t h e r o c k o n w h i c h c a n d l e s are p l a c e d b y t h e w o m e n ; (2) " t h e
f o u n t a i n of the w e l l , " w h e r e l i g h t s h a d b e e n seen b y c e r t a i n p e o p l e
a n d to w h i c h c a n d l e s a r e a l s o c a r r i e d ; (g) Sidi A z z a b , t h e t o m b of the
ancestor of the m a r a b o u t f a m i l y of the A z z a b e n e , a h o l y place sur-
r o u n d e d by a n e n c l o s u r e of dry-stone c o n s t r u c t i o n t o w h i c h offerings
are b r o u g h t o n t h e o c c a s i o n of r e l i g i o u s festivals; (4) " t h e f a l l o w
g r o u n d of t h e w a t e r f a l l , " a p l o t of g r o u n d p l a n t e d w i t h o a k trees o n
w h i c h cattle are not p a s t u r e d a n d w o o d is not cut; (5) " t h e s u m m i t , "
a n e m i n e n c e to w h i c h offerings are carried a n d w h e r e candles a r e l i t ;
(6) " B o u Sehel," a s a n c t u a r y s i t u a t e d o n a p e a k (3,600 feet) o n t h e r o a d
to T a k a , to w h i c h p i l g r i m a g e s are m a d e a n d offerings t a k e n .
i6 T h e Algerians
the i n c i d e n t m a y b e , a n d n o matter w h e t h e r it is o n a n i n d i v i d u a l
or o n a collective scale. T h i s division i n t o opposed a n d comple-
m e n t a r y halves appears to constitute one aspect of a d e e p e r
structural o p p o s i t i o n w h i c h d o m i n a t e s the whole social, spiritual
a n d ritualistic life of the people. Different features l e a d one to
t h i n k that these conflicts b e t w e e n the leagues assumed an institu-
t i o n a l f o r m a n d that the combats resulted f r o m the logic of the
ritual g a m e rather t h a n from a proper war. T h i s "dualist organi-
z a t i o n " guarantees a balance of forces t h r o u g h strange proc-
esses of w e i g h i n g , a stalemate resulting from the crisis itself. T h e
forces are b u i l t u p , come i n t o o p p o s i t i o n and c o u n t e r b a l a n c e one
another. T h u s it seems as if e q u i l i b r i u m were b e i n g sought u n d e r
conditions of the greatest tension.
T h e Gentilitial Democracy
T h e c l a n , of w h i c h all m e m b e r s c l a i m to b e b r o t h e r s , h o l d s its
o w n a s s e m b l y at w h i c h are m a d e all the d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e
c o m m u n i t y ( p r o c l a m a t i o n s as to h a r v e s t , r e l i g i o u s festivals, the b e g i n -
n i n g of p l o w i n g , c o l l e c t i v e tasks, etc.). T h e c o m m u n a l sacrifice, w h i c h
w a s c a r r i e d o u t at t h e b e g i n n i n g of p l o w i n g time a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h
Tribe Village Clan Lineage "House "
(arch) (taddart) {adroum) (takharroubt) {akham)
/ Boudaf.el
AltMelUl
Igoures
Ait Itourar Ai't Z i r i
Ait Illilten Ai't A h t a r Ai't Madhi
AIT MADHI
Ai't Menguellet Tafraout Ait Saada
Ai't Bou Youcef Koukou Ait Ali ou Amar
Ai't Ouakbils Tagounits Ai't Moussa
!9
1
20 T h e Algerians
c e r t a i n of t h e m increase i n size w h i l e o t h e r s d e c r e a s e . T h e v i l l a g e , a n d
e v e n m o r e so the " t u f i q , " w h i c h g r o u p s t o g e t h e r s e v e r a l h a m l e t s , reas-
sembles a f e d e r a t i o n m o r e t h a n it d o e s a t r u e c o m m u n i t y . T h u s the
adroum of the A i t M e n d i l , m a d e u p of t w o tikharroubin ( p l u r a l of
takharroubt), the A i t B o u r n i n e a n d the A i t Said, a n d s i t u a t e d f a r t h e r
d o w n the s l o p e , is j o i n e d to the idermen ( p l u r a l of adroum) of the A i t
M a d h i a n d the A i t O u s s e b a a a l t h o u g h it is s e p a r a t e d from t h e m o n
t h e g r o u n d . T h e c l a n , t h e n , constitutes the f u n d a m e n t a l p o l i t i c a l u n i t .
( F o r p r o p e r n a m e s , t h e a u t h o r has f o l l o w e d the s p e l l i n g u s e d o n t h e
1 /50,ooo maps.)
3
These analyses are very largely true for all other Algerian groups.
4
For e x a m p l e , the qanoun o£ the village o£ Agouni-n-Tesellent (Ait
Akbil) out o£ 249 articles includes 219 "repressive" laws (88 per cent), 25
"restitutive" laws (10 per cent), and five articles concerning the more
general principles (political organization).
Fig. 4. The Tribe of the A i t Yahia
T h e symbols r e p r e s e n t (1) f o u n t a i n , (2) c o n s e c r a t e d place, (g) c e m e -
tery.
2 . T h e Shawia
26
T h e Shawia 27
goods. I n other words, it lives i n itself, t h r o u g h itself a n d f o r
itself.
T w o of the southeastern tribes, while h a v i n g all the char-
acteristics of the other Shawia groups, speak A r a b i c and call
themselves Arabs. T h e _ S h a w i a l a n g u a g e is thus strongly m a r k e d
^bv_AraMcinñ^ence. T h e p o p u l a t i o n s located to the south of the
A h m a r K h a d d o u come d o w n to d o business i n the m a r k e t s of
the small, A r a b i c i z e d cities of the Sahara; twice a year A r a b
n o m a d s cross the massif, m a k i n g their way t h r o u g h the valleys
and t r a d i n g the salt of the Sahara for cereals a n d fruit. T h e
S h a w i a are Moslems; they receive some r u d i m e n t s of a religious
e d u c a t i o n , are u n a n i m o u s in p r a c t i c i n g the r u l e of fasting a n d
display a d e e p r e v e r e n c e for their m a r a b o u t s , w h o are often of
f o r e i g n origin. H o w e v e r , because of its l o c a t i o n a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y
because of its physicial structure, the closed country of the A u r é s
has preserved the S h a w i a f r o m any e t h n i c a d m i x t u r e . T h e i r iso-
lation has h e l p e d to make t h e m a h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p and has
assured the p e r m a n e n c e of the ancient social structures. I t is
principally because of differences in the way of living that a
distinction may b e m a d e b e t w e e n the sedentary peoples of the
fertile valleys of the northwest, w h o are e n g a g e d in the g r o w i n g
of cereals a n d in arboriculture a n d w h o live in large villages,
and the semi-nomads of the near-desert valleys of the southeast,
herders of goats and sheep, cultivators of w h e a t a n d barley, w h o
live sparsely settled i n widely scattered d w e l l i n g s or, for part
of the year, in tents. T h e s e g r o u p s , b r o u g h t into association b y
their c o m m e r c i a l e x c h a n g e s , h a v e i d e n t i c a l social structures.
Domestic Organization
I n a d d i t i o n to b e i n g an e c o n o m i c u n i t t h e family is also a
social a n d religious unit. W i t h i n the family the h u s b a n d is legally
the master. aifiJough~~the wife., does, in fact, " t a k e tne ~leacT"in
JuaDie^rousjnatters; t h r o u g h h e r influence she p l a y s ' a n i m p o r t a n t
part in the m a n a g e m e n t of affairs and by her w o r k at handicrafts
helps the family to b e self-supporting.
T h e g r a n d f a t h e r , the chief w h o is consulted, h o n o r e d and
28 T h e Algerians
o b e y e d (as in K a b y l i a ) , has complete a u t h o r i t y o v e r his c h i l d r e n
a n d g r a n d c h i l d r e n , w h o live' u n d e r the same roof or i n contigu-
ous dwellings, so that p e o p l e of the same g r o u p are q u a r t e r e d in
the same area. T h e e x t e n d e d family of .the p a t r i a r c h a l _type is
the f u n d a m e n t a l social unit. Its cohesion is protected a n d main-
tained by the system of m a t r i m o n i a l alliances a n d also by differ-
ent judicial measures (e.g., the r i g h t of pre-emption, the dis-
inheritance o f - w o m e n , etc.) designed to conserve for the males
the o w n e r s h i p of a n u n d i v i d e d p a t r i m o n y , as i n K a b y l i a . Soli-
darity is most strongly displayed b e t w e e n m e m b e r s of the same
clan, for the g i v i n g of m u t u a l aid is i n c e r t a i n cases restricted to
this gro„up (work of the- fields, c o n s t r u c t i o n of houses; cf.
Kabylia). O n the family also falls the d u t y of g i v i n g h e l p to the
u n f o r t u n a t e , a n d the hospitality offered to a stranger is consid-
ered i n v i o l a b l e . T h e p o w e r and u n i t y of the f a m i l y is also dis-
p l a y e d in affairs of h o n o r : quarrel, fight, lawsuit or crime. T h e
v i t a l p r i n c i p l e a n i m a t i n g the g r o u p is u n d o u b t e d l y a sense of
h o n o r , that gentilitial p r i d e w h i c h is the basis for fraternal soli-
darity i'n the carrying out of c o m m u n a l tasks or i n the a v e n g i n g
of a n offense c o m m i t t e d against a m e m b e r of the g r o u p .
T h e primacy of the g r o u p is also evident i n the question
of marriage. A c c o r d i n g to a Shawia p r o v e r b , " F o r a girl there
is only marriage or the t o m b . " T h e Shawia w o m a n , like the
K a b y l e w o m a n , is m a r r i e d very y o u n g , aiid her father has the
r i g h t to c o m p e l her to marry. A l t h o u g h , as in K a b y l i a , she may
be b e t r o t h e d while still very y o u n g , it is n o t rare, however, for
h e r to m a k e her o w n choice of a h u s b a n d after she has reached
the age of puberty. In a n y case the y o u n g m a n prefers to choose
a w o m a n .from w i t h i n his o w n clan (the d a u g h t e r of a p a t e r n a l
u n c l e or, f a i l i n g that, of a m a t e r n a l uncle) t h r o u g h a desire to
d r a w closer the family ties.
W h i l e the g r o u p exerts less pressure t h a n it does i n K a b y l i a
o n m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g to the d e c i d i n g of the m a r r i a g e , it neverthe-
less reacts w i t h v i g o r w h e n its " h o n o r " is c o m p r o m i s e d by
a d u l t e r y o n the part of the wife. T h e h u s b a n d is the sole j u d g e
of the p u n i s h m e n t to b e inflicted, w h i c h can b e e i t h e r r e p u d i a -
tion or the penalty of d e a t h , b u t his f a m i l y , t h r o u g h the pres-
T h e Shawia 29
sure of threats a n d t h r o u g h censure, ensures that h e carry o u t
a p r o p e r vengeance.
T h e distinctiveness of the system lies in the status of the
wife. Since the e d u c a t i o n of the d a u g h t e r is entrusted to h e r
m o t h e r , w h o tea.ches "her her h o u s e h o l d tasks a n d her social
duties, the little S h a w i a n girl is from the outset r a p i d l y i n i t i a t e d
into the secrets, intrigues, ruses a n d tricks of f e m i n i n e society,
and so feels very strongly that sentiment of solidarity,-bordering
on complicity, w h i c h unites w o m e n across differences in age and
social c o n d i t i o n and w h i c h is constantly b e i n g strengthened by
their c o m m o n cares and t o l l ' a n d , above all, by their n e e d to
unite against a " c o m m o n adversary," m a n . T h i s society of w o m e n ,
strong in the magic by w h i c h it hopes to assure its d o m i n a t i o n
over m e n , strong in its cohesion and, in b o t h A u r é s and K a b y l i a ,
in its tireless activity (care of the children, d o m e s t i c tasks, h a n d i -
crafts, w o r k in the fields), is one of the c h a r a c t e r i s e s of N o r t h
A f r i c a n civilization.
Perhaps as a consequence of the above, a n o t h e r p a r a d o x i c a l
feature is the separation b e t w e e n woman's very u n f a v o r a b l e legal
situation a n d h e r relatively f a v o r a b l e actual situation. W h i l e
the life of the Shawia w o m a n is very hard, primarily b e c a u s e
of the m a n y heavy tasks she is called u p o n to perform, and
while, in ...early marriage, her a c t u a l situation corresponds to
her legal s i t u a t i o n — c o m p l e t e submission to her h u s b a n d w h o
m a y exercise oyer her the "right, of c o r r e c t i o n " a n d w h o allows
her no. say in i m p o r t a n t d e c i s i o n s — s h e nevertheless rap'idly^ac-
quires considerable influence. She will tolerate neither p o l y g a m y
nor infidelity o n l j i e part of her h u s b a n d a n d prefers divorce.
W i t h i n the...home the J i u s b a n d and wife a^e, in fact, .equals,; the
wife has an advisory, if not a decisive, voice in domestic affairs,
w i t h the sole e x c e p t i o n of the budget a n d the m a n a g e m e n t of
the reserves. W o m e n h a v e even b e e n k n o w n to take part in politi-
cal disputes (quarrels of the goffs). A n o t h e r feature is that the
marriage p a y m e n t r e m a i n s to such a degree her property that
she may, if she wishes, r e d u c e its a m o u n t by subtracting f r o m it
t h e theoretical s u m she m i g h t be c a l l e d u p o n to contribute to
t h e future almsgiving of h e r h u s b a n d , or she may allow h e r
30 T h e Algerians
h u s b a n d complete use of the marriage p a y m e n t , w h i c h thereby
becomes a purely n o m i n a l sum. She does this to avoid being
b o u n d b y any conjugal ties a n d to reserve for herself the possibil-
ity of a divorce w i t h o u t r e s t i t u t i o n of the m a t r i m o n i a l compensa-
tion. M o r e o v e r , the S h a w i a w o m a n , w h o like the K a b y l e w o m a n
could be arbitrarily repudiated by her h u s b a n d , has eagerly
availed herself of the possibilities offered h e r by the a p p o i n t m e n t
i n 1 8 6 6 of M o s l e m cadis j u d g i n g i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h M o s l e m law,
w h i c h authorizes a wife to d e m a n d the dissolution of a m a r r i a g e .
A s h a p p e n s w h e n e v e r a c u l t u r a l b o r r o w i n g occurs, the b o r r o w e d
feature is r e i n t e r p r e t e d in terms of its r e c e i v i n g c o n t e x t ; but
the b o r r o w i n g itself w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n m a d e e x c e p t t h a t the
r e c e i v i n g c o n t e x t d e m a n d e d it i n the first p l a c e . T h u s , w h i l e
w o m e n i n K a b y l i a h a v e t a k e n little a d v a n t a g e of the n e w possi-
b i l i t i e s offered t h e m , i n A u r e s o n the c o n t r a r y , because it ful-
filled a c o l l e c t i v e n e e d , this institution has been r a p i d l y a d o p t e d .
T h e wifj^_does in_ fact h a v e the p o w e r to o b t a i n a d i v o r c e : the
reasons g i v e n in s u p p o r t o f her request are u s u a l l y o n l y pretexts
w h i c h h i d e the desire either to achieve the status of azriya (a free
w o m a n ) or to make a n e w marriage. T h e m e t h o d of o b t a i n i n g a
divorce is q u i t e i n g e n i o u s : the Shawia wife causes h e r h u s b a n d
to r e p u d i a t e her by issuing a sort of challenge to w h i c h the
h u s b a n d c a n reply only b y r e p u d i a t i n g her. T h i s c o n d u c t m a y
be c o n s i d e r e d s y m b o l i c of the relationships e x i s t i n g b e t w e e n the
sexes i n S h a w i a society. Legall,y^oB-ly-JJie_lmsband has j . h e r i g h t
of r e p u d i a t i o n , b u t i n this.case it is t h e w o m a n w h o i n c i t e s h i m
to use1._this, r i g h t and- is- really- .using i t . against h i m t h r o u g h his
o w n action. T h u s , g e n e r a l l y speaking, the wife has a strong and
real authority, a l t h o u g h officially all authority is exercised by the
husband.
1
Observers have noted here a case o£ filiation on the mother's side
analogous to that w h i c h may be observed among the T o u a r e g s in connection
with the tamesroit, a free w o m a n whose status is very similar to that of
azriya.
32 T h e Algerians
b i g u o u s status of the married w o m a n . Does she b e l o n g to h e r
h u s b a n d ' s c l a n or does she r e m a i n attached to her c l a n of origin?
T h e marriage ceremonies i n c l u d e rites i n t e n d e d to " m a k e h e r
forget the way to her parents' house," b u t she c o n t i n u e s to b e a r
h e r father's n a m e , and, should she b e c o m e j i w i d o w , she returns
to live a m o n g Eer brothers instead of r e m a i n i n g w i t h her
brothers-in-law.
T h e Social Structures
* In many regions, the clan guelda was abandoned some years ago in
favor of granaries common to a whole village or tribe. As the clan has
lost its importance this tendency h a s increased, particularly in correlation
with the development of private property (made possible by the facilities
afforded by the Senatus Consulte) and with the resulting increase in sales of
land.
34 T h e Algerians
times of plenty. Conscious of t h e f u n d a m e n t a l r o l e of t h e col-
lective granary as a r e g u l a t i n g force that is indispensable for the
m a i n t e n a n c e of a precarious e c o n o m i c balance, the c o u n c i l of
the harfiqt decides_on its construction a n d also prescribes w i t h
e x t r e m e precision and i n g e n u i t y h o w it w i l l operate a n d f u n c t i o n .
It is the council of the elders w h o decide on the g u a r d i a n s w h o
w i l l b e responsible for the p r o t e c t i o n against theft a n d the up-
k e e p of the b u i l d i n g . I n a society that lives as a closed e c o n o m y
cut off from the n o r m a l currents of monetary e x c h a n g e a n d that
is i n any case quite u n a c c u s t o m e d to financial s p e c u l a t i o n , the
a c c u m u l a t i o n of goods i n k i n d (barley a n d wheat, salted meat
a n d dried fruits, h o n e y or rancid butter), w h i c h i n such a system
h a v e m o r e value than money, constitutes the only assurance
against the uncertainty of the future a n d the only possible form
in w h i c h reserves may b e built u p . T o a d d to the i m p o r t a n c e of
the guelda, it frequently h a p p e n s , as i n the u p p e r valley of the
W a d i el A b i o d , t h a t a n ancestor is b u r i e d , e i t h e r w i t h i n it or
close to it. T h e g r o u p t h e n is d o m i n a t e d by the granary, w h i c h
is also the h o l y place where a great m a n y f a m i l y rituals, such
as marriages a n d circumcisions, formerly took place; the a n n u a l
p i l g r i m a g e s to the t o m b of the ancestor were a c c o m p a n i e d by
sacrifices and w e r e f o l l o w e d b y a c o m m u n a l m e a l . T h e collective
granary, as a t a n g i b l e s y m b o l of the p o w e r of the g r o u p , of its
w e a l t h a n d of its c o h e s i o n , was invested w i t h a m e a n i n g a n d
f u n c t i o n at o n c e social a n d religious, e c o n o m i c a n d sentimental.
T h u s the harfiqt appears to b e the widest social u n i t that
can f u n c t i o n p r o p e r l y in a system in w h i c h all social g r o u p s are
p a t t e r n e d o n the m o d e l of the family g r o u p . T h e w i d e r social
units are, in fact, less cohesive and less p e r m a n e n t i n n a t u r e ;
so it is w i t h the v i l l a g e , w h i c h has little social life of its o w n and
is rarely p r o v i d e d w i t h an assembly house; so it is also w i t h the
tribe, because of the fact that gatherings of g r o u p s b e l o n g i n g to
t h e same tribe are r a r e l y h e l d , a p a r t f r o m the g r e a t assemblies
that meet for war, or for m a k i n g decisions as to the t r a n s h u m a n c e
of the animals a n d the a l l o t m e n t of collective lands, or for the
great a n n u a l markets. P o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y u n i t s , organizations
w h i c h are created only for special circumstances, the tribes are
aligned i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h their a l l e g i a n c e to the t w o great coffs
T h e Shawia 35
centered respectively o n the O u l e d A b d i a n d the O u l e d D a o u d .
As i n K a b y l i a , the goffs ensure a b a l a n c e of p o w e r t h r o u g h the
i n t e r p l a y of compensating tensions. " A restricted world w h i c h
becomes conscious of itself as a g r o u p only w h e n faced w i t h ene-
mies camped on all its b o r d e r s " (G. T i l l i o n ) , each tribe is u n a b l e
to m a k e w a r against any of its neighbors without e x p o s i n g one of
its flanks to the attacks of the tribe o n its opposite border. T h u s
it finds itself faced w i t h two tribes w h i c h are united i n coalition
b u t w h i c h are i n t u r n subjected to the same law: b e y o n d these
first enemies are allies; farther on, still other enemies. E a c h goff
controls one valley; the i n h a b i t a n t s of t w o confluent valleys
b e l o n g to o p p o s i n g goffs. Sometimes the goff overflows t h r o u g h
the passes o n t o the territory of its adversary. I n the Saharan
Aures, a m o n g those groups that are attached to the two great
leagues of the n o r t h e r n A u r e s , the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the two goffs
e x h i b i t s this same alternating arrangement, each village b e i n g
the adversary of the two n e i g h b o r i n g villages that are situated
above and b e l o w it in the valley.
G e n e a l o g y appears as the m o d e l o n w h i c h all social units
have b e e n conceived. B u t this m o d e l has also b e e n a p p l i e d to
other d o m a i n s — d o m a i n s as different as the p r e s c r i p t i o n of
festivals or the decisions as to t r a n s h u m a n c e , the m a k i n g of
survey plans, the d i s t r i b u t i o n of d w e l l i n g s or the a r r a n g e m e n t
of the tombs i n the cemetery. T h u s it was that i n the investiga-
tions of the Senatus Consulte they observed a j u m b l e of habitats
a n d of properties w h i c h seemed q u i t e meaningless. " A m o n g the
O. A b d i and the O . D a o u d , " wrote L a r t i g u e , "the organization
was so confused that w e h a d n o success i n a t t e m p t i n g to divide
these tribes into territorial douars"; thus i n the W a d i el A b i o d ,
the five clans of the O u l e d D a o u d h a v e interspersed their prop-
erties all a l o n g the valley, w i t h the result that lands of t w o ,
three, i n d e e d of all the clans m a y b e f o u n d i n each of the
villages. E x c e p t in M e n a a , t h e fourteen sub-groups of the O u l e d
A b d i are m i x e d u p i n checkerboard fashion; the same situation
prevails a m o n g the Beni-Bou-Slimane, w h e t h e r it is a question
of the location of lands u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n , of pasture lands or of
d w e l l i n g places. T h e statement of a m e m b e r of the t r i b e of t h e
B e n i M e l k e m as to the principles that determine the arrange-
36 T h e Algerians
merit of the tombs in the cemetery m a y g i v e us the k e y to the
w a y i n w h i c h the lands are distributed: " T h e r e are five ceme-
teries i n the arch; a person may be b u r i e d i n any of these, b u t it
m u s t be in the area allotted to his harfiqt. T h e dead are b u r i e d to-
wards the east, but in places where the limits of the hirfiqin
(plural of harfiqt) may be confused, the t o m b s are b u i l t slightly
slanted i n order to distinguish them. E v e r y harfiqt has an area
i n w h i c h each family has its o w n row, and people of the same
family are always b u r i e d beside one a n o t h e r in this r o w " (G. T i l -
l i o n ; a similar o r g a n i z a t i o n m a y be n o t e d in K a b y l i a ) . T h u s ,
since several localities are possible, there is o n l y one restriction
o n choice; the site must be selected i n the area allotted to the
harfiqt, for its distinctiveness must be m a i n t a i n e d at all costs.
Similarly at Mzira, a Saharan village b e l o n g i n g to the tribe of
the O u l e d A b d e r r a h m a n e , the u n d e r g r o u n d dwellings are d i v i d e d
a c c o r d i n g to clans, w i t h an e m p t y space b e i n g left b e t w e e n
the harfiqt areas (T. R i v i e r e ) . It appears that the same m o d e l
is f o l l o w e d in the division of property; it is as t h o u g h the inter-
l o c k i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n of territories were the result of a calcula-
tion of m a x i m u m and m i n i m u m ; it allows the different g r o u p s
to disperse their territory to the m a x i m u m degree (this quest
for dispersion b e i n g inspired by the desire to avail t h e m s e l v e s as
widely as possible of the r a n g e of natural resources), p e r h a p s over
the whole expanse of a valley, but always w i t h i n the limits im-
p o s e d by the necessity of g i v i n g the strongest p o s s i b l e cohesion
to the harfiqt, the v e r y f o u n d a t i o n stone of social e q u i l i b r i u m .
3. T h e Mozabites
37
g8 T h e Algerians
of collecting canals w h i c h receive the w a t e r f r o m the run-off a n d
l e a d it i n t o reservoirs; in the construction of d a m s designed to
permit the utilization of these periodic overflows, the same skill
is displayed.
B u t this masterpiece of conversion, as w e l l as d e m a n d i n g an
enormous o u t p u t of energy, also consumes the greater part of
the revenues. Oases a n d gardens require enormous quantities of
water to "wash the e a r t h . " T h e expenses entailed in the extrac-
tion of the water, the pay of the workers a n d the w o r k of culti-
v a t i o n , are n o t repaid by the relatively scanty yield. E v e r y t h i n g
contributes to m a k i n g a r u i n o u s l u x u r y of these g a r d e n s a n d
s u m m e r homes. A s G a u t i e r has written: " T h e oases . . . c o u l d
n o t l o n g exist on their o w n resources. . . . T h e oases system is a
vicious circle, a financial p a r a d o x , or, more accurately, a m i l l i o n -
aire's w h i m . " W e shall n o w a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n the h o w a n d the
w h y of this p a r a d o x .
T h e Mozabites are K h a r e d j i t e A b a d h i t e s (a sect of Islam),
w h o owe their n a m e to the fact that they f o r m e d a dissident
g r o u p against A l i , the f o u r t h c a l i p h , son-in-law of the P r o p h e t ,
i n the n a m e of two principles that they derived f r o m a strict
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the K o r a n , considered as the u n i q u e l a w , T o
w h i c h n o t h i n g can be a d d e d or taken away, namely, that all
believers^are e q u a l and t h a t . e v e r y action is either g a o i L o r b a d ,
-
1
Since they were considered heretics, the Kharedjites were obliged to flee
from persecution; they established in 761 the kingdom of T a h e r t which fell in
909 to the attacks of tjie Fatimides. They then moved to Sedrata, near
O u a r g l a , and from there to the Mzab.
T h e Mozabites gg
years after the f o u n d i n g of E l A t e u f i n 1011; all are situated in
t h e same w a d i w i t h i n close r a n g e of o n e another, w i t h t h e ex-
ception of the two more recent (seventeenth century) cities of
G u e r r a r a a n d Berriane.
It is the history, then, of these "dissenters" that reveals the
reason for this p a r a d o x i c a l settlement, created in defiance of
n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s . B u t h o w has m a n m a n a g e d to h a v e the last
w o r d in this desperate debate w i t h the desert? T h e e x p l a n a t i o n
is that the life, the s u r v i v a l , of the cities of the M z a b is d e p e n d -
ent on t e m p o r a r y e m i g r a t i o n a n d o n the commercial u n d e r t a k -
ings (one-third of the m a l e p o p u l a t i o n lives outside the M z a b )
w h i c h allow the M o z a b i t e to a c q u i r e the capital needed to assure
the u p k e e p of the oases a n d the expensive cultivation of the p a l m
groves. B u t this solution itself poses a p r o b l e m : if it is true that
" t h e real M z a b is n o t in the M z a b , " that " a l l its strength is . . .
i n the small groups of M o z a b i t e merchants scattered all t h r o u g h
A l g e r i a , " h o w has the cohesiveness of the whole been m a i n t a i n e d
against all the forces of dispersion? H o w , moreover, h a v e these
rigorous Puritans been able to b e c o m e financiers, specialists in
b i g business a n d h i g h finance, w i t h o u t d i s a v o w i n g t h e i r d e v o u t
h e t e r o d o x y i n any way? H o w can a k e e n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
capitalistic techniques be u n i t e d in the same persons w i t h the
most intense forms of a piety that penetrates a n d d o m i n a t e s their
w h o l e life? H o w is it that this religious s o c i e t y — t i g h t l y closed
u p o n itself, a n x i o u s to assert itself as b e i n g different—has been
able to participate in a completely m o d e r n economic system with-
out letting itself be affected or i m p a i r e d in any way a n d , at the
same time, preserve its o w n originality intact?
T h e M o z a b i t e c u l t u r e finds the basis f o r its cohesion in the
w e a l t h of its historical, l e g e n d a r y a n d doctrinal traditions, i n
the smooth, h a r m o n i o u s adjustment of the groups w i i h u i the
different c o m m u n i t i e s , in the ingenious w o r k i n g of the ittifaqdt,
the w r i t t e n codes that contain m a n y principles of j u r i s p r u d e n c e
a n d , finally, in a doctrine that is both flexible and r i g i d , a n d
w h i c h determines a way of life that is q u i t e distinctive in N o r t h
Africa.
40 T h e Algerians
2
All business is forbidden in the area of the mosque; on the market
square and in five of the streets adjacent to it are situated 60 per cent of
the business establishments.
T h e Mozabites 41
b u i l d i n g blocks a n d rise in tiers as if attracted a n d d r a w n u p
b y t h e m o s q u e , w h i c h prolongs their ascent 'with t h e skyward
soaring of its minaret. Moreover, the secular part of the city is
shut in, as it were, b e t w e e n the mosque a n d those immense
necropolises w h i c h s u r r o u n d the Mozabite cities, great fields of
a n o n y m o u s tombs a m o n g w h i c h stand c h a p e l s a n d sanctuaries,
in w h i c h solemn p u b l i c ceremonies take place and w h e r e even
the judicial assizes are h e l d , as if to affirm the solidarity of the
l i v i n g a n d the dead. T h e cemetery, the i m m e n s e , projected
s h a d o w of the l i v i n g c i t y ^ j ^ d o u b t l e s s , as it is i n N o r t h A f r i c a
in g e n j ; r a l , _ j l i e _ ^
b o n d w h i c h unites a m a n to his soil. It is the religious d u t y of
t h e ' S b a d h i t e s to ensure tfiaTThey are T5vTfied~lrT the M z a b . E a c h
clan has its o w n separate cemetery, n a m e d after the ancestor
w h o , according to tradition, is b u r i e d there. F i n a l l y , the p l a n
of the city gives an indication of the social structure. T h e ex-
tended f a m i l y , the basic indivisible element, g r o u p s together
people of the same n a m e , descended to the fourth or fifth
generation f r o m a c o m m o n ancestor. T h e clan, w h i c h unites
several e x t e n d e d families, generally has its o w n district, its o w n
cemetery, its e p o n y m o u s ancestor a n d its o w n p a t r i m o n y . C e r t a i n
clans j o i n t o g e t h e r n o t o n l y several families b u t also several
already constituted sub-clans. T h e ancestor of the clan or sub-
clan is w o r s h i p e d at an a n n u a l c e r e m o n y , w h e n , standing b e f o r e
the g r o u p assembled at the cemetery, the " n o t a b l e s " recall the
m e m o r y of the revered personage and give advice to the y o u n g
m e m b e r s of the g r o u p ; the ceremony t h e n concludes w i t h a
c o m m u n a l m e a l . T h e clan, the f u n d a m e n t a l u n i t , has its o w n
c o m m o n treasury, its assembly house, its council made u p of
a l l the adults w h o assemble to deal w i t h affairs of common
interest (the adoption of orphans, the inflicting of p u n i s h m e n t
or censure, decisions as to collective labor and a l l o t m e n t of
tasks, preparations of family ceremonies, etc.). T h e " g r e a t " men
(or " n o t a b l e s " ) , r e n o w n e d for their piety, their v i r t u e a n d their
wisdom, actually direct and k n o w the "secrets" of the g r o u p ' s
business; they sometimes f o r m a restricted assembly w h i c h meets
i n the presence of one of the m e m b e r s of the halqa. C l a n ties,
w h i c h r e m a i n v e r y s t r o n g even a m o n g the emigrants to the
42 T h e Algerians
cities, h a v e b e c o m e even stronger w i t h t h e r e d u c t i o n in t h e
p o w e r of t h e coffs (of the east and west), w h i c h u s e d to q u a r r e l
v i o l e n t l y at the slightest pretext. T h e division into coffs is n o w a
thing of the past, as witness the fact that intermarriages b e t w e e n
coffs h a v e b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e f r e q u e n t .
E a c h clan designates its o w n chief a n d selects several
elders f r o m different families to represent it, a n d these m e n , to-
gether w i t h the magistrates, f o r m the djemda; the latter formerly
w o u l d meet at the haouita, an elliptical area m a r k e d out by
twenty-six stones w h i c h had been borrowed from certain tombs
and laid out o n the m a r k e t square, as if judicial deliberations
and political debates affecting decisions o n temporal matters
sought the scene of c o m m e r c i a l activity and secular dealings b u t
were, at t h e s a m e time, i n v o k i n g t h e protection of t h e dead.
Just as the secular city is d o m i n a t e d by the mosque, all
secular or political activity a n d the body t h r o u g h w h i c h it finds
expression, the c o u n c i l of l a y m e n , is d o m i n a t e d by the priests.
T h e latter generally live in close p r o x i m i t y to the moscnie a n d
are d i v i d e d i n t o t w o groups, the m a j o r clergy, a n i m a t e d by a
p r o f o u n d religious rigorism, and the minor clergy. T h e council
of l a y m e n has legislative a n d judicial p o w e r as it does in K a b y l i a
a n d the A u r e s . H o w e v e r , in the M z a b , it has n o a u t h o r i t y or
effective p o w e r itself a n d is often l i m i t e d m e r e l y to ^ensuring
that decisions are carried out. F o r all questions of i m p o r t a n c e
it assembles i n the m o s q u e in the presence of the " c i r c l e , " a
council composed of twelve representatives of the m a j o r clergy
u n d e r the presidency of a cheikh or sheik, chosen by the clergy
to be the local leader in religious affairs. T h e s e meetings are also
sometimes h e l d i n the cemeteries, as if to strengthen the a u t h o r i t y
of the clergy, w h o are the custodians of ancestral t r a d i t i o n a n d
final arbiters in any matter that depends o n the observance of
principles c o n t a i n e d in the K o r a n or in the w o r k s of A b a d h i t e
doctrine. A m o n g the m e m b e r s of the lay djemda, only the " n o t a -
b l e s " are a l l o w e d to speak, and the role of_ the elders consists
merely of attending the meetings and g i v i n g their assent. It is
also f r o m a m o n g the m a j o r clergy that the M o z a b i t e cadi is
elected. T h i s magistrate j u d g e s cases b o t h in accordance w i t h
the law of the K o r a n a n d a c c o r d i n g to the ittifdqdt, the w r i t t e n
T h e Mozabites 43
c o m p i l a t i o n of M o z a b i t e customs. T h e s e ittifdqdt, w h i c h c a n be
modified at any time to settle current p r o b l e m s , but w h i c h are
always interpreted by reference to religious jurisprudence, gov-
ern political life as well as private morals and provide for archaic
but very f o r m i d a b l e p u n i s h m e n t s — b a s t i n a d o , fines, b a n i s h m e n t
and e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n , the latter being the supremely d r e a d e d
p u n i s h m e n t which excludes the g u i l t y person f r o m the religious
and social c o m m u n i t y and entails the loss of all his rights.
G e n e r a l l y speaking, n o i m p o r t a n t decision, n o civil regulation,
n o n e w p r o h i b i t i o n , n o sanction against a serious crime, is taken
without the i n t e r v e n t i o n of the " c i r c l e . " T h e chapter of priests,
w h i c h also supplies the dignitaries of the mosque, the i m a n , the
muezzin, the masters of the K o r a n i c schools, a n d above all the
five "priests w h o wash the d e a d " a n d w h o are at the same time
"censors of m o r a l s " e n d o w e d w i t h an i m m e n s e moral authority,
possesses considerable p o w e r . Since all Mozabites are e q u a l w i t h
o n e e x c e p t i o n — u n l e s s the r a t h e r hazy distinction b e t w e e n the
acils, the descendants of the first i n h a b i t a n t s of the city a n d
the nazils, the m o r e recent arrivals, can also be c o u n t e d as an
e x c e p t i o n — a n d since the exception lies in the s u p e r i o r i t y gf t h e
clergy over the laity, one can safely call this f o r m of g o v e r n m e n t
a^theocracy. N o d o u b t the clergy holds itself apart f r o m daily
affairs a n d leaves to the assembly of l a y m e n the care of t e m p o r a l
matters, authorizing it to draw u p the ittifdqdt concerning the
organization of the city. Doubtless, too, l a y m e n h a v e a voice in
the g o v e r n m e n t of the city t h r o u g h their representatives o n the
assemblies w h o must always be consulted (before g i v i n g sentence
of e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n , for e x a m p l e ) ; b u t , in case of conflict, the
clergy always has the last w o r d , because it possesses f o r m i d a b l e
w e a p o n s — e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n against i n d i v i d u a l s and against the
c o m m u n i t y , the suspension of all religious activities. 3
easier. ^
f
T h e Mozabites 49
T h e extremely strong cohesion of the family, combined w i t h
the s e n t i m e n t of b e l o n g i n g to a u n i q u e r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y a n d
the desire to r e m a i n faithful to this c o m m u n i t y , prevents the
dispersion of this society w h i l e it m a k e s possible the e m i g r a t i o n
of its members (cf. Kabylia). It is t h r o u g h t h e Mozabite w o m a n ,
the real safeguard of the g r o u p , that the society of emigrants
remains firmly attached to their h o m e l a n d , as m a y be seen from
the f u n d a m e n t a l r e g u l a t i o n , a true " l a w of p u b l i c safety," w h i c h
forbids any w o m a n to leave the M z a b and by w h i c h is asserted
the firm desire to preserve the c o m m u n i t y by p r e v e n t i n g any
p e r m a n e n t exodus. It is reported that i n 1 9 2 8 the w h o l e p o p u l a -
tion of B e r r i a n e c o m b i n e d to p r e v e n t a w o m a n f r o m l e a v i n g for
A l g i e r s . T h i s was done because it is felt that the w o m e n a n c h o r
4
for women to leave for the T e l l . A certain number of Mozabites have taken
their wives with them. Others have married the daughters of Mozabites
already settled in the T e l l .
5° T h e Algerians
53
54 T h e Algerians
a n d continuous c o n t a c t with E u r o p e a n s . B u t all this w o u l d be
5
56
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples 57
P l a i n s a b o u t C o n s t a n t i n e , M i t i d j a , Cheliff, the hills b o r d e r i n g
Ouarsenis and D a h r a , the plains of O r a n i e ) , at present i n h a b i t e d
by new sedentary peoples (originally "semi-sedentaries") w h o live
in a dispersed h a b i t a t and, on the o t h e r h a n d , the H i g h Plains,
the area i n w h i c h B e d o u i n dialects are most p r e v a l e n t , i n h a b i t e d
by n o m a d s , by semi-nomads in the process of b e c o m i n g sedentary,
o r by p o p u l a t i o n s that have recently become sedentary.
A c c o r d i n g to the way of life, a distinction can also be m a d e
between t h e n o m a d s a n d semi-nomads, the i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e
desert and of the steppes, a n d the city dwellers, who have l o n g
b e e n a c c u s t o m e d to a sedentary l i f e . B e t w e e n t h e two, however,
there is a w h o l e series of gradations both i n space and, if one may
say so, in time. T h e distance covered by the moves of the nomads
is d e t e r m i n e d by the aridity of the country, b y the quality of the
pasture lands and by the degree of i m p o r t a n c e attached to stock
raising, these different factors themselves being correlated to one
another. T h u s the moves b e c o m e l o n g e r a n d longer as the nomads
move closer to the desert. B u t the various modes of living are in
constant evolution, and a general tendency to b e c o m e sedentary
is evident. A m o n g the new sedentary peoples b o t h of the plains
and hills, a n d in the area of the H i g h Plains, certain peoples
have led a settled existence f o r m o r e t h a n a century, others f o r
some f o r t y o r fifty years, still others have only very recently
become attached to the soil.
T h e zone i n h a b i t e d by Arabic-speaking peoples, of which t h e
area of B e d o u i n i n f l u e n c e f o r m s t h e largest part, is in all Algeria
the zone that has felt most strongly the direct shock of coloniza-
tion, a n d the o n e in w h i c h the w e a k e n i n g of the old social struc-
tures has b e e n most severe. E u r o p e a n colonists have t a k e n over
nearly all the best land. T h i s l a n d includes the well-watered
plains in the temperate zone (the i n l a n d plains in the O r a n dis-
trict, the valley of the Cheliff, M i t i d j a , the p l a i n of B o n e ) a n d a
good part of the H i g h P l a i n s near C o n s t a n t i n e , which are rela-
tively well watered a n d f o r this reason suitable f o r the extensive
cultivation of cereal crops. Most of the original inhabitants of
these regions h a v e b e c o m e the h i r e d h a n d s of the colonists. T h e
native farmers a n d stockbreeders h a v e b e e n progressively driven
b a c k to the margins of the good f a r m land, to the regions of the
58 T h e Algerians
m o u n t a i n forests of the T e l l and to the regions of the South.
W i t h their r u d i m e n t a r y agricultural i m p l e m e n t s they have hWe
m a n a g e d to eke out a living on l a n d that the E u r o p e a n s consider
too p o o r f o r profitable f a r m i n g . H a v i n g thus been driven out,
these people were compelled to b r i n g new lands i n t o cultivation,
p a r t i c u l a r l y since p o p u l a t i o n was increasing rapidly w h i l e >the
l a n d u n d e r cultivation was b e i n g reduced in size. B e c a u s e the
land was p o o r e r and was n o t allowed to remain fallow for suffi-
ciently long periods, it necessarily gave a poorer yield a n d deteri-
orated m o r e rapidly. M o r e o v e r , on b e c o m i n g "sedentarized," a
good many of the semi-sedentary peoples a n d semi-nomads were
n o l o n g e r a b l e to engage in the occupation of stock raising w h i c h ,
together with the g r o w i n g of cereal crops, h a d been the basis of
e c o n o m i c e q u i l i b r i u m in the t r a d i t i o n a l society. F i n a l l y , the
extension of cultivated lands into the dry regions reduced the
size of pasture lands a n d at the same time placed restrictions on
the free m o v e m e n t of the nomads into the T e l l . T h e Senatus
Consulte of 1 8 6 3 , as a result of their investigations, gave the
tribes the o u t r i g h t ownership of a definitely fixed territory. B y
so d o i n g they m a d e it possible f o r the tribes to sell t h e i r best
l a n d to t h e E u r o p e a n colonists a n d at t h e same time h a s t e n e d t h e
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e t r i b a l structure.
W e are here e x a m i n i n g a society that is u n d e r g o i n g a radical
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e a n c i e n t social structures, w h i c h have been
s h a k e n o r altered to a degree varying with t h e i r i n h e r e n t power
of resistance and the violence of the shock they have received,
b e l o n g , t r u t h f u l l y speaking, n e i t h e r to the present n o r to the
past; consequently the r e a d e r must r e f r a i n f r o m r e g a r d i n g the
following analyses e i t h e r as a mere r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a b y g o n e
society or as a strictly accurate description of the existing state of
affairs. I n d e e d , even w h e n they seem to be utterly destroyed, these
structures continue to have an effect o n the present; at least, if
o n e m a y say so, they h a v e an effect through t h e very f a c t that
they n o l o n g e r exist. T h i s e x p l a i n s , t h e n , the anguish of individ-
uals w h o are adrift between the ancient structures, w h i c h would
be cruelly missed if abolished b u t if m a i n t a i n e d intact would
prove an obstacle to m u c h needed i n n o v a t i o n s , a n d the m o d e r n
T h e Arabic-Spekking Peoples 59
structures, which c a n be adopted only at the price of a t h o r o u g h
transformation a n d a complete restructuring o f society. 6
T h e City Dwellers
E x e r c i s i n g a m a g n e t i c a t t r a c t i o n f o r t h e n o m a d a n d his cara-
vans laden with merchandise as well as f o r the f a r m e r of t h e
small s u r r o u n d i n g douars, w h o comes to sell the produce o f his
land a n d to buy the objects fabricated by the u r b a n worker, t h e
city is the c e n t e r of c o m m e r c i a l e x c h a n g e s a n d is filled with great
social a n i m a t i o n because of the fact that it groups together people
with very different social b a c k g r o u n d s . R e l i g i o u s worship is cele-
brated in close p r o x i m i t y to t h e m a r k e t place, a n d the c a l e n d a r
of great c o m m e r c i a l events coincides exactly with the calendar
' T h i s remark is more or less true for all the regions of Algeria, although
in varying degree, and is also true for all the societies discussed in this book.
7
In 1817 the dey abandoned his palace in the lower town, which was
situated beside the great mosque and the souq, to take u p residence in the
fort of the Casbah, w h i c h overlooks the city.
8
Certain hypotheses shed some light on the apparently incoherent plan
of the traditional city (Algiers, for example). T h e great streets of the lower
town that follow the contour lines were probably former Roman roads;
the roads running along the summit were probably paths. Finally, the narrow
streets and alleyways that wind down the side of the hill probably follow
the course of the little ravines that were hollowed out by the run-off and
that were utilized in early times as sewers.
6o T h e Algerians
of the great religious festivals. B y r e a s o n o f t h e i r c o m m e r c i a l
roles the cities are the intersecting points of m a n y channels of
trade, a n d their e c o n o m i c prosperity is closely l i n k e d with t h a t
of t h e surrounding countryside. T l e m c e n , f o r e x a m p l e , w h i c h
was situated at the crossing of two i m p o r t a n t trade routes (Fez-
Oran, desert-coast) had b e c o m e the great warehouse f o r caravans
f r o m M o r o c c o or the Sahara. I n addition to its decaying m a n u -
f a c t u r i n g activity, this great c o m m e r c i a l city assumed the role
of i n t e l l e c t u a l center, with its fifty K o r a n i c schools a n d two
medersas, institutions f o r secondary education a n d h i g h e r learn-
ing. T h u s , a l t h o u g h it is distinguished f r o m r u r a l society by
its social structure, b y quite a different f o r m of collective exist-
ence, a n d by an entirely different way of life (language, c u l t u r e ,
m a n n e r s , c l o t h i n g , f o o d , etc.), the city nevertheless lives in sym-
b i o t i c relationship with the surrounding countryside f r o m which
it draws its supplies a n d which, in turn, furnishes a market f o r
its m a n u f a c t u r e d products; as a result, any crisis i n agriculture
leads to a d r o p in sales a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t f o r the shopkeepers
a n d m a n u a l workers i n the city.
As a place of residence a n d as an industrial center, the city
is divided i n t o districts p r o v i d e d with amenities considered indis-
pensable for the life of the c o m m u n i t y — t h e mosque, the p u b l i c
b a t h , t h e o v e n f o r b a k i n g b r e a d a n d t h e shops. T h e s e districts
t e n d to f o r m relatively a u t o n o m o u s a n d self-contained units. T h e
divisions i n t o e t h n i c groups often coincide with divisions into
trade guilds because certain professions are traditionally followed
by certain groups. T h e particularism of the districts thereby
becomes even stronger. T h e c o r p o r a t i o n , placed u n d e r the pa-
tronage of a saint whose day is celebrated b y c o m m u n a l re-
j o i c i n g s , constitutes a k i n d of " g r e a t f a m i l y " that is p a t t e r n e d
o n the m o d e l of the r e g u l a r f a m i l y u n i t , even w h e n its m e m b e r s
are n o t j o i n e d by real ties of consanguinity. T h i s social body,
w h i c h is wider t h a n the family but does not include the whole
city, is f o r t h e city dweller (along with his district) w h a t the clan
o r the tribe is f o r the c o u n t r y dweller; the f e e l i n g of corporative
solidarity, whose strength varies according to t h e particular city
a n d trade, is revealed by the m u t u a l aid a n d assistance that the
m e m b e r s give to o n e a n o t h e r , b y the reciprocal i n v i t a t i o n s that
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples 61
are e x t e n d e d on the occasion of f a m i l y ceremonies a n d b y all t h e
forms of c o m m u n a l festivities. T h e corporation is subject to a
strict e c o n o m i c moral code which tends to e x c l u d e c o m p e t i t i o n ,
which insists on the m a i n t e n a n c e of j u s t wages a n d f a i r prices,
a n d which guarantees professional honesty.
T h e r e are almost n o i m p o r t a n t business associations; the
central bazaar groups t o g e t h e r a wide variety of articles, but each
article is sold by a different m e r c h a n t . T h e largest m a n u f a c t u r i n g
c o n c e r n s include only a b o u t twenty workers a n d apprentices; the
o w n e r , who earns very little m o r e t h a n his workers, works a m o n g
them a n d shares their troubles; any advantages that he may draw
f r o m his position are m a i n l y those of h o n o r a n d prestige. I n
s h o r t , a l t h o u g h t h e u r b a n society is c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e hierarchi-
cal system, a n d a l t h o u g h a few m e n of wealth, particularly the
great merchants, stand out above the mass of small craftsmen,
shopkeepers, modest scholars a n d small landowners, who are half
citizens a n d h a l f peasants, there is n o real class rivalry any m o r e
t h a n there is in r u r a l society. B y reason of the spirit which ani-
mates the whole of this society, a n d also because of the small size
a n d r e l a t i v e u n i m p o r t a n c e of the business concerns, the relation-
ships between o w n e r a n d w o r k e r , between r i c h a n d poor, are
f a m i l i a r , equalitarian a n d fraternal.
T h e spirit of the u r b a n e c o n o m y is not greatly different f r o m
that of t h e r u r a l economy. T h e c o n c e r n for productivity is un-
k n o w n , a n d the m a i n purpose of all c o m m e r c i a l activity is the
satisfaction of needs. C o m p e t i t i o n remains in a latent state. T h e
r h y t h m of the w o r k i n g day is irregular a n d w o r k i n g h o u r s vary.
Religious ceremonies a n d family festivals considerably reduce
the time devoted to work. E x p e n d i t u r e s on l u x u r i e s eat up a
great p o r t i o n of the profits. F o r lack of capital, n o new m e t h o d s
can be introduced. T e c h n i q u e s are t r a n s m i t t e d by rule of t h u m b
a n d , like the p l a n t and e q u i p m e n t , are never renewed. T h e spirit
of traditionalism, reinforced by the corporative system, stifles the
spirit of free enterprise. T h e systems of m e a s u r e m e n t vary f r o m
one city to another, a n d often they m a y vary within the same city,
d e p e n d i n g on what is b e i n g measured. C o m m e r c i a l practice is
based not on r a t i o n a l calculation but on speculation and c h a n c e ;
industry a n d trade are almost completely divorced; c o n c e r n f o r
6a T h e Algerians
t h e p r o p e r investment of f u n d s is u n k n o w n . I n short, e c o n o m i c
relationships are n e v e r c o m p r e h e n d e d in all their b r u t a l reality;
they are always h i d d e n b e h i n d t h e veil of prestige relationships
a n d are t e m p e r e d by the s e n t i m e n t of f r a t e r n i t y . T h e fascination
f o r social relations relegates the pursuit of profit to a position of
secondary i m p o r t a n c e .
T h e city, w h e r e reside moralists, ascetics a n d jurists w h o
r e b e l against the ritualism of the r u r a l religion, is -the b a s t i o n of
religious o r t h o d o x y and at the same time a c e n t e r o\ i n t e l l e c t u a l
activity because of its m a n y schools a n d scholars. As centers of
e x p a n s i o n f o r Islam a n d f o r Eastern civilization, the cities are
animated by a refined m o d e of life that revolves a r o u n d the
mosque as its religious a n d cultural hub. T h e souq ( m a r k e t ) , the
hammam (public b a t h ) a n d the cafe are meeting places in which
is developed the art of u r b a n e conversation, and in which the
different social classes m a y i n t e r m i n g l e . O n the o n e h a n d is the
h o m e , situated at the e n d of the quiet, winding street, w i t h d r a w n
into itself, a private retreat, a closed world reserved f o r the
w o m e n ; in contrast to this is the open society, the men's world,
the souq, the public square or the cafe, the d o m a i n of public life,
of strictly controlled and codified social relationships, of l e n g t h y
conversations full of " w i t t y slander a n d accepted p l a t i t u d e s "
( W . M a r c a i s ) . B e t w e e n these two poles is e n a c t e d the life of
these cultivated a n d refined city dwellers, of this society that is
p r o f o u n d l y M o s l e m in character a n d is i n t i m a t e l y attached to a
way of life whose center may perhaps be said to be the art a n d
the cult of social relations.
T u r k s , K o u l o u g h l i s (descendants of T u r k s and of native
w o m e n ) , A n d a l u s i a n M o o r s d r i v e n out of Spain ( w h o formerly
made up three-quarters of the p o p u l a t i o n of Algiers a n d who were
very numerous in N e d r o m a , T l e m c e n , M&iea a n d M i l i a n a ) , and
new-rich " A r a b s " a n d " B e r b e r s " formerly made up the m i d d l e
class of t h e cities. E x c l u d e d from all e m p l o y m e n t u n d e r t h e
T u r k i s h r e g i m e , t h e Andalusians c o n t r o l l e d all l o c a l industry a n d
engaged i n c o m m e r c e . T o these w e r e added whole c o m m u n i t i e s
of half-urbanized city dwellers, w h o preserved t h e i r relationships
with t h e i r h o m e l a n d , safeguarded their customs a n d t h e i r lan-
g u a g e , a n d , b e i n g g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r i n families, g e n e r a l l y fol-
(Thousands of inhabitants)
miniers d'iiab.
1954-1960
I Européens ESS Algériens
(Europeans) (Algerians)
lowed the same trade: Kabyles, who came to hire out their
services o r to sell oil, figs a n d c h a r c o a l ; N e g r o e s , w h o sold l i m e
a n d worked as m a s o n s ; O u a r g l i a n d B i s k r i , water-bearers, p o r t e r s
a n d s e r v a n t s ; M o z a b i t e s , o p e r a t o r s of p u b l i c b a t h s , g r o c e r s a n d
b u t c h e r s ; J e w s , w h o were d r i v e n b a c k to the p e r i m e t e r a n d m a d e
to live in a special district; finally, a w h o l e f l o a t i n g mass of
c o u n t r y dwellers w h o h a d c o m e to do t e m p o r a r y l a b o r a n d w h o
lived close to the city gates o r i n lean-to gourbis erected a g a i n s t
the city walls.
T h e c o n s t a n t l y i n c r e a s i n g i n p o u r i n g of r u r a l masses a t t r a c t e d
by the wages to b e earned i n the c i t i e s ; 9
the c r e a t i o n a n d e x p a n -
0
T h e proportion of urban population to the total population increased
quite regularly (at the rate of 0.16 per cent per annum on the average),
going from 13.9 per cent in 1886 to 24.9 per cent in 1954. In ig5g it went
up to 26.6 per cent, the average annual increase having tripled (0.42 per
cent). Between 1936 and 1954 the urban population increased by 943,000
inhabitants (including ng,ooo Europeans), and between 1954 and igsg i t
increased by 550,000, including 50,000 Europeans.
63
64 T h e Algerian
sion of a capitalistic system of free enterprise which is concerned
primarily with mass production, p l a n n i n g a n d profit; the develop-
m e n t of the m o d e r n city, audacious and t r i u m p h a n t , built f o r
purposes of c o m m e r c e , speculation and administration; the influx
of a E u r o p e a n society which, a l t h o u g h in close contact, still
r e m a i n s a l o o f a n d which incarnates a n d imposes t h e a d o p t i o n of
a n entirely different m o d e of l i f e — a l l these factors h a v e b r o u g h t
a b o u t a p r o f o u n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in the way of life and the art
of living that were peculiar to the city of the past. T h e u r b a n
bourgeoisie, whose prosperity a n d influence were formerly based
o n business, handicrafts, a n d the practice of law a n d scholarly
pursuits, has been able to resist the competition f r o m an indus-
trial economy a n d the influx of new techniques a n d values only
at the cost of a complete transformation. New social classes have
a p p e a r e d : a new bourgeoisie, created by trade a n d industry,
w h i c h has f o r several years been intermarrying with the old city
families; intellectuals trained i n E u r o p e a n universities; a n e w
proletariat, too, m a d e u p of m o u n t a i n dwellers f r o m K a b y l i a ,
shepherds f r o m the H i g h Plains, gardeners f r o m the oases of t h e
S a h a r a . T h e m e m b e r s of this new proletariat have streamed
toward the cities as the e c o n o m i c a n d social e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e i r
c o u n t r y districts has b e e n shattered a n d , a l t h o u g h they g r o u p
themselves in districts a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r o r i g i n a n d preserve
close contacts with t h e i r h o m e territory, nevertheless they are
n o w detached f r o m the r u r a l society without being truly inte-
grated into the u r b a n society. Driven f r o m their country districts
b y poverty r a t h e r t h a n attracted by the city, they are t h r o w n
with n o training into a city that, owing to the nature of its occu-
pations a n d its structure, is i n c a p a b l e of e n s u r i n g t h e m e m p l o y -
m e n t a n d h o u s i n g . T h u s placed a m i d m a t e r i a l conditions that
10
1 0
In 1954 the part-time workers and the unemployed made u p about
30 per cent o£ the urban male population o£ working age. Algiers and O r a n
attract rural workers from those regions of which they are the administrative
centers. In the area around Constantine the rural workers who do not leave
for Algiers proceed to several different centers, particularly Constantine,
Bone, Setif and now Bougie. Generally speaking, the influx of country
dwellers bears no relation to the possibilities of employment, and this is
particularly true in the Constantine area. T h u s Setif, a r u r a l market place,
an administrative and military center, has had an increase which cannot be
justified from an economic point of view (1,000 inhabitants in 1881, 51,000
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples 65
a r e o f t e n catastrophically b a d , this p o p u l a t i o n of destitute s m a l l
wage-earners 11
t h a t encamps itself on t h e periphery of t h e
E u r o p e a n city, may also be considered to be l i v i n g on t h e fringe
o f the modern e c o n o m i c system and of modern society. T h e
city usually can offer to these disenfranchised citizens only its
worst conditions and a life of u t t e r poverty.
1 8
T h e medina differs from the ksar (plural, ksour), which is mainly agri-
cultural (palm groves and gardens), in its appearance (minarets ol I tic
mosques, larger and better constructed dwellings) and in its function as a.
manufacturing and commercial center. But there, too, all gradations may be
found.
According to an investigation carried out by M. Capot-Rey in t h e
1 4
1 5
See para., The social structures, ft
" A s a consequence of a year of drought (1945) the sheep population
fell from 5,832,000 (1944) to 2,808,000 (1946).
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples 69
is everywhere a n d yet n o w h e r e , is indeed the f o u n d a t i o n and
necessary c o n d i t i o n f o r all life in the desert.
T h i s society has fallen i n t o a great decline. T h e widespread,
vigorous nomadism of the period p r i o r to 1 8 3 0 has been replaced
b y a limited, c o n t r o l l e d and w e a k e n e d f o r m of n o m a d i s m . D u r i n g
t h e past fifty years stock raising has steadily d e c l i n e d , while farm-
ing has increased u n t i l it now extends as far south as the steppes.
T h e pasture lands h a v e b e e n reduced in size by the advance of
colonization, particularly in the area of T i a r e t and Sersou. M o r e -
over, the years of d r o u g h t , the absence of any efficient methods
o f protecting a n d i m p r o v i n g the flocks, the f a i l u r e to set a firm
value on the products of stock raising, e x p l a i n the decrease in
size of the flocks of sheep, which were reduced f r o m ten to twelve
m i l l i o n head at the b e g i n n i n g of the century to l i t t l e m o r e t h a n
s i x million i n 1 9 5 4 . O t h e r influences have aggravated this crisis
o f the n o m a d i c way of life: the appearance of new methods of
transportation (railway and t r u c k ) a n d the increase in the m o n e y
supply (eliminating the need for b a r t e r ) have b r o u g h t a b o u t the
d e c l i n e in the caravan trade, w h i c h was the monopoly of the
nomads; the establishment of law a n d order has permitted small
g r o u p s to m o v e f r e e l y f r o m place to place a n d has s t r i p p e d t h e
n o m a d of t h e prestige attached to his r o l e as " p r o t e c t o r " of t h e
ksourien; " t h e suzerainty of the n o m a d has ceased to be a f o r m of
i n s u r a n c e a n d has b e c o m e a b u r d e n " ( C a p o t - R e y ) ; t h e discovery
o f oil a n d the creation of the oil industry have speeded u p the
overthrow of the f o r m e r hierarchies—workers in the oil fields,
o f t e n liberated slaves formerly employed as f a r m hands, some-
times earn wages m u c h h i g h e r t h a n the i n c o m e of the t r i b a l
chiefs; the r a p i d increase in p o p u l a t i o n related t o (and perhaps
d e p e n d e n t on) becoming sedentary; the crisis t h a t oases f a r m i n g
is undergoing combined with the crisis in the s h a r e c r o p p i n g
system have disrupted the balance of the Saharan economy. A
great n u m b e r of r u i n e d nomads, semi-nomads, and sedentary
peoples have been c o m p e l l e d to look for new sources of i n c o m e ,
e i t h e r by f a r m i n g p o o r lands, o r by g a t h e r i n g esparto grass, o r by
e m i g r a t i n g to the cities of the T e l l . T h e n o m a d i s m of the shep-
herds, m o v i n g i n great caravans made up of an entire tribe o r of
clans led by t h e i r sheik, has very f r e q u e n t l y given way to t h e
*]0 T h e Algerians
n o m a d i s m of the work-hungry, a nomadism which brings to the
cities wretched persons who have been torn f r o m their ac-
customed way of life and cut off f r o m their now completely dis-
integrated c o m m u n i t y .
T h e N e w Sedentary Peoples
" T h e limits of the area in which this type of people has settled are
rather vague. It may be said to occupy all zones that are not inhabited either
by the old established sedentary people or by semi-nomadic or nomadic
shepherds, that is, principally in those areas of the plains in which the rain-
fall is over 138 inches, and in the wooded massifs.
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples 71
mastic trees or j u j u b e trees. T h i s w h o l e system obviously leads
t o a r a t h e r disorganized r u r a l landscape. T h e group moves a b o u t
o v e r t h e areas of w h i c h they a r e the virtual owners. E a c h g r o u p
and each family farms according to its needs and its means; by
so d o i n g , it establishes the size of its o w n area w i t h i n the c o m m o n
territory, its force of e x p a n s i o n finding w i t h i n itself its own p r i n -
ciple of limitation. T h e w i n t e r e n c a m p m e n t is the m o r e stable,
since it lasts f r o m N o v e m b e r to M a r c h . H e r e the g r o u p puts down
its roots; here it has its u n d e r g r o u n d g r a n a r y (matmoura) and
its cemetery, the tangible symbol of its a t t a c h m e n t to the soil
a n d to its ancestors. A r o u n d t h e w i n t e r mechta some f a r m i n g
is done on small fields which were first roughly cleared by fire;
in spite of the system of letting part of the land lie fallow, the
soil is quickly exhausted and the fields have only a relative stabil-
ity. D u r i n g the w i n t e r the flock is pastured in the i m m e d i a t e area
of t h e mechta. I n the spring the w h o l e o r p a r t of the group leaves
t h e w i n t e r mechta, a n d , since the flocks must b e r e m o v e d f r o m the
lands u n d e r cultivation, they are p u t to graze on the lands t h a t
will be sown in a u t u m n , an o r i g i n a l m e t h o d of ensuring that the
fields will be properly fertilized. T h e animals are shut in at n i g h t
within the circle of tents (douar) o r w i t h i n an enclosure of j u j u b e
trees. W h e n s u m m e r comes, the g r o u p returns to harvest the c r o p ,
the flocks feed on the stubble fields, a n d the w i n t e r e n c a m p m e n t
is again set up. Different causes (particularly the reduction of the
flocks resulting f r o m bad years) m a k e the stock raisers decide to
increase the size of the seeded areas; this i n t u r n leads to the
progressive a b a n d o n m e n t of the system of a n n u a l distribution
of l a n d as each f a m i l y now begins p e r m a n e n t l y to cultivate the
same fields; it also results in the group's b e c o m i n g p e r m a n e n t l y
settled i n the winter camp, while t h e n o m a d i c system of grazing
flocks over l i m i t e d pasture lands is replaced by a system of lrtiular
t r a n s h u m a n c e in c h a r g e of the shepherds. W i t h the i n s t i t u t i o n of.
family property, there finally appears w i t h i n the tribe the dis-
tinction between those w h o own the land a n d those who c u l t i v a t e
it.
E x t e n s i v e f a r m i n g , d e v o t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y to cereals, is thus
c o m b i n e d with extensive sheep raising; this type of f a r m i n g is
based on the a l t e r n a t i o n of growing a n d leaving the fields to
72 T h e Algerians
lie fallow, thereby p e r m i t t i n g the soil to rest a n d at the same
t i m e providing f o o d f o r t h e flock. I n this subsistence-level econ-
o m y the c o m b i n a t i o n of agriculture a n d sheep breeding ensures
the satisfaction of essential needs. T h e staple diet consists of the
barley a n d wheat w h i c h ( m i x e d with salt water, with meat a n d
vegetables o f t e n added) are used to m a k e the couscous. T h e flock
provides meat, the m a i n course f o r the meals that are h e l d d u r i n g
family or religious festivals, a n d m i l k , w h i c h is d r u n k fresh o r
18
3 3
T h e poorest of the poor would be dishonored if he did not have his
quarter of mutton on the day of the Aid. If the w o r k e r is too poor to buy it,
tradition demands that the master give him a supply of mutton on the oc-
casion of the great festivals. T h i s is often stipulated in the contracts.
" A c c o r d i n g to the latest farm census (1951), those engaged in traditional
farming were still using swing-plows on 300,000 of the 630,000 farms.
1
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples 73
above all, the team to p u l l the plow. T h e r u d i m e n t a r y techniques
produce only a very low yield, but at the lowest possible cost.
T h u s b a l a n c e appears to h a v e b e e n a t t a i n e d at t h e highest possi-
ble level within the limits imposed by the lack of advanced
methods and techniques a n d by the lack of capital. It would
therefore appear to be impossible, given equal means, to achieve
any greater success. T h e attainment of any higher level of adapta-
tion would presuppose the acquiring of better technical methods
and devices, and the possession of extensive capital, and would
involve a complete t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the social, e c o n o m i c and
psychological structures.
T h i s insecure and constantly t h r e a t e n e d e q u i l i b r i u m con-
ceals considerable tension. T h e reason for this is that agriculture
a n d stock raising are c o m p l e m e n t a r y b u t at the same time com-
petitive. H e a v y r a i n f a l l leads to an e x t e n s i o n of the area u n d e r
cultivation at the expense, and to the detriment, of the share of
the l a n d given over to the flock; a f a v o r a b l e l a m b i n g season, a
good cereal crop which will e n a b l e him to buy livestock—the
fellah's pride, the tangible display of his wealth and the only way
in which he can a c c u m u l a t e capital — a n d the flock will increase
2 0
F i g . 8. P l a n of a P a r t of t h e D o m a i n (haouch) of t h e B e n C h a o u a
T h i s p a r t of t h e d o m a i n of t h e B e n C h a o u a is s i t u a t e d n o r t h o f
the m a i n r o a d r u n n i n g f r o m B l i d a t o A l g i e r s . T h e s h a d e d a r e a s r e p r e -
sent: (1) u n c l e a r e d l a n d ; (s) c u l t i v a t e d l a n d ; (3) p a s t u r e l a n d ; (4) d w e l l -
ings. (After I s n a r d , La réorganisation de la propriété rurale dans la
Mitidja, Algiers, 1948.)
78 T h e Algerians
v e l o p m e n t of the "great f a m i l y , " the sole g r o u p endowed with the
necessary authority and prestige, partly by reason of its fecundity,
w h i c h assured it a c o n t i n u i t y a n d a power superior to the hazards
of the n a t u r a l and social world; partly because of its cohesion
a n d solidarity, which permitted it to e x t e n d its power over the
soil a n d to c o u n t e r b a l a n c e the e x p a n s i o n of rival groups; partly
also because of its n o b l e or religious origin. So M . Y a c o n o has
discovered, in the Chéliff, the existence of about ten great families
a m o n g some thirty tribes. A chart representing the division of
w e a l t h a m o n g the O u l e d K h e l o u f , t h e Ouled K h o u i d e m a n d the
B o r d j i a reveals clearly m a r k e d contrasts in wealth, w h i l e at the
same time there appears to be no intermediary g r o u p between
the rich a n d the poor.
T h e great family offers çohba, or protection, in e x c h a n g e f o r
fidelity a n d a l l e g i a n c e , r a t h e r t h a n f o r servitude a n d depend-
ence. I n the métayage au quint system, the t e n a n t f a r m e r o n a
one-fifth share basis contributes his m a t e r i a l services, the m a s t e r
his spiritual services. T h i s r e l a t i o n is even m o r e c l e a r l y revealed
w h e n t h e " s e i g n e u r " is at the same time a personage of the
m a r a b o u t class, a possessor of the m a g i c a l religious power t h a t
is believed to f a v o r t h e w o r k of the farm. T h e means, that is t o
say, the h u m a n relation, the pact u n i t i n g m a n to m a n , w o u l d
h e r e seem to b e m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n the e n d , the w o r k i n g
of the land; concern f o r technical a c t i o n and a calculated
d e v e l o p m e n t is s u b o r d i n a t e to the concern f o r d e v e l o p i n g a wide
r a n g e of h u m a n relationships. T h i s type of e c o n o m y — i n w h i c h
d i r e c t f a r m i n g of t h e l a n d by the o w n e r is i n f r e q u e n t a n d
is, i n d e e d , looked u p o n w i t h disdain, in w h i c h those w h o a r e in
possession of a n y w e a l t h leave field w o r k t o others a n d in which,
consequently, the carrying out of f a r m tasks always presupposes
t h e c o o p e r a t i o n of two people, the o w n e r a n d the t e n a n t f a r m e r —
is evidently much different from that which has been n o t e d
a m o n g t h e sedentary f a r m e r s . O n e is s t r u c k by the m e d i a t e
n a t u r e of the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m a n a n d t h e soil; this m e d i a t i o n
is t h e h u m a n r e l a t i o n , the pact interposed b e t w e e n the o w n e r
a n d his land. B u t , one will say, is n o t the tenant f a r m e r in direct
a n d immediate contact with the soil? N o d o u b t he is, but he
is a t t a c h e d to it by ties that are quite different f r o m those c r e a t e d
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples yg
by ownership, a n d perhaps it is not exaggerating to say that the
tie between the worker and the soil involves the master.
I f such is indeed the n a t u r e of the s h a r e c r o p p i n g system, it
is evident that the tenant f a r m e r benefits f r o m this i n s t i t u t i o n
and that the change to the status of wage e a r n e r w h i c h , accord-
i n g to o u r way of t h i n k i n g , may appear as a promotion, is, in
this context, to be considered as a d e m o t i o n . J u d g e d according
22
23
Estimates as to the number of sharecroppers vary from 60,000 to 150,000.
T h e discrepancy may be explained by the fact that a number of farmers
and temporary or permanent agricultural workers are at the same time
tenant farmers. From being approximately one-third of the active rural
population in 1914, the number of sharecroppers has been reduced to less
than one-tenth at the present time.
8o T h e Algerians
definite sanctions. T h e pact is vitalized a n d m a i n t a i n e d by a
sense of h o n o r a n d the fear of p u b l i c disapproval. B e c a u s e he
would be b r e a k i n g his word if he failed to live up to the contract,
the t e n a n t remains f a i t h f u l to the master. F o r the same reason,
if he judges himself to be oppressed or e x p l o i t e d , he can d e n o u n c e
h i m publicly, a n d the pressure of public o p i n i o n is generally able
to force the l a n d o w n i n g class to live up to its r a n k , to behave in
a way t h a t commands respect, a n d to p r o t e c t t h e p o o r . M a g n a -
nimity and generosity are not only attributes of greatness but are
virtues with which greatness is naturally endowed, so that to be
lacking in these virtues would be an act of self-repudiation and
self-denial. Moreover, far f r o m considering himself as a slave
o r p r o l e t a r i a n , the w o r k e r participates i n t i m a t e l y in the life of
t h e family g r o u p whose cares, troubles, a n d sometimes poverty,
h e shares, whose interests he regards as his own, since h e considers
himself to b e " a n associate" a n d not a m e r e h i r e d h a n d . F o r these
reasons the contract appears to have been patterned on a deeper
r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h a t of f a t h e r a n d son, since, in fact, the master
pledges himself to ensure the l i v e l i h o o d of the t e n a n t a n d to
f r e e h i m f r o m all worry c o n c e r n i n g t h e f u t u r e . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
t h e latter is generally assured against the uncertainties of the
f u t u r e , against u n e m p l o y m e n t a n d total destitution. T h e tenants
generally f a r m the areas that are suitable f o r cereal crops, a n d it
is only because o f this i n s t i t u t i o n o f sharecropping that the
poor worker is assured of his supply of semolina, his basic diet.
T h u s it is n o t surprising t h a t , as has b e e n n o t e d recently, paid
workers should at times d e m a n d t h e advantages of s h a r e c r o p p i n g
(payment i n k i n d , advances), f o r e x a m p l e , at the time of the
heaviest f a r m work. I n an e c o n o m i c system that is c o n t i n u a l l y
overshadowed by t h e threat of f a m i n e , does not this i n s t i t u t i o n
o f sharecropping afford the best f o r m of p r o t e c t i o n a n d insurance?
P r o t e c t e d against e x t r e m e poverty, the s h a r e c r o p p e r is also pro-
tected against isolation f r o m his fellows, an inestimable advan-
tage in a society in w h i c h the individual exists only in a n d
t h r o u g h the g r o u p , is conscious of his own identity only t h r o u g h
t h e g r o u p , a n d has a legal a n d social existence only to the
e x t e n t that the group will consent to be responsible f o r h i m
a n d to defend h i m .
•1
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples 81
I t is very easy to show t h e advantages t h e m a s t e r obtains
u n d e r this system. T h e institution of s h a r e c r o p p i n g facilitates
the m a n a g e m e n t of his p r o p e r t y , a n d requires h i m to use only
the resources provided by his estate, a considerable advantage
i n an economy in which money is scarce. F u r t h e r m o r e , the master
is assured of diligent a n d conscientious w o r k on the part of the
tenant, w h o is also interested in o b t a i n i n g a g o o d c r o p . B u t is
the profit he derives f r o m this association really of an e c o n o m i c
order? O n e may d o u b t this w h e n one thinks of his obligation to
support t h e sharecropper, even in years of scarcity a n d without
any h o p e of r e p a y m e n t . I n reality, riches are valued less f o r them-
selves or f o r t h e m a t e r i a l satisfactions they provide than f o r the
e n h a n c e m e n t in prestige, influence, a n d ascendancy that is pro-
cured by the possession of a " c l i e n t e l e , " that group of dependents
which is, as it were, a p r o j e c t i o n of the power of its protector.
I f the p r o p r i e t o r does gain by this system (although he would
a p p e a r to lose by it if o n e considered only e c o n o m i c factors) it
is because the pact is p r i m a r i l y a r e l a t i o n based on h o n o r a n d
prestige, even t h o u g h it may be u n d e r m i n e d by the m o r e o r less
hidden temptation to e x p l o i t a t i o n o n the o n e h a n d a n d to
parasitism on the other.
F u r t h e r m o r e , since t h e r e is n o m o n e t a r y e x c h a n g e o r circula-
tion of currency in the m o d e r n sense, s h a r e c r o p p i n g a n d the
o t h e r types of a g r i c u l t u r a l association provide the only possible
solution b o t h f o r the o w n e r a n d the w o r k e r . I n d e e d , m o n e y in
this society does n o t play the r o l e of universal m e d i u m f o r deal-
ings a m o n g m e n as it does in a capitalistic e c o n o m y ; thus money-
lending, while an integral part of the system, is the business of
specialized m i n o r i t i e s ; a n d even then interest-bearing transactions
are generally carried out only with allogeneous groups, the no-
mads of the desert a n d particularly the m o u n t a i n dwellers, whose
e c o n o m y is of a c o m p l e m e n t a r y n a t u r e . T h u s it is that the
honor-ruled e x c h a n g e of gift and countergift, of p r o t e c t i o n a n d
homage, is the p r e d o m i n a n t f o r m of e x c h a n g e . Consequently,
wage e a r n i n g c a n n o t really exist in a system of this n a t u r e , a n d
s h a r e c r o p p i n g appears to b e the only f o r m of association possible
between the m a n who owns the l a n d a n d the means of produc-
82 T h e Algerians
tion a n d the m a n who has nothing to offer but his arms f o r the
working of this l a n d .
T h e p r e c e d i n g analyses will have s h o w n to w h a t e x t e n t the
social a n d the e c o n o m i c structures are closely i n t e r l o c k e d . T h e
c l a n a n d the tribe may b e defined primarily as the g r o u p in
possession of a particular domain, pasture lands, forests a n d
f a r m lands. It has also b e e n shown that the jointly h e l d patri-
m o n y is the basis of unity f o r the e x t e n d e d family. T h u s the
aim of customs and laws t h r o u g h o u t all Algeria, and especially
a m o n g the B e r b e r - s p e a k i n g peoples, is to protect the integrity
of this p a t r i m o n y . T h e sale of land is, in point of fact, impos-
sible, since it demands the consent of all the heirs. Moreover,
should it h a p p e n that o n e of the owners could b e induced
to sell, the other m e m b e r s of the family always have the right
(and to a certain extent the duty) to pre-empt the land, chef da,
a c c o r d i n g to an o r d e r established by custom. F o r the same rea-
sons the m o r t g a g e loan, w h i c h may lead to the dispossession of
the d e b t o r , is almost u n k n o w n , whereas the pledging of real
estate as security f o r a debt, the n o n - p a y m e n t of w h i c h only al-
lows the creditor to enjoy the use of the land, is quite c o m m o n .
T h e daughter, t h r o u g h w h o m the p a t r i m o n y m i g h t pass out of
t h e o w n e r s h i p of the agnatic g r o u p , is often in actual fact dis-
i n h e r i t e d ; the f a t h e r c a n dedicate his p r o p e r t y t o some pious
f o u n d a t i o n (private habous), thereby m a k i n g it i n a l i e n a b l e .
I f this society surrounds the p r o p e r t y of the agnatic g r o u p with
such a g r e a t n u m b e r of protective laws, it is because the integ-
rity of the p a t r i m o n y , the u n i t y of the e x t e n d e d f a m i l y and the
authority of the h e a d of the f a m i l y a r e i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d .
I f one or a n o t h e r of these were w e a k e n e d , t h e very existence
of the family, the keystone of the whole social edifice, w o u l d be
t h r e a t e n e d . T h e Senatus Consulte of 1 8 6 3 , b y f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e
division a n d commercialization of t h e arch lands, s h o o k t h e
t r i b a l structure to its very foundation. I n a different way, t h e
breaches in t h e system of j o i n t possession, which h a v e b e c o m e
m o r e and m o r e f r e q u e n t d u r i n g the last twenty years, have coin-
cided (without its b e i n g possible to determine cause and effect)
with the c h a l l e n g e to t h e authority of the h e a d of the family,
V
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples 83
w i t h t h e disruption of t h e n o r m a l c h a i n of m a t r i m o n i a l ex-
changes, and with the disintegration of the family u n i t .
The social structures.—The preceding analyses m a y h a v e
given the r e a d e r a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the various social
structures, particularly the structure of the tribe, the most com-
plex of all social units. It appears, in fact, that all the different
interpretations that have been m a d e as to the nature of the tribe
must b e placed in question, w h e t h e r they e x p l a i n it by con-
sanguinity, or by the initial e x p a n s i o n of m o t h e r stocks project-
ing their shoots in all directions, or by the dissemination of
wandering groups. Before dealing with the intricacies of con-
crete cases, it would perhaps be useful to give a rough definition
of the " i d e a l t y p e " of tribe, a l t h o u g h it is rarely met with in reality.
T h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y , the basic social unit, groups together
several c o n j u g a l families f o u n d e d by the direct male descendants
of a c o m m o n ancestor. T h e patrilinear structure and the patri-
archal system imply both the role of the " f a t h e r " a n d the absolute
p r e p o n d e r a n c e g r a n t e d to the men, women's rights b e i n g sub-
ordinate to those of the agnates. T h e " f r a c t i o n " (Jerqa), or clan,
is also f o u n d e d on m a l e c o n s a n g u i n i t y and is comprised m a i n l y
of the agnates. I t includes several e x t e n d e d families of w h i c h
the male m e m b e r s consider themselves to be "sons of the p a t e r n a l
u n c l e , " w i t h o u t defining their precise degree of relationship. T h e
m e m b e r s of the same clan d o not seek b l o o d v e n g e a n c e on o n e
a n o t h e r . T h e clan has its own leader, the sheik, who decides on
the moves of the group, a n d its o w n n a m e , which distinguishes it
f r o m the o t h e r units t h a t m a k e up t h e tribe. Usually it honors
with a special cult its eponymous f o u n d e r . It has rights to a fixed
portion of the tribal territory, a n d all its flocks (bearing the same
b r a n d ) m o v e out as o n e flock to the pasture lands, although each
family i n the g r o u p has outright ownership of its animals, its
grain, a n d its i m p l e m e n t s . T h e tribe is a federation of clans
whose m e m b e r s claim to have descended f r o m a c o m m o n ancestor,
an ancestor who is likewise h o n o r e d with a cult. It is led by a
sheik, generally the leader of one of the more i m p o r t a n t clans.
F i n a l l y , t h e r e are the c o n f e d e r a t i o n s , v a g u e a n d ill-defined organi-
zations that usually stem f r o m war, w h e n a coalition may bring
84 T h e Algerians
together two o r m o r e tribes t h r e a t e n e d b y a c o m m o n danger. A
weaker tribe may then seek the p r o t e c t i o n of powerful strangers
at the price of its own submission, or groups of e q u a l power
may join together to oppose a c o m m o n enemy or m a k e new
conquests. It sometimes happens that a vast confederation will be
f o r m e d a r o u n d a particular great family which holds the weaker
tribes i n a state of loose vassalage. T h u s on the eve of the F r e n c h
o c c u p a t i o n eastern Algeria was dominated by the sheik of the
H a n e n c h a of the H a r a r f a m i l y in the east, the sheik el A r a b
of t h e B o u O k k a z f a m i l y in the south, a n d the sheik of the
M e d j a n a of the Ouled M o k r a n family in the west.
T h e real state of affairs is, however, infinitely m o r e com-
plex t h a n this simplified o u t l i n e . I n the first place, the extreme
variety of family origins that is concealed u n d e r the a p p a r e n t
unity created b y the c o m m o n n a m e , a consequence of the fiction
of t h e c o m m o n ancestor, forces o n e to a b a n d o n the hypothesis
of consanguinity. T h e tribe is a patchwork agglomeration f o r m e d
b y the j o i n i n g together of various elements; a single e x a m p l e w i l l
i l l u s t r a t e this (Despois, Hodna, p. 1 1 9 ) : t h e t r i b e of t h e O u l e d
M a d h i not only i n c l u d e s some descendants of t h e A t h b e d j , b u t ,
e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t , a large foreign e l e m e n t (Moroccans, the
O u l e d Nail, m o u n t a i n people, etc.). Secondly, how much credit
should be given to the hypothesis of dissemination f r o m m o t h e r
stocks that have projected their branches in all directions?
G r o u p s w h i c h swarm over t h e t r a n s h u m a n c e routes, social units
w h i c h b r e a k u p i n t o segments, " c o l o n i e s " of nomads settled in
the T e l l , i n d i v i d u a l migrations and collective e x p a n s i o n as the
result of commercial activities, all these p h e n o m e n a of the past
are supposed to e x p l a i n , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e fact that the same n a m e
can b e f o u n d i n groups that are a considerable distance a p a r t .
I n p o i n t of f a c t , t h e genealogical system is o n l y an a t t e m p t at a n
i m a g i n a r y reconstruction (see t h a t shown in Fig. 9 ) . T h e attempt
to p r o d u c e a h i s t o r i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n is scarcely a n y b e t t e r substan-
tiated. T h i s , however, raises a n u m b e r of questions: b y g r a n t i n g
that the e x p l a n a t i o n lies partly in the swarming of peoples a n d
partly in migrations, will o n e thereby have taken all the factors
into account? W h y does this recourse to the fiction of t h e epony-
m o u s f a t h e r keep on r e c u r r i n g ? W h y do certain tribes attract
1
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples 85
others to t h e m ? I t is necessary t o r e p l y to t h e s e questions before
e x a m i n i n g the p r o b l e m — w h i c h seems to be at the core of all
these difficulties—of the relation between the n a m e and the tribal
reality.
I n the first place, social or political relations are f o r m e d on
the model of family relations. T h e result is that the pattern of
social organization is merely the p r o j e c t i o n of the family organi-
zation: several families m a k e up the clan a n d several clans con-
stitute the tribe, envisaged as an association of clans u n i t e d by
a bond analogous to that existing between members of the same
family. W i t h i n this framework the genealogical fiction is allowed
to come into play in order to establish a family relationship
(filiation or cousinship) between individuals w h o have been
j o i n e d together in accordance with quite different mechanisms.
" T h i s social organism may split up, or it may increase in size
by the adoption of f o r e i g n elements, or it may even fuse together
with o t h e r organisms . . . that have b e e n fortuitously b r o u g h t
in contact. B u t with the passage of time an entirely theoretical
e x p l a n a t i o n covers over a n d hides this utilitarian g r o u p i n g ; most
of the great tribes are really only disguised confederations. T h e
i m p o r t a n t t h i n g is that its m e m b e r s should be i g n o r a n t of this
fact or should have wilfully forgotten it, and that they should
attribute to the bonds that unite them the same value that they do
to the n a t u r a l ties of b l o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p " (G. M a r c a i s ) . I n short,
once it is admitted that the pattern of genealogical affiliation
constitutes the structural model, then the constant recourse to
the fiction of t h e eponymous ancestor as the f o u n d a t i o n of every
social u n i t — e v e n when, in reality, this unit is merely a cluster
—obviously becomes the only possible f o r m of r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n
that can e x p l a i n the r e a l lack of c o h e s i o n that exists. T h i s ac-
counts, then, f o r the sort of desperate eagerness to establish a
b o n d of fictitious k i n s h i p when real kinship is lacking; it ex-
plains why the tribe, too, claims to be of one n a m e and o n e
blood, and descended from a c o m m o n ancestor, whereas in reality
tribal ties are not based on a n a t u r a l but on a c o n v e n t i o n a l kin-
ship.
f ZAiD
Zaïd j SELIM
ben Ahmed
ben Othmane
Relleb
Maîou
NABET Zitoun
Rabah — Achour ben Rabah
86
I
Social Units
Q Zald
O . Selim
O . Necer
} O ZAID
•ULED RELLEB
Kiata
O. Zitoun O. N A B E T '
O. Achour
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples 89
while their n a m e may c h a n g e — a c o m p l e x interplay of perma-
nence a n d change that is centered on the n a m e .
T h e n a m e is a p o w e r in itself. I n the f o r m a t i o n of t h e t r i b e
of t h e O u l e d M a d h i t h e m a i n role a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n p l a y e d
by t h e A t h b e d j of t h e R i y a h confederation, t h e advance-guard
of the H i l l a l i a n Arabs. I n o t h e r tribes it was the moral a n d re-
ligious ascendancy of the marabouts that served as a cementing
b o n d . W i t h i n the vicinity of the most venerated zaouia, " m a r a -
b o u t i c " tribes have been f o r m e d whose m e m b e r s consider them-
selves to be descendants of the saint and who, in addition to
a d o p t i n g the n a m e of the m a r a b o u t , have considered themselves
as b e l o n g i n g to a religious n o b i l i t y . I n all these cases it is not
at all surprising to find that the names conserved by tradition
are those of the victorious clans o r of the p r i n c i p a l families whose
protection was sought by the o t h e r different groups. N o r is it
surprising to find that the n a m e s vary f r o m o n e p e r i o d to the
n e x t . Sometimes, f r o m a previously constituted g r o u p , an influ-
ential family will emerge w h i c h imposes its n a m e and authority
u p o n the tribe. T h e result is that quite often the various ele-
ments w h i c h m a k e up the tribe have n o t h i n g i n c o m m o n but a
n a m e a n d the history of this n a m e . " S o m e t i m e s , even, there is no
d o m i n a n t group. T h e tribe, properly speaking, is only a con-
federation, an assemblage of heterogeneous elements j o i n e d to-
gether under a collective a p p e l l a t i o n a n d under an illustrious
n a m e to w h i c h o n e of the m e m b e r families has t h e sole r i g h t "
(G. M a r c a i s ) .
I n o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d the i m p o r t a n c e of the n a m e a n d t h e
fact that it takes precedence over historical o r social reality, o n e
must l o o k on it f r o m the standpoint of h o n o r a n d prestige. A
certain group o r family may place itself e i t h e r under the protec-
tion of a family with a great name that has been m a d e illustrious
by legendary ancestors, or of a proud chief marked by divine
favor, or even of an i n f l u e n t i a l m a r a b o u t . I n r e t u r n for t r i b u t e
the family or group is allowed to develop under the wing of its
defender, whose p r o t e c t i o n is at first g r a n t e d as a t e m p o r a r y
measure b u t in the course of time comes to be e x t e n d e d to its
descendants. A l l those who b e a r the same n a m e a r e united b y
a f u n d a m e n t a l solidarity a n d b y w h a t m i g h t be called a n i d e n t i t y
go T h e Algerians'
of being. T h e d e p e n d e n t g r o u p may be allowed to assume t h e i r
protector's n a m e , w h i c h they t h e n b e a r like a sort of e m b l e m
that is b o t h respected and f e a r e d . It w o u l d seem that a m a g i c
b o n d unites the n a m e to the t h i n g n a m e d ; to b o r r o w the n a m e is
to share in the virtues of its o w n e r and particularly in his baraka
or vital force, t h a t mysterious a n d beneficent p o w e r that favors
o u t s t a n d i n g men. T h u s we see the power a t t a c h e d to the n a m e ,
w h i c h is b o t h a symbol a n d a g u a r a n t e e of p r o t e c t i o n , a symbol
a n d g u a r a n t e e of h o n o r a n d prestige, or, better, a g u a r a n t e e of
p r o t e c t i o n because it is a symbol of h o n o r a n d prestige.
T h e actual m e c h a n i s m is, however, m u c h less simple t h a n
the preceding analyses m i g h t lead one to believe. I n point of fact
the p h e n o m e n a of assimilation are always a c c o m p a n i e d by phe-
n o m e n a of dissimilation. As F e r d i n a n d de Saussure has remarked:
" I n every mass of people, two opposing forces are simultaneously
at w o r k : on the one h a n d the particularist spirit, the 'parochial
spirit'; o n the o t h e r h a n d the desire to have m u t u a l dealings
with o t h e r peoples, to have c o m m u n i c a t i o n with o t h e r m e n "
(Cours de linguistique générale, p. 2 8 1 ) . T h i s law is o p e r a t i n g
with full force in N o r t h A f r i c a n society; we have seen o t h e r
examples of it. T h e t e m p t a t i o n to identify oneself with others
a n d lose one's individuality is being constantly c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d
by the desire to oppose others, t o assert oneself as b e i n g different,
to be oneself. T h e n a m e , j u s t as it constitutes the best symbol
a n d b o n d of unity, may also b e employed as the best m e a n s of
developing the distinguishing f e a t u r e o n w h i c h the g r o u p will
seek to base its special identity. T h e result is a t e n d e n c y t o
classify groups a c c o r d i n g to n a m e only, a n d the dispersal o f
tribal names appears to reflect this tendency.
T h e principle of e q u i l i b r i u m between the forces of assimila-
tion a n d dissimilation may also perhaps provide the key to those
strange organizations, the çoffs. H e r e the m e c h a n i s m is possibly
even m o r e in evidence; w h a t is the unity of a çoff based o n if it
is not on a name? T h e use of the n a m e as the only basis f o r clas-
sifying groups here becomes the purest k i n d of formalism, since
the different "classes" have n o real distinction, and the antithesis
between classes is either purely onomastic o r is expressed by sim-
p l e symbols (e.g., the opposition between the O u l e d M a d h i a n d
V
T h e Arabic-Speaking Peoples gi
the O u l e d N a ï l is s h o w n by b l a c k as opposed t o r e d tents). T h e
f a c t t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n a r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e o p e r a t i o n of this law
s h o u l d h o l d such an i m p o r t a n t p l a c e i n A l g e r i a n society can,
moreover, be e x p l a i n e d : indeed, if o n e admits, as M. Lévi-Strauss
suggests, that h u m a n societies are defined " b y a certain optimum
of diversity b e y o n d w h i c h t h e y c a n n o t g o , b u t below which they
likewise cannot go without being endangered" (Race et histoire,
p. 9) it w o u l d appear that the existence of a c o m m o n f u n d of
culture of such a size a n d e x t e n t that it seemed liable to b r i n g
a b o u t a m o n o t o n o u s u n i f o r m i t y , m a d e it necessary f o r the prin-
ciple of dissimilation to come i n t o o p e r a t i o n . T h i s is n o d o u b t
23
23
T h e fact that only those groups that are kept in equilibrium by an-
other form of tension should escape this division into two opposing factions
(for example, the opposition between the nomads and the gardeners of the
oases, or between the nobles and vassals among the Touaregs) seems to con-
stitute a proof a contrario.
5- T h e Common Cultural Heritage
92
T h e Common Cultural Heritage 93
e x a m p l e may b e n o t e d i n q u i t e a different d o m a i n : while the
n o m a d i c Bedouins have spread values p e c u l i a r to a pastoral
civilization, a m o n g w h i c h may be i n c l u d e d a scorn f o r t h e
techniques of t h e f a r m worker o r artisan a n d a dislike f o r field
work, on t h e o t h e r h a n d the sedentary m o u n t a i n dwellers,
as they have come down i n t o the plains, have b r o u g h t with
them their way of life and, above all, their a t t a c h m e n t to the
l a n d and to the s t u b b o r n toil r e q u i r e d to m a k e it fertile a n d
their desire to m a k e it their p e r m a n e n t possession. O n e must be
careful n o t to t h i n k only in terms of the p h e n o m e n a due to A r a b
influence simply because they are the m o r e obvious. T h e B e d o u i n
groups b e c o m e B e r b e r i z e d as they b e c o m e " s e d e n t a r i z e d " ; they
are constantly absorbing B e r b e r s i n t o their groups and with t h e m
f o r e i g n techniques and t r a d i t i o n s (political ones, f o r e x a m p l e ) .
I n the dialogue that b r i n g s the different groups of A l g e r i a face
to face, there is b e i n g w o r k e d out an original f o r m of civilization,
a cultural koinè. As a final e x a m p l e , it may be noted that the
way of life p e c u l i a r to the I s r a e l i t e s indicates that they were
1
1
The Israelites, about 150,000 in number, are divided according to origin
into two groups, the "Spaniards," driven from Spain in 1492, and the autoch-
thons, who are very similar in manners and civilization to the other natives
of Algeria. W h i l e conserving a number of their traditions, they are for the
most part engaged in the Moslem business sector and follow the European
mode of life. T h e y are particularly numerous in the cities.
94 T h e Algerians
society is organized in a c c o r d a n c e with this kaleidoscopic m e c h a -
nism, t h e n it becomes c l e a r why it presents these contradictory
aspects of diversity and uniformity, of unity a n d m u l t i p l i c i t y . 2
a
Since the principle o£ dissimilation operates mainly against the Euro-
peans, the colonial situation and the war have aided in breaking down partic-
ularisms and have fostered the development of a national consciousness.
" A distinction must be made between traditional traditionalism and
colonial traditionalism. In the first case there is fidelity to oneself, in the
second, opposition to others. In one, there is inner adherence to the values
offered by a sacred tradition, in the other, a passive resistance opposed to the
intrusion of values that are being imposed from without.
1
T h i s distinctive f o r m of i n t e r h u m a n relationships c a n be
understood only by reference to the specific mode of r e l a t i o n s h i p
existing b e t w e e n m a n a n d the soil. I n d e e d , if this civilization is
inseparable f r o m a particular type of e c o n o m y (which even i n
the present day affects three-quarters of the indigenous popula-
t i o n ) , the e c o n o m y itself can b e understood only in terms of this
civilization, because of the fact that it is closely tied to the social
structures whose cohesion m o r e or less guarantees a balance be-
tween m a n a n d his natural e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s e c o n o m y is domi-
\^The Common Cultural Heritage 103
nated by a lack of technological resources, w h i c h leads to various
consequences: i n the first place, an almost t o t a l d e p e n d e n c e on
p h j ^ i c a l ^ u r r o m d i n g s , _ a n d o n ^ l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , the b a l a n c e
b e t w e e n resources md.needs, being. jnfinitely_ m o r e semitiye to
tlie r a i n cycle t h a n to fluctuations in the w o r l d m a r k e t ; secondly,
the i m m e n s e d i s p r o p o r t i o n between p r o d u c t i o n o n the one h a n d
a n d ^ f h T T 5 c ^ n d i t u r e q f t i m e ^ a n d effort a n d the n u m b e r of work-
ers employed on the_ o ^ of
h u m a n relationships w h i c h have b e e n developed partly b y way
of compensation. "
rnsu^h~a"System, work aims only at satisfying primary needs
and at ensuring the group's subsistence. E a c h unit seeks to b e
self-sufficient, c o n s u m i n g its own produce. M o s t of the trade is
done by b a r t e r . M o n e y , t o g e t h e r w i t h certain articles o f con-
sumption, is used to provide a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r of value,
b u t is not employed in speculation. T h u s this society is almost
totally i g n o r a n t of c a p i t a l a n d capitalistic mechanisms. W h i l e
t h e r e exists an a c c u m u l a t i o n of transferable property and assets
(particularly i n the f o r m of jewels), there is n o amassing of c a p i t a l
i n the t r u e sense. B o t h i n p r o d u c t i o n a n d i n trading exchanges
relations are personal, direct a n d specific; h e n c e the i m p o r t a n c e
of the e x c h a n g e based on h o n o r a n d prestige, of those protec-
tive agreements a n d cooperative associations w h i c h , in the ab-
sence of c a p i t a l and a labor market, ensure the c i r c u l a t i o n of
goods a n d services.
T h e b o n d w h i c h unites the fellah to his l a n d is mystical
r a t h e r t h a n u t i l i t a r i a n . H e belongs to his fields m u c h m o r e t h a n
his fields b e l o n g to h i m . H e is a t t a c h e d to his l a n d by deeply
affective ties, as witness the a g r a r i a n rites i n w h i c h is expressed
a s e n t i m e n t of dependency i n r e g a r d to this land, which c a n n o t
be treated as a mere raw m a t e r i a l but r a t h e r as a foster-mother
whose authority must be obeyed, since, in the final analysis, it is
on h e r b e n e v o l e n c e or ill-will; m u c h m o r e t h a n on h u m a n effort,
t h a t wealth or poverty depend. Shguld. njjtjjhd§_ fatalism that has
b e e n assoeiat-ed-4^h_Islam be r a t h e r considered to be the fatalism
of the peasant conscious of his pbwerlessness w h e n c o n f r o n t e d
with the caprices~of naTure?" ~ ' "—•
~ T h e w o r l T ^ F t E e individual, w h i c h is prescribed a n d deter-
ic>4 * T h e Algerians
m i n e d by the head of the family a n d carried out in a f a m i l i a r
setting in c o l l a b o r a t i o n with the f a m i l y g r o u p , is felt to be b o t h
c r e a t i o n and c o m m u n i o n . T h e l a n d is a n e n d in itself a n d not
a mere means of existence, a n d work is n o t a way of e a r n i n g a
living but a way of life. W i t h this in mind, the following often
noted characteristic of the precapitalist spirit may perhaps be
b e t t e r understood: a n increase in wages brings a b o u t a r e d u c t i o n
in the a m o u n t of work p e r f o r m e d . I n o t h e r words, f o r the tra-
ditionalist m i n d , the prospect of e a r n i n g m o r e m o n e y is less
attractive t h a n that of doing less work. T h e w o r k e r does n o t ask
himself how m u c h he c o u l d earn in a day by w o r k i n g his hardest,
but, indifferent to the e x t r a m o n e y to b e gained, how h a r d he
will have to w o r k to earn his previous wage, w h i c h was a d e q u a t e
to supply his needs. As M a x W e b e r has said, " M a n does not
have a n a t u r a l desire to k e e p on e a r n i n g m o r e m o n e y , but simply
wishes to lead his accustomed life a n d to earn j u s t e n o u g h m o n e y
to m a i n t a i n this m o d e of l i v i n g . "
T h i s c o n c e p t i o n of w o r k is inseparable f r o m a n o t h e r char-
acteristic feature of this traditionalist spirit, namely the absence
of r a t i o n a l e c o n o m i c p l a n n i n g . F o r the peasant living in a
n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , time does not have the same significance
that it does in a t e c h n i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h w o r k i n g time
is closely calculated; since the c o n c e r n f o r p r o d u c t i v i t y w h i c h
leads to the q u a n t i t a t i v e evaluation of time is completely u n -
k n o w n , it is the work to be d o n e w h i c h prescribes the time
schedule, a n d not the time schedule w h i c h limits the a m o u n t of
w o r k that is done. P r o o f of this attitude is seen in the fact that
land is evaluated in terms of plowing-days. T h e r h y t h m of
work on the f a r m is closely linked to biological, a n i m a l and
vegetable cycles; life is given a rhythm by the divisions of the
r i t u a l calendar, the actualization of a mythology; the peasant
spirit t r a d i t i o n a l l y implies a submissiveness to time, since r u r a l
life is o n e l o n g wait f o r the n a t u r a l cycles to revolve. N o t h -
ing is m o r e foreign to it than an attempt to gain power over
the future. T h i s does n o t m e a n that there is a total absence
of that economic c a l c u l a t i o n w h i c h consists, by definition, of
m a k i n g a c h o i c e f r o m a m o n g different possibilities that c a n n o t be
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y satisfied. T h e existence of reserves (the guelda)
T h e Common Cultural Heritage 105
is a proof of this. B u t is this really an example of a r a t i o n a l eco-
n o m i c calculation? E c o n o m i s t s distinguish between direct wealth,
w h i c h offers or may offer an i m m e d i a t e satisfaction, a n d indirect
wealth, w h i c h aids in the p r o d u c t i o n of direct wealth but w h i c h
in itself affords no satisfaction. T h e b u i l d i n g u p of reserves,
which consists of setting aside a portion of the direct wealth as
a reserve f o r f u t u r e use, a n d w h i c h presupposes forethought act-
ing to impose a b s t e n t i o n f r o m c o n s u m p t i o n , must be distin-
guished f r o m the h o a r d i n g and a c c u m u l a t i o n of indirect wealth
f o r capitalistic purposes (investment), this " c r e a t i v e s a v i n g " b e i n g
based u p o n a calculated, r a t i o n a l forecast. T h u s the e c o n o m i c
calculation to be f o u n d in an a g r i c u l t u r a l e c o n o m y , in which the
whole p r o d u c t i o n cycle can be taken i n at a single glance, in
w h i c h t h e peasant does n o t separate his l a b o r f r o m its e c o n o m i c
result, and in which the setting aside of reserves is simply a de-
f e r r e d f o r m of c o n s u m p t i o n , presupposes the idea of a concrete
a n d almost tangible future. So it is, for e x a m p l e , that the e x -
penditures for investment i n new stock are decided n o t i n terms
of the a n t i c i p a t e d profit, but i n terms of the revenue from the
preceding year's harvest. T h e m o d e r n e c o n o m i c system, in w h i c h
the p r o d u c t i o n process is e x t r e m e l y long a n d can be set up
o n l y after precise calculations, presupposes on the c o n t r a r y the
e x i s t e n c e of a n abstract objective. I n short, the c o n c e p t i o n of an
abstract and symbolic f u t u r e is the c o n d i t i o n that m a k e s possible
the c o m m o n e s t a n d most f u n d a m e n t a l e c o n o m i c institutions a n d
activities of o u r society: fiduciary currency derived from e x c h a n g e
through a process of symbolization, conceptualization a n d pro-
j e c t i o n into the future; wage earning and the rational t i m i n g
of wage distribution, w h i c h implies a r a t i o n a l e c o n o m i c calcula-
tion; industrial operations and commercialization which i m p l y
p l a n n i n g , etc.
N o t h i n g is f a r t h e r removed f r o m this r a t i o n a l speculation
dealing with an abstract f u t u r e than t h e life of t h e fellah. I f
the i n s t i t u t i o n of credit is as difficult f o r h i m to u n d e r s t a n d as
the cruel h o l d of usury and rahnia would seem to indicate, it is
because it is associated with a completely different way of think-
ing (cf. P. B o u r d i e u , " T h e A t t i t u d e of the Algerian P e a s a n t , " in
Mediterranean Countrymen, J u l i a n P i t t - R i v e r s , ed., pp. 45-62).
io6 T h e Algerians
T h e credit to w h i c h he resorts is a k i n d of e m e r g e n c y credit
i n t e n d e d only to relieve consumers' needs, b u t , in this society,
credit is n o r m a l l y r e p l a c e d by a solidarity and m u t u a l aid or
by the h o n o r a b l e e x c h a n g e of which t h e taousa affords an ex-
a m p l e . T h e modern institution of credit, like the taousa, pre-
supposes t r u s t — a trust, to be sure, that is not u n m i x e d with
distrust, since, because the r e p a y m e n t or countergift is deferred,
the future intervenes as a factor and with it the element of risk.
B u t while each takes on analogous functions in its own system,
these institutions differ greatly. W h e r e a s in the e x c h a n g e based
on h o n o r the duty of r e t u r n i n g and of r e t u r n i n g m o r e than o n e
has r e c e i v e d is imposed by p e r s o n a l honesty, the guarantees b e i n g
p r o v i d e d by the m a n r a t h e r t h a n by the wealth at his disposal,
in the m o d e r n credit system the l e n d e r takes care to g u a r a n t e e
his loan by d e m a n d i n g securities (solvency of the debtor, etc.);
moreover, credit implies the idea of interest a n d presupposes t h a t
the v a l u e of t i m e c a n be reckoned as an o b j e c t of r a t i o n a l calcu-
lation. Such a calculation, as well as exact methods of account-
ing, is absent f r o m the traditional economy, w h e t h e r due to
the logic of overgenerosity in repayment or because the prices of
goods have b e e n set by tradition so that t h e seller restricts his
efforts to disposing of as m u c h as he c a n at these fixed prices.
F i n a l l y , the g i f t establishes a supra-economic b o n d b e t w e e n two
persons, since t h e idea of the c o u n t e r g i f t is already implied in the
inter h u m a n relation created by the original gift a n d to w h i c h i t
lends a n added solemnity; m o d e r n credit presupposes, o n the
o t h e r h a n d , completely impersonal relationships and t h e t a k i n g
i n t o account of a purely abstract future. T h u s we see contrasted
two radically different c o n c e p t i o n s of business dealings a n d of
the most f u n d a m e n t a l h u m a n and e c o n o m i c values, the o n e based
on h o n o r and prestige, the o t h e r on self-interest a n d c a l c u l a t i o n .
5
One could make a similar analysis concerning the social character of
the religious duties. T h e fact that the fundamental religious practices
(prayer, fasting, almsgiving, pilgrimage) should often assume the form of
social demonstrations, the fact that the observance of the religious impera-
tives may often be attributed primarily to group pressure, all these features
and many others besides are by no means special features of the Moslem reli-
gion, but must be understood by reference to the type of social attitude fa-
vored by Algerian society: the relationship to others takes precedence over
the relationship to oneself, and consequently the feeling of the fault as
shame in the eyes of others takes precedence over the feeling of sin as shame
in one's own eyes or in the eyes of God.
T h e Common Cultural Heritage 111
have a greater claim t o existence, o n e must nevertheless a d m i t
that everything seems to indicate that every civilization, at each
period of its development, "was making a c h o i c e , " by r e f e r e n c e
to the system of its f u n d a m e n t a l choices (a culture being a system
of choices which n o one makes), of those aspects of the religious
message which were t o be turned i n t o reality while the others
w o u l d b e discarded.
T h u s it is that all the choices that the culture has t u r n e d
i n t o reality in such spheres as religion, economics, politics, etc.,
appear t o h a v e b e e n organized a r o u n d t h e s a m e f u n d a m e n t a l
intention. T h e strength of Islam in A l g e r i a is due, indeed, to
the fact that it is i n h a r m o n y with the spirit of the A l g e r i a n
civilization. T h e K o r a n i c message contains prescriptions that are
i n conformity with the traditionalist way of life, a n d the system
of standards that it proposes is i n agreement with the underlying
structures of Algerian society. B u t are we not merely illustrating
the miracle of the pre-established h a r m o n y between the two by
m a k i n g an arbitrary distinction between the i m p l i c i t patterns
of b e h a v i o r and the e x p l i c i t standards set by religion? A r e not
the patterns of b e h a v i o r in reality t h e n o r m s that a r e imposed
by religion, even when they are n o t understood as such? L e t
us t a k e , f o r e x a m p l e , the p r o h i b i t i o n against l e n d i n g m o n e y at
interest. Does this n o t illustrate t h e influence of t h e religious
doctrine, a n d should we not then conclude that the Islamic ethi-
cal system determines the economic ethos of Algeria? I n reality,
the control of religion over daily life a n d particularly over eco-
n o m i c behavior is due to the fact that it is " p r e a c h i n g t o the
c o n v e r t e d , " so to speak, to the fact that the standards a n d the
values w h i c h it proposes are in full agreement with established
patterns of b e h a v i o r . Since the f o r m of credit they e m p l o y is a
credit devised t o m e e t t h e needs of c o n s u m p t i o n a n d not of
p r o d u c t i o n , p o p u l a r conscience is strongly aroused against
excessive usury. I n the o r i g i n a l A l g e r i a n society, speculative prac-
tices were left t o the members of h e t e r o d o x sects, such as t h e
Mozabites, or of different faiths such as the Israelites. T h e system 6
" In the cities, lending at usurious rates o£ interest has always been
practiced by certain Moslems, a l t h o u g h in a disguised form.
112 T h e Algerians
p e r m i t m a t e r i a l values to be recognized. M o r e o v e r , is n o t the
p r o h i b i t i o n against l o a n i n g money at interest merely the negative
aspect of a positive d e m a n d f o r a m o r a l i t y based on h o n o r , as
exemplified in the obligation to extend f r a t e r n a l aid? I n short,
the e c o n o m i c ethos of this civilization finds a perfect expression
in the m o r a l philosophy of Islam. T h e j e x a l t a t i o n of the attitude
of c o n t e m p l a t i o n o y e r that of a c t i o n , the sense of_the futility of
all earthly things, the c o n d e m n a t i o n of c u p i d i t y a n d of the love
of' wealtR",Tne censure cf"those who look down u p o n the poor and
the~unforturiate, the e n c o u r a g e m e n t given to the virtues of hospi-
tality, ' m u t u a l aid a n d politeness (adab), the feeling of b e l o n g i n g
to a religious f r a t e r n i t y that is f r e e o f any e c o n o m i c or social
basis, are all prescriptions of t h e K o r a n i c doctrine that are in
close agreement with t h e spirit of t h e A l g e r i a n culture. Historical
Islam has codified the c o n c e p t i o n of p r o p e r t y that is characteristic
of A l g e r i a n society (joint possession, t h e right of pre-emption,
etc.), a n d has sanctioned the essential structures of this society.
T h e K o r a n makes the agnatic family the base of the umma a n d
recognizes the a g n a t i c g r o u p to be the m a i n concern of law: h e n c e
all the regulations c o n c e r n i n g m a r r i a g e , repudiation or inherit-
a n c e ; h e n c e the primacy of the group and the inferior status of
w o m a n . F i n a l l y , while w o r k i n g to create a universal c o m m u n i t y
f o u n d e d on ties o t h e r t h a n those of kinship, Islam has neverthe-
less allowed social c o m m u n i t i e s such as the clan or the tribe to
c o n t i n u e to exist, so that ties of blood have long c o n t i n u e d to
prevail, at least in r u r a l society, over the ties created by b e l o n g i n g
to the M o s l e m c o m m u n i t y .
7
The o b s e r v a n c e of t h e M o s l e m religion, particularly the prescriptions
w h o s e s o c i a l a s p e c t is e v i d e n t ( f a s t i n g , etc.) is a l s o , i n t h e c o l o n i a l context,
a w a y of d e f e n d i n g t h e p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y , a n d it has n o w t a k e n o n t h e func-
tion of a s y m b o l , a s y m b o l w h i c h expresses b o t h an alliance and an exclusion.
H e n c e m a y b e e x p l a i n e d , at least in p a r t , t h e r e v i v a l of I s l a m f o l l o w i n g the
conquest (e.g., t h e erection of the mosques in Kabylia between 1925 and
1945) a n d t h e r e n e w e d d e v o t i o n t o r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s w h i c h h a s b e e n noted
s i n c e 1955.
T h e Common Cultural Heritage nj
spirit and in practice from the a u t h e n t i c M o s l e m religion, never-
theless remained a t t a c h e d to Islam because of the fact that it
never ceased j u d g i n g a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g itself b y reference t o the
standards prescribed by I s l a m ; as for the religion of the city
dwellers, it was certainly not unaffected by the n a t u r i s t i c beliefs,
the f e a r of t h e " g e n i i " o r the cult o f saints t h a t were character-
istic of the r u r a l r e l i g i o n . 8
8
O n e c o u l d also m a k e a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e l i g i o n o f the men
and that of the w o m e n .
116 T h e Algerians
sites, regions or tribes, a n d to w h o m are a t t r i b u t e d specific
powers. Since the saints have b e e n e n d o w e d with baraka, they c a n
c u r e illnesses, foresee the f u t u r e or bestow the blessing of fertility.
So it is that the belief in baraka has b e c o m e the essential tenet
u n d e r l y i n g the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the rdjgious__bjjpjh£rfioo^is and
the zaouia, b o t h of w h o m claim to b e invested w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y
o f some fjarticularly revered and powerful saint. T h e m a r a b o u t s
a n d the dignitaries of the~T>rotherhoods offer a f o r m of religion
w h i c h speaks to the heart a n d to the imagination; by their
material a n d m o r a l power they exercise an immense influence
over the life of the c o u n t r y districts. O n the whole, Islam has
a c q u i r e d its strength a m o n g t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d t a k e n o n
its p r e s e n t f o r m b e c a u s e it has b e e n a b l e t o a c c o m m o d a t e itself
t o the aspirations of these country f o l k at t h e s a m e t i m e as it
was assimilating them a n d because they were shaping it while it
was shaping them. T h e p o p u l a r religion is the scene a n d t h e
result of a c o n t i n u o u s , c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n the local
forces a n d the u n i v e r s a l message. T h e attitude of t h e o r t h o d o x
religion with respect to this m a r g i n a l religion has always been
o n e b o t h of intransigence a n d of tolerance. T h e tendency to
consider the local laws, such as the B e r b e r customs, or the beliefs
i n m a g i c and the n a t u r i s t i c cults as survivals o r deviations has
always b e e n c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d by the m o r e or less m e t h o d i c a l
attempt t o a b s o r b these f o r m s of religion or these laws w i t h o u t
g r a n t i n g t h e m open r e c o g n i t i o n . I n the same way a great n u m b e r
of local customs h a v e b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the p e n a l a n d civil
law, a l t h o u g h they were n o t officially recognized as legal obliga-
tions. Against this b a c k g r o u n d , because the " m a r g i n a l " f o l k reli-
gion, for its part, is at all times referring to the universal religion
f o r guidance, there is an i n e x t r i c a b l e m i n g l i n g of r e c i p r o c a l atti-
tudes: certain a n i m i s t i c or m a g i c a l practices a r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
t h e language of the universal religion: f o r e x a m p l e , it is f r e -
quently the case that sacred springs, grottoes a n d rocks are p l a c e d
u n d e r the p r o t e c t i o n of a holy personage; precepts of the univer-
sal religion are redefined i n terms of local customs; thus there is
b o t h an o b s t i n a t e defense of the r u r a l religion's individuality and
a u n a n i m o u s l y felt r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e fact that it is a part o f
I s l a m . T h e secret feeling o f shame inspired b y c o n t a c t with the
T h e Common Cultural Heritage ny
o r t h o d o x r e l i g i o n is always c o u n t e r a c t e d by the sometimes exag-
gerated assertion of irreducible uniqueness. T h e i n t e r a c t i o n of
reinterpretations, oppositions, a n d compromises has made Al-
gerian Islam into a singularly c o m p l e x whole, in which n o dis-
t i n c t i o n can be made, except arbitrarily, b e t w e e n what is p e c u l i a r
to Islam and w h a t has been c o n t r i b u t e d by the local stock, a n d
in w h i c h a g r a r i a n beliefs c a n n o t b e distinguished f r o m the strictly
religious beliefs. Islam i n N o r t h A f r i c a presents itself as a strati-
fied system in w h i c h different levels can be isolated by analysis:
animistic devotion, n a t u r i s t i c cults, agrarian rites; the cult of
saints and m a r a b o u t s ; the c o n t r o l of p r a c t i c a l affairs by religion;
applied law; dogma and esoteric mysticism. A differential analysis
would n o d o u b t reveal a diversity of " r e l i g i o u s profiles." T h e s e
w o u l d indicate the h i e r a r c h i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n in each i n d i v i d u a l o f
the different levels, the relative i m p o r t a n c e of w h i c h would vary
with his way of life, his education, and his aspirations.
H i s t o r i c a l religion, j o i n e d b y a thousand ties to the c u l t u r a l
reality, was b o u n d to feel the repercussion f r o m the upheavals to
w h i c h A l g e r i a n society was subjected as a result o f t h e clash
b e t w e e n avlTizationsxaused by E u r o p e a n colonization. T h e result
i s j h a t there can n o w be discerned, in a d d i t i o n to the traditional"
I s l a m of the r u r a l C o m m u n i t i e s o r of the cities, a religiosity
of the masses. T h e disintegration of the o r g a n i c c o m m u n i t i e s
a n d the process of urbanization have given b i r t h to the m a n o f
the masses, b e r e f t of roots a n d traditions, of aspirations and con-
victions, of social ties a n d of laws. T o r n f r o m his f a m i l y surround-
ings a n d the social setting in w h i c h his entire life, and p a r t i c u l a r l y
his religious life, was spent, r e m o v e d f r o m the religious atmos-
p h e r e of his f o r m e r c o m m u n a l existence, placed i n e x t r e m e l y try-
ing m a t e r i a l circumstances and c o n f r o n t e d with radically new
p r o b l e m s , the m a n of the masses has no choice o t h e r than indif-
ference or superstition, a l t h o u g h his i n c l i n a t i o n to indifference
is checked b y the historical situation, which has made of Islam a
social and p o l i t i c a l signum. T h e superstition that constitutes
his alternate choice is a sort of institutionalized piety, a series o f
gestures, devoid of m e a n i n g , that are passively a n d m e c h a n i c a l l y
c a r r i e d out, a w h o l e g r o u p of observances d e t e r m i n e d by t h e
apathetic submission to a c h a n g i n g tradition. T h e r u p t u r e with
} 1 g T h e Algerians
t r a d i t i o n b r o u g h t about b y e m i g r a t i o n , the contact with a techni-
cal civilization that is completely directed towards secular ends,
the passing over f r o m the clan, whose members are u n i t e d by
sacred bonds, to the workshop a n d the factory, or to the p o l i t i c a l
party and the trade u n i o n , in w h i c h solidarity is based on mate-
r i a l interest or political c h o i c e — a l l these are influences w h i c h
have led to a veritable t r a n s m u t a t i o n of values a n d are destroy-
ing the very soil in which t r a d i t i o n a l religion was rooted.
Must this decline of c o m m u n i t y religion, w h i c h is l i n k e d to
the disintegration of the social structures, be considered an irre-
sistible and irreversible movement which can have no conclusion
o t h e r t h a n a slow death b y indifference, or a possible reprieve
in the f o r m of superstition? O r can one expect that a per-
sonal religion, f o u n d e d on the conscious adherence a n d the elec-
tive will of individuals, may arise f r o m the ruins of the com-
m u n i t y religion? W i l l the attempt at revival be m a d e by the n e w
elite, who have generally b e e n educated i n W e s t e r n schools? I n
t h e case of t h e A l g e r i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l — a m a n standing b e t w e e n
two civilizations, who has b e e n deeply stricken by all t h e trage-
dies of his people, and who q u i t e often is himself i n c l i n e d to a
l u k e w a r m or an indifferent attitude in regard to r e l i g i o n — i s it
possible that h e w i l l have the ability, the knowledge o r the desire
to lead a m o v e m e n t for t h e revival of Islam w h i c h will offer the
disorganized masses a new kind of personal r e l i g i o n , a r e l i g i o n
t h a t will b e f r e e of the r i t u a l i s m a n d f o r m a l i s m w h i c h , in t h e
past, have b e e n imposed only b y the f o r c e of p u b l i c o p i n i o n , a
r e l i g i o n that will be free at last from the spell a n d f r o m the en-
c h a n t m e n t s of magic? W i l l h e consider this task to be the m o s t
urgent? W h a t we c a n be sure of is t h a t t h e o n l y message t h a t will
m a k e itself heard, w h e t h e r it b e religious or political, will be the
one in which this deeply disrupted society will be a b l e to recog-
nize its true self a n d find justification f o r its existence.
6. Disintegration and Distress
119
1 20 T h e Algerians
T h e Colonial System
1
A. de Broglie, Une Réjorme administrative en Algérie, Paris, i8(»i
s
By the e n d o£ 1961, t w o - f i f t h s of the f a r m lands were under Ficnch
c o n t r o l , t h a t is t o say, s u b j e c t to t h e r e g u l a t i o n s of F r e n c h l a w (all E u r o p e a n -
owned land plus an a d d i t i o n a l 5,607,500 acres); two-fifths of the non-French
lands were private property (melk); one-fifth of the non-French lands re-
mained the property of the tribes (arch). During the last twenty years
breaches i n the f a m i l y system of j o i n t possession h a d b e c o m e m o r e a n d more
frequent.
3
C a p t a i n V a i s s i è r e , Les Ouled Rechaich, A l g i e r s , 1863, p . g o .
122 T h e Algerians
c u l t u r a l system, has r e m a i n e d ineffective, because it clashed w i t h
t h e interests a n d t h e powers of t h e d o m i n a n t society. W h e t h e r
it was openly a n d cynically confessed to be an " e n g i n e of w a r , " 4
1.3 per cent are over 250 acres) cover an area of 18,372,900 acres,
the average size of each f a r m — E u r o p e a n and n a t i v e — b e i n g 300
as c o m p a r e d to 27 acres (see Fig. 11). Moreover, while the m o r e
fertile, usually i r r i g a t e d E u r o p e a n properties produce profit-
able crops (870,000 acres of vineyards, citrus fruits, early vege-
tables), at least half of the lands b e l o n g i n g to the Algerians are
m a d e up of pasture lands, and the o t h e r h a l f consists m a i n l y of
soils w h i c h are suitable only for cereal crops and small orchards
(fig and olive trees) and w h i c h produce very p o o r yields. B u t the
state did n o t stop at merely facilitating the settlement of colo-
nists by procuring them the necessary land. It constantly gave
them aid in various f o r m s : the creation of the substructures that
are indispensable f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l development, such as drainage
5
In 1930 s o m e 26,153 E u r o p e a n s o w n e d 5,585,000 a c r e s ; i n 1950, 22,037
o w n e d 6,815,000 a c r e s . T h e 6,385 p r o p e r t i e s t h a t a r e m o r e t h a n 250 a c r e s i n
size c o v e r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80 p e r c e n t o£ t h e t o t a l a r e a .
124
Disintegration and Distress 125
S e v e n t y p e r c e n t o f t h e f e l l a h s o w n f a r m s o f less t h a n 25 a c r e s , of
which on an average only 12 a c r e s can be farmed each year, a fact
which tends to prevent any modernization of farming methods and
techniques. The fellahs who farm more than 125 acres are few in
number. The small Algerian property only exists in very small num-
bers in the rich zones of heavy European density, whereas it is in
these zones that the small E u r o p e a n property predominates. T h e High
Plains, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is t h e area in which are located the large
E u r o p e a n properties a n d in w h i c h the small A l g e r i a n farms have been
pushed back to the less fertile land bordering the plains. At Saint
Arnaud, for example, in the wheatgrowing plains of the Stkif region,
the 13 E u r o p e a n farms are all over 250 a c r e s i n s i z e ; a l o n g s i d e them,
157 f e l l a h s a r e e a c h f a r m i n g less t h a n 25 a c r e s , 120 a r e f a r m i n g from
25 t o 125 a c r e s , 30 f r o m 125 t o 250 a c r e s , and 50 o n l y have farms of
o v e r 250 a c r e s . A t Littr£, in t h e Ch£liff area, o u t of 14 E u r o p e a n s , 13
are farming over 250 acres, w h e r e a s among the neighboring fellahs,
64 a r e e a c h c u l t i v a t i n g l e s s t h a n 25 a c r e s a n d o n l y f o u r h a v e properties
g r e a t e r t h a n 250 a c r e s i n s i z e .
Thus it is o n l y i n t h e c o a s t a l r e g i o n s a n d i n t h e z o n e s producing
lucrative crops (vineyards and particularly the vineyards planted on
the hillsides) that the small European property has been able to
establish itself. In the Sersou district, on the High Plateaus of Con-
stantine, on the High Plains of Setif, the small farms created by the
official p r o j e c t s o f c o l o n i z a t i o n d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e nineteenth
century have been replaced by the i m m e n s e modern farms, w h i l e in
the same zones the small Algerian f a r m has continued to exist.
Whether h e is f a r m i n g a small property o n w h i c h h e raises lucra-
tive c r o p s , s u c h as g r a p e s , e a r l y v e g e t a b l e s o r c i t r u s fruits, o r whether
he is managing a large-scale farming development, the European
c o l o n i s t is a l w a y s t h e h e a d o f a b u s i n e s s e n t e r p r i s e o r is a h i g h l y paid
m a n a g e r r a t h e r t h a n a m e r e farmer. T h i s fact e x p l a i n s to a c o n s i d e r a b l e
extent his behavior and psychological attitude. (Based on the De-
partment of Agriculture census.)
Sétif
Tizj-Ouzou .
Balna
600-
«00
300
200
150
100
i-0
OJ
5.00<>
Fig. 12
127
128 T h e Algerians
that p e r i o d t h e lands p u r c h a s e d by A l g e r i a n s f r o m E u r o p e a n s
exceeded those purchased by E u r o p e a n s from Algerians. |
T h e progress of colonial agriculture has coincided w i t h t h e
m a r k e d d e c l i n e in native agriculture. T h e great g a p b e t w e e n
these two sectors has constantly become wider, since o n e uses t h e
most m o d e r n methods a n d techniques a n d the other (some
5,125,000 people) has r e m a i n e d f a i t h f u l to the methods a n d
i m p l e m e n t s h a n d e d down by tradition. W h i l e t h e colonists'
share of t h e n a t i o n a l product has c o n t i n u a l l y increased in relative
a n d in total value, the A l g e r i a n s ' share has n o d o u b t decreased
in total value a n d most certainly has decreased in relative value,
since t h e p o p u l a t i o n has been steadily increasing. A l t h o u g h t h e
total area u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n by t h e f e l l a h s has b e e n i n c r e a s e d
t h r o u g h encroachments on the pasture lands (this p a r t l y e x p l a i n s
the decrease i n the size of the flocks) a n d t h r o u g h t h e develop-
m e n t of less fertile lands, it has been calculated that the quantity
of grain available for c o n s u m p t i o n was 500 pounds p e r 2.5 acres
in 1871, 400 pounds in 1900 a n d 250 pounds in 1940. T h i s is
because the yield appears to have i k o p j J e d _ ^ a n average of 500
pounds peT~2j[7acres f o r cereal crops J K i t w e e i i , 1950 and, 1956),
w h i ! e _ t E e j o p u l a t i o n has^njcreasjdjve^^ reason
o f _ t h e j y e j x J ^ i - ^ t i i - i a i e _ ^ h i c h is closely connected with t h e
J
T h e C o l o n i a l Society
specific character.
T h e history of the settling of E u r o p e a n society gives us
a b e t t e r understanding of its o r i g i n a l characteristics. J F j i e "first
colonists, settled in large numbers on farms that were too small
for efficient production, often ignorant of farming methods, con-
f r o n t e d with a difficult a n d u n h e a l t h y c l i m a t e , generally lacking
i n capital resources, were of ten_the v i c t i m s o j speculators. As a
result, the small colonial farms (in 1954, 8,000 accounted f o r
only 1.5 per cent of the total l a n d owned by colonists) have pro-
gressively b e e n replaced by large-scale projects.
T h e spirit peculiar to the E u r o p e a n s of A l g e r i a was forged
during the time of the e x p a n s i o n of the winegrowing industry,
a n d it was also during this p e r i o d that the r u r a l landscape a n d
t h e social and r e g i o n a l structure of the A l g e r i a n countryside
began to assume their present form. T h e first colonists emigrated
m a i n l y in order to have a b e t t e r life than they had h a d in F r a n c e ;
wjjrh__t1m s u r r p K s o£ the JvJTigEXgdllg - Y £ E L V X f l J J l ^ j i g i l ^ - - ^ J i g r s
more and more separated from him by the many walls a n d ob-
stacles that have been erected between them; as proof of this,
we have the evolution i n the image of the A r a b given to us b y
l i t e r a t u r e a n d p a i n t i n g , an i m a g e varying f r o m pure r o m a n t i c i s m
a n d exoticism to sheer i g n o r a n c e or caricature. T h e E u r o p e a n ' s
k n o w l e d g e of the a u t o c h t h o n o u s peoples has steadily d i m i n i s h e d
with the d e v e l o p m e n t of a de facto segregation that is based
on differences in standards of living a n d on the e c o n o m i c iso-
lation of the various regions. T h e ' A r a b " n o l o n g e r receives a n y
n o t i c e apart f r o m his e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n to the E u r o p e a n . R e l a -
tions are b e c o m i n g m o r e a n d m o r e tinged with p a t e r n a l i s m o r
racism. As the E u r o p e a n moves in a n d b e c o m e s established, t h e
Algerian society b e c o m e s even more disintegrated, thereby giving
the E u r o p e a n an a d d i t i o n a l excuse f o r a v o i d i n g it a n d f o r view-
ing it with c o n t e m p t . j Q i » i c £ n j ^ t ^ c l j £ i t ^ the
Europeanjljsj^rkts^f_th^ popu-
l a t i o n lives u n t o itself a n d finds_irjua. c o m p l a c e n t press sufficient,
jujitriicatlon^ to-
wardsthejxag£jlies --ti^^ y
As the E u r o p e a n s d r a w _ f a r t h e r u a p a r t . i r o m .tbe-Ar-absr-they
also d r a w j a x t h e r ^ a p a r t faraiJxanccyjn Qto n l y .fj&m—t-he i d e a l
F r a n c e T w h o s e values all seem r a t h e r naive and in r a d i c a l con-
trast to the logic o f j t h e c o l o n i a l systemTfnit | r o r Q E e I i I E r . e n c h -
rheri of T r a n c e , " who are always suspected of liberahjm_arjd.jv.ha
a r e "assigned" t h e r o T e ^ o f _ ^ a p e g o a t whenever^ i t. is. a .question., o f
e x p l a i n i n g a clash between t h e real world a n d the i m a g i n a r y
w o r l d i n which this w h o l e society seeks t o l i v e . -*""
Considered from a synchronistic~p?int of view, the colonial
society makes one think of a caste s y s t e m . It is, in point o f 11
T h e T o t a l Disruption of a Society
A n e f f o r t h a s b e e n m a d e to r e s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m o£ u r b a n h o u s i n g .
1 5
T h u s t h e r e h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t f o u r y e a r s s o m e 100,000
dwellings.
status of wage earner a n d thereby gain e c o n o m i c i n d e p e n d e n c e .
T h j r s j i h f i ^ x t e n d e d f a m i l y is b e i n g replaced by t h e ^ i n g l e - f a m i l y
u n i t ; t h e c o m m u n i t i e s of t h e old society are d i s i n t e g r a t i n g ' i n t o
a cloud of separate i n d i v i d u a l s at the same time that the tradi-
tions they m a i n t a i n e d and on which they were based are also dis-
appearing.
T h i s radical u p h e a v a l of the e c o n o m i c , social a n d psychologi-
cal world has led to a deep feeling of anguish, which finds ex-
pression in the F r e n c h - l a n g u a g e novel and in the oral l i t e r a t u r e
of the c o m m o n people. All these contradictions affect the i n n e r
n a t u r e of " t h e m a n b e t w e e n two w o r l d s " — t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l , the
m a n who formerly worked in France, the city dweller—is exposed
142
7
143
144 T h e Algerians
to the conflicts created by the weakening of the t r a d i t i o n a l sys-
tems of sanctions and by the development of a double set o f
m o r a l standards. Constantly being faced with a l t e r n a t i v e ways
of b e h a v i o r by reason of the intrusion of new values, a n d there-
fore compelled to make a conscious e x a m i n a t i o n of the i m p l i c i t
premises or the unconscious p a t t e r n s of his own t r a d i t i o n , this
m a n , cast between two worlds a n d r e j e c t e d b y b o t h , lives a
sort of double inner life, is a prey to frustration and i n n e r
conflict, with the result that he is c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g t e m p t e d
to a d o p t e i t h e r an attitude of uneasy oyeridentification or o n e
of rebellious negativism.
W h i l e presented only in broad outline, the preceding pages
m a k e possible a b e t t e r understanding of the war in Algeria. T h i s
conflict was not merely t h e sum total of t h e i n d i v i d u a l passions
involved, that is to say, the i r r a t i o n a l and s u b j e c t i v e manifesta-
tion of i n n e r tensions, n o r was it by any means a mere misunder-
standing which could b e cleared up by a conversion of m i n d s
i n d u c e d b y p r o p a g a n d a or education o r e v e n by some s i m p l e
e c o n o m i c changes; b u t in reality it was based o b j e c t i v e l y on a n
o b j e c t i v e situation of w h i c h the individual tensions a r e only t h e
resultants. Its underlying causes may b e f o u n d i n a b i t t e r l y real
d r a m a : the overthrow of a vital o r d e r and the collapse of a
w h o l e world of values.
7- T h e Revolution Within
the Revolution
145
146 T h e Algerians
is constantly increasing: on the o n e h a n d , the force that tends
to b r i n g a b o u t an increase in inequalities a n d in real discrimina-
tion, a c o n s e q u e n c e due in part to the pauperization of the people
a n d to the d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l A l g e r i a n c u l t u r e ; on
the o t h e r h a n d , t h e f o r c e constituted by the feelings of revolt
and r e s e n t m e n t aroused against this increase i n social inequali-
ties a n d discrimination. I n short, w h e n carried along by its own
i n t e r n a l logic, the colonial system tends to develop all the con-
sequences implied at the time of its f o u n d i n g — t h e c o m p l e t e
separation of the social castes. V i o l e n t revolution a n d repression
by force fit in perfectly with the logical c o h e r e n c e of the system;
while the colonial society is as u n i n t e g r a t e d as ever, the war
now b e c a m e completely integrated within the colonial system a n d
allowed it to be recognized f o r what it really is.
I n d e e d , the war plainly revealed the true basis f o r the
c o l o n i a l order: t h e r e l a t i o n , backed by force, w h i c h allows the
d o m i n a n t caste to keep the d o m i n a t e d caste i n a position of
i n f e r i o r i t y . T h u s it becomes evident why the r e t u r n of peace
should i n t h e eyes of certain m e m b e r s of the d o m i n a n t caste seem
t h e worst k i n d of m e n a c e . W i t h o u t the exercise of f o r c e , t h e r e
would be n o t h i n g to c o u n t e r b a l a n c e the force directed at the
very roots of the s y s t e m — t h e rebellion against a n i n f e r i o r social
position.
T h a t o n l y a revolution c a n a b o l i s h the c o l o n i a l system, that
any c h a n g e s to be m a d e must be subject to the law of all o r
n o t h i n g , a r e facts n o w consciously realized, e v e n if o n l y con-
fusedly, j u s t as m u c h by the m e m b e r s of the d o m i n a n t society
as by the members of the dominated society. T h o s e a m o n g the
f o r m e r who l i n k e d t h e i r very e x i s t e n c e to their m e m b e r s h i p in
the d o m i n a n t caste w e r e u n a b l e to conceive that any possible
o r d e r c o u l d b e substituted that w o u l d n o t e n t a i l t h e i r disappear-
ance f r o m the scene. T h e m e m b e r s of the d o m i n a t e d society,
f o r their part, understood that they c o u l d expect n o real result
f r o m reforms carried out f r o m within the system and directed at
c h a n g i n g it internally, because these measures tended in reality
to s t r e n g t h e n o r at least to conserve a n d protect the system u n d e r
t h e p r e t e x t of an a t t e m p t to transform or abolish it. T h u s it must
be g r a n t e d that the primary a n d indeed the sole r a d i c a l challenge
T h e Revolution Within the Revolution 1417
to t h e system was the o n e that t h e system itself engendered; the
revolt against the principles on which it was founded.
W e must now define very roughly the special form and mean-
ing that this war acquired because of its b e i n g waged in this
unique situation. I f , as is so o f t e n done, o n e adopts the stand-
point of f o r m a l legality, a n d i f o n e admits that in i n t e r n a t i o n a l
relations violence may legitimately b e resorted to by b o t h sides,
whereas within a single c o u n t r y it may be legitimately employed
only by those w h o represent the power of the state, then o n e will
a p p a r e n t l y b e justified in looking o n the A l g e r i a n war as a
rebellion against the established order a n d in regarding the re-
pressive measures adopted as being a mere police operation in
which the forces of law a n d order have the legal right to act
against t h e criminals. I t w o u l d b e only too easy to show t h a t the
p o i n t o f view of f o r m a l legality implies an ignorance of the
sociological facts a n d a refusal to recognize the situation in w h i c h
the r e v o l u t i o n b r o k e out a n d against which it was directed.
Once the false issues have b e e n put aside, the t h i n g that
strikes o n e is that t h e "hostile i n t e n t i o n " of this war h a d a c e r t a i n
abstract quality. T w o texts f r o m a great m a n y that could b e
cited will suffice to i l l u s t r a t e this p o i n t : " T h e Algerian revolu-
tion is n o t a holy war but an attempt to regain o u r liberty. It
is not a work of hate but a struggle against a system of oppres-
s i o n . " " T h e war in Algeria is n o t the war o f Arabs against
1
1
Letter f r o m the Front d e Libération Nationale to t h e French: quoted
b y F a v r o d : La révolution algérienne ( P i o n , 1959), p. 174.
2
F e r h a t A b b a s : Speech of February 17, i960.
148 T h e Algerians
T h e revolutionary radicalism of the A l g e r i a n rebels is a
direct consequence of their conscious awareness that the colonial
society constitutes a system and for this reason can not b e only
half-destroyed; that what must b e changed are not attitudes of
m i n d , e c o n o m i c structures or legal and political institutions, b u t
t h e established system in its entirety. As M o h a m m e d D i b has said:
" N o d o u b t racism was evident even i n t h e looks directed o u r
w a y — b l a n k looks which seemed to relegate us to t h e b a c k g r o u n d .
B u t we used to t h i n k that even this was the result of a system;
it is the system in its entirety that we wish to b e rid of, n o t
o n l y these looks." 3
T h e colonial situation is t h e c o n t e x t in
w h i c h a l l actions must b e judged. T h u s as long as there is a con-
tinuance of this system f r o m which the European, w h e t h e r will-
ingly o r unwillingly, knowingly o r unknowingly, c o n t i n u e s to
derive advantages, t h e most generous actions from t h e p o i n t of
view of strict i n t e n t i o n , w h e t h e r they b e t h e acts of individuals
or those of government, will turn out in practice to b e e i t h e r
p e r f e c t l y useless or, because they take on their meaning f r o m
the social context, actually h a r m f u l . T h e benevolent or generous
acts that the members of the d o m i n a n t society p e r f o r m (more
f r e q u e n t l y than is c o m m o n l y believed) in favor of the m e m b e r s
of the d o m i n a t e d society are almost necessarily b o u n d to be
misunderstood, because they are interpreted in the light of the
relationship based on d o m i n a t i o n which exists between the two
societies; thus in answer to benevolent acts, which may be e i t h e r
subjectively or objectively t i n g e d with paternalism, the usual
response is an attitude of dependency. So intersubjective com-
m u n i c a t i o n rarely fulfills its end. W o u l d it n o t b e easy to show,
f o r e x a m p l e , that the u n a c k n o w l e d g e d purposes of m a n y individ-
ual acts of generosity is to allow the b e n e f a c t o r himself to hide
f r o m himself the fact that injustice is consubstantial with the
existing state of affairs and that, all things considered, they are
really taking advantage of the injustice of the system in order to
do good?
4
O n e e x a m p l e w i l l suffice to p r o v i d e a f a c t u a l c o n t e n t f o r these a n a l y s e s
w h i c h m a y a p p e a r r a t h e r s o p h i s t i c a t e d . A f t e r t h e u p r i s i n g s i n M a y 1958 s i g n s
w e r e posted b e a r i n g this text: " E a c h M o s l e m h a n d t h a t y o u s h a k e b r i n g s
i n t e g r a t i o n n e a r e r . " I s f r a t e r n i t y p o s s i b l e w h e n " f r a t e r n i z a t i o n " is o f f i c i a l l y
e n c o u r a g e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n t h i s p o l i c y is l i n k e d t o t h e p o l i c y o f r e p r e s -
sion? H e n c e o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e difficult p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h t h e a n t i - c o l o -
n i a l i s t E u r o p e a n s , w h o h a v e a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e of a l l t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , f i n d
themselves.
igo T h e Algerians
personal relations may b e established i n the f u t u r e , since the
n a t u r e a n d f o r m of these relations are d e t e r m i n e d by the sit-
u a t i o n in w h i c h they are established. I t w o u l d i n d e e d b e use-
less to h o p e to abolish racism w i t h o u t destroying the c o l o n i a l
system of w h i c h it is the product; it would b e t h e h e i g h t of
pharisaism to c o n d e m n the r a c i s m a n d t h e racists spawned b y
t h e c o l o n i a l situation w i t h o u t c o n d e m n i n g t h e c o l o n i a l system
itself, that is to say, the oppression e x e r c i s e d by o n e g r o u p of
m e n o v e r a n o t h e r group of m e n .
T h e destruction of t h e c o l o n i a l system c a n n o t b e the result
of a conversion of m i n d s w h i c h w o u l d i n d u c e the m e m b e r s of
the d o m i n a n t society solemnly a n d collectively to give u p t h e
privileges they h o l d in order, by a conscious c h o i c e , to " i n t e g r a t e
t h e m s e l v e s " willingly into the d o m i n a t e d caste o r to " i n t e g r a t e
i t " i n t o their caste, w h i c h would m e a n the same t h i n g if we
ascribe to t h e words t h e i r f u l l m e a n i n g . T h i s conversion c a n
only b e the act of a few "traitors to t h e i r c a s t e . " T h e w h o l e
r a t i o n a l e of the c o l o n i a l system tends, on the contrary, to m a k e
this sort of collective suicide impossible, a n d it w o u l d b e even
m o r e impossible in this war, which m a d e the schism m o r e
m a r k e d . T h e "miracles of the t h i r t e e n t h of M a y " must be re-
garded as m e r e attempts at mystification or as staged demonstra-
tions.
T h e awareness of the fact that the c o l o n i a l system c a n only
b e e i t h e r m a i n t a i n e d in its e n t i r e t y or totally destroyed was
e q u a l l y acute among the m e m b e r s of b o t h societies. I f the idea
of a n A l g e r i a n state was inconceivable to the m a j o r i t y of E u r o -
peans, it was because they felt that it w o u l d i n v o l v e a r e p u d i a t i o n
of all they stood f o r a n d their c o m p l e t e destruction. Hence is
e x p l a i n e d a n extremist type of radicalism w h i c h is i n perfect
conformity with the logic of the colonial situation.
If the first d e m a n d of the m e m b e r s of the d o m i n a t e d so-
ciety is that they be t r e a t e d with respect a n d dignity, it is be-
cause the real n a t u r e of the c o l o n i a l system and the caste division
of the c o l o n i a l society h a v e b e e n concretely e x p e r i e n c e d t h r o u g h
h u m i l i a t i o n or alienation. E v e n when they do not think of it
in this manner on a r a t i o n a l level, the i m p l i c i t a n d affective
attitude of the masses towards the colonial society is to regard
T h e Revolution Within the Revolution ip^
it as a system w h i c h can be r e p l a c e d o n l y by destroying it in its
entirety. T h u s it follows that the r e v o l u t i o n directed against
a distinctive social o r d e r has itself certain distinctive charac-
teristics and c a n n o t be considered as purely a n d simply a class
struggle inspired by economic demands, a l t h o u g h it is true that
m o t i v a t i o n s of this sort a r e present, o w i n g to t h e fact that differ-
ences in economic status are one of the most obvious indications
of b e l o n g i n g to one or o t h e r of the castes, a n d a l t h o u g h e c o n o m i c
r e v o l u t i o n appears to be a necessary step i n the destruction of
the c o l o n i a l order. F o r the same reason the A l g e r i a n revolution
c a n be considered n e i t h e r an i n t e r n a t i o n a l n o r a civil war, al-
though it presented features reminiscent of b o t h . I f the struggle
against the caste system assumed the form of a war of n a t i o n a l
l i b e r a t i o n , it was because the creation of a n a u t o n o m o u s n a t i o n
together with the setting up of a g o v e r n m e n t of the Algerians
by the Algerians appeared to be the only decisive way of bring-
ing a b o u t the radical change in situation that could cause the
total a n d definitive collapse of the caste system.
T h e war unveiled the true face of the colonial system. All
the masks and ambiguous expressions were removed; h e n c e there
became evident a m o n g a good n u m b e r of the m e m b e r s of the
d o m i n a n t society a conscious or unconscious fear of peace, moti-
vated by the realization that the war b r o u g h t a b o u t an irreversi-
ble change which would become fully a p p a r e n t with the return
of peace; h e n c e also the admitted or unadmitted desire a m o n g
certain others f o r a total war that would e n d in absolute victory
or, i n o t h e r words, i n the restoration of the caste system, un-
c h a n g e d a n d intact. F o r the m e m b e r s of the d o m i n a t e d caste,
the disagreement a n d the c o n t r a d i c t i o n between the ideal F r a n c e ,
which is often passionately loved,, and the colonial F r a n c e , which
based its d o m i n a t i o n on force a n d discrimination, became glar-
ingly apparent. B y its very logic or, if o n e prefers, by force of
circumstance and o f t e n contrary to the i n t e n t i o n of those en-
gaged in it, the war, as repression, tended to reveal b o t h its own.
n a t u r e a n d the n a t u r e of t h e colonial system a n d to s h o w u p
F r a n c e as a c o l o n i a l power.
So it is that even today the Algerians often distinguish
between " t h e true F r e n c h m e n " or the " F r e n c h m e n of F r a n c e "
152 T h e Algerians
a n d the " F r e n c h of A l g e r i a " or, better, " t h e E u r o p e a n s of Al-
g e r i a . " B y the latter expression and by the insistence with which
they recall the Spanish origin (and m o r e rarely the Italian ori-
gin) of the pieds noirs (descendants of the pioneers), they m e a n
to u n d e r l i n e the fact that they refuse to ascribe to these people
the qualities of the t r u e F r e n c h m e n . A l l these stereotype phrases,
which are based to a certain extent on actual e x p e r i e n c e (par-
ticularly a m o n g those who formerly w o r k e d in F r a n c e ) but whose
m a i n f u n c t i o n is to express the distinction they wish to m a i n t a i n
b e t w e e n ideal F r a n c e and c o l o n i a l F r a n c e , were called i n t o
q u e s t i o n by the actual fact of the war in w h i c h all F r e n c h m e n
indiscriminately participated, and in which the soldier " o f
F r a n c e " sometimes behaved as t h e worst of t h e pieds noirs would
(or would n o t . . . ) behave. H a v i n g learned by e x p e r i e n c e that
the m e m b e r s of the H o m e A r m y (métropolitains), when placed
in the colonial situation, would be c o n v e r t e d very rapidly to the
colonialist a n d racist attitude—is it n o t true that the great
m a j o r i t y of the leaders of the extremist movements were f r o m
m e t r o p o l i t a n F r a n c e ? — t h e Algerians have felt (without always
stating it explicitly o r admitting it) that this a t t i t u d e was n o t
a t t r i b u t a b l e to individual malice or to a congenital disposition
p e c u l i a r to a c e r t a i n e t h n i c g r o u p , but r a t h e r to a special situa-
tion a n d the c o n d i t i o n i n g it imposes. 5
0
In the colonial situation, collective pressure and social determinants
a c q u i r e e x c e p t i o n a l s t r e n g t h a n d i n t e n s i t y . T h e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o£ t h e
i n d i v i d u a l is g o i n g o n c o n s t a n t l y . T h e r e f u s a l to a d o p t t h e r a c i s t a n d c o l o -
n i a l i s t a t t i t u d e o n t h e p a r t o f t h e E u r o p e a n m e a n s t h a t h e is c u t t i n g h i m s e l f
off f r o m h i s o w n g r o u p a n d e x p o s i n g h i m s e l f to b e i n g r e j e c t e d as a t r a i t o r .
T h a t is w h y t h e r e is a g o o d d e a l o f u n f a i r n e s s i n t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h o s e F r e n c h -
m e n w h o m a k e t h e pieds noirs their scapegoats and b l a m e all the tragic
h a p p e n i n g s i n A l g e r i a o n t h e i r r a c i s m . W h e n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e F r e n c h of
A l g e r i a , one can adopt t w o p o i n t s of view, w h i c h m u s t b e sharply distin-
g u i s h e d f r o m one another: by a d o p t i n g the standpoint of f o r m a l morality,
o n e can c o n d e m n racist d e h u m a n i z a t i o n , or, b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e fact t h a t it
is t h e c o l o n i a l s i t u a t i o n t h a t m a k e s t h e r a c i s t a n d , m o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h a t i t is
t h e c o l o n i a l A l g e r i a t h a t h a s p r o d u c e d t h e pied noir a n d n o t t h e r e v e r s e , o n e
c a n c o n c l u d e t h a t a l l ( " F r e n c h m e n o f F r a n c e " a n d pieds noirs) a r e e q u a l l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o l o n i a l s y s t e m w h i c h h a s g i v e n r i s e to r a c i s m . W h i l e
t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n of d e n y i n g t h a t r a c i s m i n t h e a b s o l u t e is a c r i m e , o n e
cannot h e l p t h i n k i n g that the virtuous i n d i g n a t i o n displayed by those w h o s e
m a i n c o n c e r n is t o r e l i e v e t h e m s e l v e s of a n y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e m a t t e r h a s
a l l t h e a p p e a r a n c e of p h a r i s a i s m .
T h e Revolution Within the Revolution jgg
T h u s the war carried t h e c o l o n i a l system to its e x t r e m e
limits. Generous actions p r o m p t e d by an ethic of pure good
intention stood out as ridiculously weak palliatives w h e n viewed
against the b a c k g r o u n d of this system of oppression. T h e dis-
play of a false solicitude that is i n t e n d e d to hide the reality
of the colonial situation appeared either as a c o n t r a d i c t i o n or
as a cynical m e t h o d of reconquest. T h e ideology that favors as-
similation, the last resort of those w h o h a d f o u g h t with t h e
utmost violence against any a t t e m p t to give equality of rights
to the Algerians, appears as a r a t h e r crude effort to obscure
the issue at a time when the i n f e r n a l logic i n h e r e n t in terrorism
and repression was tending to reveal the schism between the
castes i n the most clear-cut m a n n e r . I n such circumstances, any
attempts at trickery or s u b t e r f u g e are at o n c e revealed in their
true light. T h e war helped to b r i n g a b o u t a h e i g h t e n e d aware-
ness.
T h e effectiveness of terrorism lies in the fact that it causes
a violent b r e a k between the m e m b e r s of the two castes by creat-
ing an atmosphere of m u t u a l fear and distrust. A n d repression
c a n n o t fail to p r o d u c e the same effect. T h e reason f o r this is
that those engaged in repression cannot help considering all the
members of the dominated caste as being suspect, even w h e n
they try to discriminate between them. B y the mere fact of re-
g a r d i n g them all as suspect, it separates them f r o m the m e m b e r s
of the o t h e r caste a n d develops in them an awareness of the
existing schism. O n e of the objectives of the war of subversion
was precisely to m a k e Algerians aware of this schism, and thereby
to strengthen the solidarity between the m e m b e r s of the domi-
nated society. T e r r o r i s m , then, increases scission and provokes
repression; this, in turn, f u r t h e r increases the scission w h i c h it
is supposedly intended to prevent.
O n the one h a n d , certain Europeans claimed that the vtar
of l i b e r a t i o n was being carried o n by a h a n d f u l of conscienceless
killers directed by cynical ringleaders who sought to stir u p
against F r a n c e , by ruse and terror, p o p u l a t i o n s that h a d really
r e m a i n e d f a i t h f u l to h e r , but, on the o t h e r h a n d , t h e behavior
of these same people appeared to b e based, consciously or un-
consciously, on their real feeling that all " A r a b s " were in league
154 T h e Algerians
w i t h o n e a n o t h e r and were supporters of the a r m y of the
N a t i o n a l L i b e r a t i o n F r o n t . T h e result was that this type of
b e h a v i o r merely s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e solidarity of the Algerians.
T h e g e n e r a l attitude of suspicion, the m e t h o d i c a l searching o f
cars whose passengers are wearing the veil or Chechia, the iden-
tity checks, the arbitrary arrests, t h e daily vexatious measures (to
cite only the m i n o r ones) are all e x a m p l e s which illustrate the
existence of racial discrimination and w h i c h force all m e m b e r s
of the d o m i n a t e d caste to b e c o m e aware of their opposition to the
d o m i n a n t caste and t h e i r solidarity with the o t h e r m e m b e r s of
their o w n caste.
M o r e o v e r , every w a r , carried along by a sort of dizzy m o -
m e n t u m , tends to go to extremes a n d b e c o m e a total war. A n d
this is e v e n m o r e t r u e i n the case of a war in w h i c h the civil
p o p u l a t i o n is b o t h the prize that is at stake a n d the p l a y t h i n g
of the opposing forces, a war without a f r o n t l i n e or w i t h o u t
f r o n t i e r s , a war in w h i c h the e n e m y is everywhere and n o w h e r e ,
i n which neutrality, or the adoption of a wait-and-see policy or
a policy of indifference, a r e practically impossible, in w h i c h the
a r m y c h a r g e d with repressing the r e v o l t finds itself besieged a n d
surrounded a n d inevitably distressed by the collective conspiracy
with w h i c h it is c o n f r o n t e d .
T h e c h a i n of v i o l e n c e causes t h e adversaries, w h o a r e placed
in an i n e v i t a b l e c o n c a t e n a t i o n of acts a n d counter-acts, to be
d r i v e n i n e x o r a b l y into m a k i n g u n l i m i t e d use of every avail-
able weapon. T h e r e seems to b e a spiral movement, in w h i c h
any increase i n the size of the forces of repression leads to in-
creased tension a n d a corresponding increase in the revolu-
tionary forces a n d vice versa. N o doubt o u r abstract a r g u m e n t
as to the n o r m a l evolution of a war of liberation was n o t strictly
fulfilled by the t u r n of events, and the actual war, however
atrocious it might be, still remained short of absolute war. How-
ever, this spiral movement tends to lead not only to a q u a n t i t a -
tive increase i n the opposing forces and in the intensity of t h e i r
e m p l o y m e n t , but also to a qualitative transformation, a m u t a t i o n
in i n t e n t i o n s a n d sentiments. T h e hostile i n t e n t i o n , t h a t is to
say, the o b j e c t i v e t h a t o n e desires to a t t a i n through w a r , a n d the
feeling of hostility, the hatred that o n e feels toward the enemy,
T h e Revolution Within the Revolution 155
tend to develop in inverse r a t i o . T h e hostile intention, in this
case the abolition of the caste system—an i n t e n t i o n which, when
considered in its pure f o r m , excludes all hatred towards those
who, whether they like it o r not, benefit f r o m the system o n e
desires to destroy—could very well b e replaced by a passionately
e m o t i o n a l feeling o f hostility directed against an e n e m y w h o is
not distant a n d abstract, as in other wars, but w h o is intimately,
closely a n d f a m i l i a r l y k n o w n .
W a r as C u l t u r a l Agent
T h e A l g e r i a n p e o p l e h a v e b e e n subjected to a v e r i t a b l e
diaspora. T h e f o r c e d o r voluntary displacement o f peoples as-
sumed gigantic proportions. T h e n u m b e r of persons w h o n o
longer i n h a b i t the h o m e in w h i c h they were living in 1954 m a y
be roughly estimated at a b o u t 3 m i l l i o n , if one takes i n t o ac-
c o u n t t h e moves that occurred as a r e s u l t of the resettlement o f
c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e exodus to t h e towns a n d cities. T h i s m e a n s
that a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e A l g e r i a n o u t of three is n o l o n g e r l i v i n g
i n his f o r m e r place o f abode. W h i l e t h e regroupings of c o m m u n i -
164 T h e Algerians
ties are only one aspect of these i n t e r n a l shifts in p o p u l a t i o n ,
they are u n d o u b t e d l y the most i m p o r t a n t .
A f t e r h a v i n g first b e e n carried out i n the most t r o u b l e d
regions, in o r d e r to facilitate the c o n d u c t of m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s ,
these regroupings or resettlements of p o p u l a t i o n later b e c a m e
m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t , particularly d u r i n g the years 1958 a n d
1959 (and often in spite of the instructions issued by the civil
authorities), until finally they were b e i n g carried out as a
systematic policy. I n addition to the purely m i l i t a r y reasons and
the desire to cut off the forces of the F . L . N , from the civil popu-
lation w h o were giving them m u c h - n e e d e d support, new reasons
were put f o r w a r d in favor of this policy, reasons inspired m a i n l y
by the integrationist d o c t r i n e resulting f r o m the demonstra-
tions of May 13, 1958, a n d by a strategy f o r w a g i n g counter-
revolutionary war that was very p o p u l a r in m i l i t a r y circles,
particularly a m o n g the readers of M a o Tse-tung and the veterans
of the war i n I n d o c h i n a . Communities w h i c h h a d formerly lived
i n widely scattered dwellings or in r e m o t e regions, a n d w h o as
a r e s u l t w e r e naturally difficult to administer, to e d u c a t e a n d
to control, were to be settled in villages that w o u l d be r u n on a
collective basis and would be located along the great c o m m u n i c a -
tion routes. I t was hoped t h e r e b y to effect a reconstitution of
the social structures a n d to set i n m o t i o n a m o v e m e n t of acceler-
ated social evolution.
F r o m the standpoint of the total society, t h e r e has resulted
f r o m these measures an upheaval without precedent i n the
history of A l g e r i a (see Fig. 15): the m o u n t a i n o u s regions (Aurès
a n d N e m e n c h a s , K a b y l i a a n d the T e l l i a n Atlas) a n d the zones
b o r d e r i n g t h e frontiers have b e e n almost c o m p l e t e l y cleared of
t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s . T h e s e people were either resettled i n the
plains of P i é m o n t or have g o n e to the towns a n d cities. As a
result of this m i g r a t i o n the cities have all had a n increase in
p o p u l a t i o n varying from 50 to more than 100 per cent.
T h e most severely d i s t u r b e d regions are those which had
b e e n relatively spared up to the o u t b r e a k of war because they h a d
been partially sheltered f r o m the colonizing enterprises. I t was
in the m o u n t a i n o u s zones, those that were most affected by the
war a n d the policy of resettlement, that the little r u r a l c o m m u n i -
T h e Revolution Within the Revolution 165
ties, l e a d i n g a secluded way of life a n d r e m a i n i n g obstinately
f a i t h f u l to their past and to t h e i r traditions, h a d b e e n able to
safeguard the essential features of a civilization which can hence-
forth be spoken of only in the past tense. T h i s situation pre-
vailed a m o n g the Kabyles a n d in the Aures, where the B e r b e r -
speaking societies h a d maintained themselves relatively un-
changed, in spite of the sequestrations of their property that
were made after their early insurrections, in spite of the creation
of new administrative units (see C h a p . 6) and m a n y other hostile
measures (see Fig. 1 6 ) . Doubtless the c o n t a c t with the E u r o p e a n
civilization, particularly the influence of e m i g r a t i o n (especially
i m p o r t a n t a m o n g t h e Kabyles) a n d also that of the school (the
first classes h a v i n g b e e n o p e n e d in K a b y l i a a b o u t 1 8 8 0 ) , h a d re-
sulted in great changes in the e c o n o m i c sphere and the social
structures as well as in t h e system of values. However, because of
their isolation, because also of the extremely powerful i n t e -
g r a t i o n of t h e cultural system, the K a b y l e a n d S h a w i a n societies,
a n d to a lesser degree t h e societies of the o t h e r m o u n t a i n o u s
regions, had conserved the m a i n essentials of their ancestral
traditions. Indeed, only the coherence of the social structures,
the intensity of the collective sentiment, a n d the force of tradi-
tion could cause these peasants to r e m a i n attached to a land
that was b e c o m i n g less a n d less capable of supporting them,
particularly when they were exposed to the powerful a t t r a c t i o n
of the h i g h wages b e i n g paid in the cities of Algeria or of F r a n c e .
T h u s the war and its a f t e r m a t h merely finished what colonial
policy had b e g u n . O n l y the great land acts a n d the i n t r o d u c t i o n
of large-scale colonization i n t o the areas of the plains a n d hills
— t h e effects of which were to create a sub-proletariat of agri-
cultural workers, cut off from their geographical and social en-
v i r o n m e n t a n d from t h e i r traditions a n d way of life—have b e e n
able to cause any c o m p a r a b l e u p h e a v a l in Algerian society. 9
t h o u g h l e s s b r u t a l a n d less c o m p l e t e , u p h e a v a l t o t h a t w h i c h is b e i n g caused
b y t h e p o l i c y o£ r e s e t t l e m e n t — c a n p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r f o r e c a s t i n g t h e con-
sequences of this policy.
166
Fig. 15. T h e Military Situation in 1957
167
Fig. 16
P o p u l a t i o n Shifts i n the N o r t h
o f t h e Departement of C o n s t a n t i n e
A d e t a i l d r a w i n g of a p o r t i o n of t h e m a p i n d i c a t i n g t h e population
shifts taking place in Algeria between 1954 and i960 (Fig. 14), this
map gives a more exact idea of the upheavals that have taken place
in Algeria since 1955 ( t h e f i g u r e p l a c e d w i t h i n each c o m m u n e , or dis-
trict, indicates the rate of increase or decrease). However, it fails to
indicate the sometimes very large-scale movements which have taken
p l a c e w i t h i n a s i n g l e c o m m u n e , s u c h as t h e shifts i n p o p u l a t i o n result-
ing f r o m the resettlement carried out by the military authorities in the
r e g i o n of C o l l o (see F i g u r e ig).
168
T h e Revolution Within the Revolution 169
the site of the villages, the layout, the width of the streets, the
interior arrangement of the houses and many other details.
E i t h e r u n a c q u a i n t e d with, or willfully i g n o r a n t of, the tradi-
tional structures and standards, little inclined to consult the peo-
ple involved, and b e i n g placed in a situation such that, even if
they h a d sought it, this c o o p e r a t i o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n tacitly re-
fused t h e m , they went a h e a d a n d i m p o s e d t h e i r o w n arrange-
ments, generally without n o t i c i n g the distress caused by the meas-
ures they i n i t i a t e d . C o n v i n c e d that they must m a k e m e n h a p p y in
spite of themselves, persuaded that they k n e w t h e real needs of
others b e t t e r t h a n t h e latter d i d themselves, assured of b e l o n g i n g
t o a superior civilization that was absolutely good in itself, the
officials were u n a b l e to conceive of the customary life of the
people as b e i n g a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a p r i m i t i v e and b a r b a r o u s
survival, a n d c o n c l u d e d that any resistance offered to the order
they wished to impose was the m e r e expression of an o b s t i n a t e
and a b s u r d r o u t i n e way of t h i n k i n g .
T h u s , through either a deliberate or an unconscious ig-
norance of the h u m a n realities involved, the local authorities
charged with o r g a n i z i n g these new settlements usually imposed,
without any r e g a r d f o r the desires a n d aspirations of those b e i n g
resettled, an o r d e r that was absolutely f o r e i g n to t h e m , a way of
life for w h i c h they were not suited and w h i c h was not suited to
t h e m . A n i m a t e d by t h e f e e l i n g that they were carrying out a
great p l a n , were " b r i n g i n g a b o u t the evolution of the masses,"
e x a l t e d by t h e i r passion for p u t t i n g things in order, a n d often
devoting all of their enthusiasm, good will a n d resources t o the
p e r f o r m a n c e of their activities, the officers i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y put
i n t o p r a c t i c e plans whose implications h a d n o t b e e n t h o u g h t out.
T h e y b e g a n by a t t e m p t i n g to discipline space, as if t h r o u g h it
they h o p e d t o discipline m e n . E v e r y t h i n g was characterize! 1 l)\
u n i f o r m i t y and straight lines. B u i l t on prescribed sites i n . u -
cordance with set standards, the houses were laid out i n straight
lines along wide streets, which could serve equally well to o u t l i n e
the plan of a R o m a n c a m p or a colonial village. I n the center is
the square, with the characteristic t r i a d of the villages of F r a n c e
— t h e school, the town hall and the war m e m o r i a l . I t is as if the 10
1 0
O n t h e w a r m e m o r i a l o£ a r e s e t t l e d v i l l a g e i n t h e r e g i o n o£ C o l l o there
is a s i n g l e n a m e , t h a t o£ a c a i d w h o w a s k i l l e d b y t h e F.L.N.
T h e Algerians
authorities thought that they could create village life by c r e a t i n g
its outer symbols. A census would be taken, a m u n i c i p a l council
a n d a m a y o r chosen, a g r o u p organized for defense of the village,
a c o m m e r c i a l center set u p preferably i n the m a i n street, with a
grocery store, a butcher shop and a M o o r i s h cafe, and the most
l o y a l villagers w o u l d be g r a n t e d as a reward a n d a favor the au-
thority to set u p shop; an infirmary w o u l d be b u i l t , t o w h i c h t h e
military doctor came to g i v e consultations a n d administer t o t h e
sick once or twice a week. A n d they would consider that they h a d
accomplished the m a i n p a r t of t h e i r task w h e n they were able to
show the visitor a v i l l a g e with well-laid-out houses a n d wide,
clean streets, with the basic essentials of collective e q u i p m e n t
a n d with a r u d i m e n t a r y administrative organization. T h e y
seemed to have been f a i t h f u l to the revolutionary p r i n c i p l e of all
or n o t h i n g . B u t this was only in appearance. T h e resettlements
m i g h t really have b e e n (and still c o u l d b e , i n a n o t h e r c o n t e x t )
the occasion f o r a true revolution of the a g r i c u l t u r a l society, if
they had been a c c o m p a n i e d by an a g r a r i a n reform, by a redis-
tribution of l a n d , and by a concerted attempt to i m p r o v e agricul-
tural methods; but that would have presupposed a challenge to
the very foundations of the colonial order.
A l l these villages, even those that a p p e a r to b e the m o s t
"successful," n o w have t h e desolate aspect of d e a d c i t i e s . T h o s e
w h o live i n t h e m , even w h e n they a r e e n j o y i n g a standard of
comfort previously u n k n o w n ( a n d this is sometimes the case)
express i n t h e i r w h o l e a t t i t u d e a p r o f o u n d discontent a n d i n n e r
d i s t u r b a n c e . T h e mere fact of a c h a n g e of residence (by emigra-
tion to the cities, f o r example) is known to be sufficient to b r i n g
about a c o m p l e t e c h a n g e in the attitude toward the world. I n the
case of the resettled populations, the s h a r p b r e a k w i t h their famil-
iar e n v i r o n m e n t and their customary social world, in w h i c h
the t r a d i t i o n a l ways of b e h a v i o r were felt to b e the n a t u r a l ways,
led t o the a b a n d o n m e n t of these f o r m s of b e h a v i o r , o n c e these
people h a d b e e n cut off f r o m the original soil in w h i c h they were
r o o t e d . T h e e x t e n d e d family, clan or village b r o k e u p o n c e it was
placed i n a resettled c o m m u n i t y . T h e c h a n g e i n e n v i r o n m e n t
really requires a c o m p l e t e c h a n g e i n conduct. B u t the f e e l i n g
of h a v i n g b e e n u p r o o t e d f r o m their accustomed surroundings
T h e Revolution Within the Revolution 171
was usually so s t r o n g that disgust, a n g u i s h a n d despair almost
always t r i u m p h e d over the desire t o i n v e n t the new ways of
c o n d u c t r e q u i r e d for the a d a p t a t i o n to radically n e w conditions
of existence.
T o u n d e r s t a n d the full e x t e n t of the upheavals b r o u g h t
a b o u t by these resettlements of population,, it is first necessary to
realize that they affected peasants almost entirely, and it is also
necessary to recall that g r o u p of characteristics that is almost
i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m the peasant c o n d i t i o n i n its traditional f o r m .
It is his a t t a c h m e n t to his land a n d t o his animals that makes
the peasant. T h e quality of his w o r k is d e t e r m i n e d by the
strength of his devotion to his o c c u p a t i o n as f a r m e r , a devotion
that is m u c h m o r e mystical t h a n r a t i o n a l i n c h a r a c t e r (see C h a p .
5, para. 2). T h e t r u e peasant identifies himself with his f a r m :
his whole existence and all his t h i n k i n g are t u r n e d toward his
l a n d and his flock; his property possesses h i m m u c h more than
he possesses it. T h e house is often the center of his domain. It
is i m p o r t a n t , indeed, t o be as close as possible to the plots o f
l a n d that h e owns. I n K a b y l i a t h e most prized lands are those
w h i c h immediately s u r r o u n d the village, and this p r e f e r e n c e can-
not be e x p l a i n e d merely on e c o n o m i c grounds. Does not the
peasant have the h a b i t of going, as they say, " t o pay a visit to his
field?" T h e w o r k of the f a r m is carried on w i t h i n the domestic
g r o u p , as well as on f a m i l i a r l a n d in the i m m e d i a t e vicinity of
the house. T h e i n t e r i o r a r r a n g e m e n t of the house itself is the
best i n d i c a t i o n of the i n t e r p é n é t r a t i o n of h o m e life a n d of the
life of the f a r m . I n the K a b y l e house, composed of a single r o o m ,
the section reserved for the a n i m a l s is separated f r o m the p a r t
l i v e d i n b y the h u m a n s o n l y by a low w a l l , o n which a r e placed
the earthenware jars c o n t a i n i n g the wheat f r o m the last harvest.
T h u s t h e field, t h e animals, the implements, the f a r m products
a n d all t h e preoccupations c o n n e c t e d with these things have
taken their place at the center of the h o m e a n d family life. B u t
the peasant enjoys great a u t o n o m y . W h e t h e r a small f a r m e r or
a sharecropper, h e determines his own w o r k i n g conditions; he
himself, decides on the n a t u r e of his tasks, on the time to d o them
and the rate at which they will be carried o u t ; he disposes of his
p r o d u c e as he sees fit. B u t the independence it assures h i m can-
172 T h e Algerians
n o t b e considered as the real cause of the peasant's devotion to
his calling, this complete a n d utter adherence, n o t to a trade, but
to an art of l i v i n g that is inseparably l i n k e d to the peasant atti-
tude of m i n d . I t is indeed this peasant spirit or attitude of m i n d
that makes the peasant, but this spirit, like any o t h e r passion,
must be able to feed on the o b j e c t of its devotion and fares badly
when separated f r o m it.
R e m o v e d from t h e i r lands, which were often inaccessible
because situated in f o r b i d d e n t e r r i t o r y , r e m o v e d f r o m t h e i r
houses, w h i c h they were almost always o b l i g e d to destroy with
their own h a n d s b e f o r e l e a v i n g to j o i n the resettlement p r o j e c t ,
sometimes separated f r o m their a n i m a l s for h y g i e n i c reasons,
c o m p e l l e d to place t h e whole of t h e i r cereal crop in the store-
house of the m i l i t a r y authorities w h o allocated a set amount each
m o n t h f o r t h e i r use, these peasants felt t h e i r f o r c e d r e m o v a l to
be a s e p a r a t i o n in t h e strongest sense of the t e r m ; stricken to t h e
core of t h e i r being, they gave vent to t h e i r indignations and de-
spair (the w o r d is not too strong) in a voice of wretched suffer-
ing."
T h e peasant c a n e x i s t o n l y w h e n r o o t e d to his l a n d , the
l a n d where he was b o r n , w h i c h he received from his parents a n d
to w h i c h he is attached by his habits and memories. O n c e he
has b e e n u p r o o t e d there is a good chance that he will cease to
exist as a peasant, that t h e instinctive a n d i r r a t i o n a l passion
w h i c h binds h i m to his peasant existence will die w i t h i n h i m .
N o d o u b t t h e r e are degrees of deracination, and the m o n o g r a p h i c
study of different resettlement villages has shown that there are
also degrees of " d e r e a l i z a t i o n . " B e f o r e the resettlements took
place, the r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n was almost entirely composed of work-
1 1
T h e a n a l y s e s p u t f o r w a r d h e r e a r e t h e r e s u l t of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s u n d e r -
t a k e n d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r of i960 i n d i f f e r e n t A l g e r i a n c e n t e r s . I n t h e v i l l a g e s
i n t h e r e g i o n o f C o l l o , of w h i c h a s t u d y w a s m a d e , t h e p e r s o n s w h o h a d b e e n
r e s e t t l e d w e r e c o m p e l l e d to ask f o r a pass i n o r d e r to g o a n d w o r k t h e i r fields;
t h e y t u r n e d o v e r t h e w h o l e of t h e i r c r o p t o t h e S . A . S . ( S e c t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i v e
Spécialisée). M a n y h a d given u p cultivating their farms, either because these
w e r e s i t u a t e d in the f o r b i d d e n zone, or b e c a u s e they h a d b e e n o v e r r u n b y
p r o w l i n g a n i m a l s and w i l d boars, since the farmers could n o l o n g e r w a t c h
o v e r t h e i r fields. A t D j e b a b r a , a c e n t e r in the r e g i o n a b o u t M i l i a n a , t h e g r e a t -
est c a u s e of i n d i g n a t i o n w a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e w e r e s e p a r a t e d f r o m
their animals, w h i c h w e r e n o w all b e i n g kept together in a collective stable
s o m e 50 y a r d s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e i r gourbis (houses).
Fig. 17. T h e "Resettlements" in the Territory of Ai'n Arbel
Situated to t h e east o f C o l l o , o n t h e t e r r i t o r y o c c u p i e d b y t h e
zariba o f A i ' n A r b e l , t h e n e w v i l l a g e g r o u p s t o g e t h e r a b o u t 2,500 p e r -
s o n s b e l o n g i n g t o g r o u p s (zaribat) t h a t w e r e f o r m e r l y settled at dis-
tances v a r y i n g f r o m a half-mile to t w o miles f r o m one another. S i t u a t e d
i n t h e c e n t e r of a f a r m i n g area o n l a n d that h a d b e e n c a r v e d o u t of
t h e f o r e s t , e a c h zariba (clan) g r o u p e d together all t h e descendants of
a c o m m o n a n c e s t o r , t h a t is t o s a y , t h e r e w e r e s o m e s e v e n t y p e r s o n s i n
t h e s m a l l e s t zariba a n d s o m e 420 p e r s o n s i n t h e l a r g e s t . H a v i n g a b a n -
d o n e d t h e i r houses, m o s t of these resettled persons h a v e also g i v e n
u p f a r m i n g t h e i r l a n d s (all those that w e r e s i t u a t e d to the east of t h e
h a c h u r e d l i n e ) . I t is n o t s o m u c h t h e f a c t t h a t i t t a k e s f r o m h a l f a n
h o u r to a n h o u r a n d a half to w a l k to t h e m (resulting i n the a b a n d o n -
m e n t o f t h e f a r m s ) , as t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o w n e r s c o u l d n o l o n g e r l i v e
s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e i r fields.
173
174 T h e Algerians
result of the policy of resettlement this situation has been totally
c h a n g e d : in all of the f o u r centers studied, only 25 per cent of
the heads of families said that they w e r e farmers (landowners
a n d paid f a r m workers); 4 4 per cent claimed to be u n e m p l o y e d ,
while the r e m a i n d e r of the p o p u l a t i o n was largely m a d e up of
small merchants, shopkeepers, peddlers, cafe owners a n d small
craftsmen.
Compelled to give up f a r m i n g all or p a r t of their l a n d , a
good n u m b e r of the fellahs w h o have been resettled are now con-
d e m n e d to idleness or to a m o r e or less reduced f o r m of activity.
T h e w o r k on the land, even w h e n interrupted by rest periods
a n d even t h o u g h it never gave e m p l o y m e n t to all the available
w o r k e r s , was n o doubt sufficient t o keep alive i n each individual
the f e e l i n g that he was fully e m p l o y e d ; f o l l o w i n g r e s e t t l e m e n t ,
h o w e v e r , this seasonal inactivity a l t e r n a t i n g with busy periods of
full employment in accordance with the r h y t h m of f a r m work
b e c a m e , for certain individuals, a condition of p e r m a n e n t inac-
tivity, a n d h e n c e was felt to be a b n o r m a l a n d n o t t o be en-
dured. 12
B u t generally speaking, because it is i n t e r p r e t e d as
b e i n g t h e c o n s e q u e n c e of a situation to w h i c h t h e y a r e a b -
solutely o p p o s e d , an o r d i n a r y r e d u c t i o n i n e m p l o y m e n t , even
w h e n very slight, is sufficient to b r i n g a b o u t a r a d i c a l c h a n g e in
the attitude t o w o r k a n d a realization of t h e i r c o n d i t i o n of
c h r o n i c u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t that has o f t e n only b e e n m a d e worse
by resettlement.
N o d o u b t the fellahs h a d already gone t h r o u g h m o r e o r less
l o n g periods of inactivity in t h e past. B u t these fitted i n with an
accustomed cycle that was fixed by tradition a n d l i n k e d t o the
1 3
A n e w f a c t t h a t h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d is t h a t m o r e a n d m o r e f r e q u e n t l y
e n t i r e f a m i l i e s a r e l e a v i n g f o r F r a n c e as a r e s u l t , p r i m a r i l y , of t h e p r e v a i l i n g
i n s e c u r i t y . It o f t e n h a p p e n s t h a t t h e e m i g r a n t r e t u r n s t o g e t h i s f a m i l y as s o o n
as h e h a s t h e m e a n s to a s s u r e t h e m d e c e n t l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s . T h u s i n A g h b a l a ,
f o r e x a m p l e , a v i l l a g e of a b o u t 2,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , o n l y s i x f a m i l i e s h a d g o n e
to F r a n c e b e f o r e 1954. B y e a r l y 1962 e i g h t e e n f a m i l i e s h a d m o v e d t h e r e , a n d
f o u r of t h e s e i n c l u d e , i n o n e c a s e , t h e m o t h e r a n d s i s t e r of t h e h e a d o f t h e
f a m i l y a n d , in t h e o t h e r cases, his n e p h e w s a n d nieces. A b o u t t w e n t y f a m i l i e s
h a v e m o v e d t o n e i g h b o r i n g s m a l l t o w n s , S i d i A r c h a n d E l K s e u r , o r to A l g i e r s .
T h e e x o d u s w o u l d h a v e b e e n o n a s t i l l l a r g e r s c a l e , if it h a d n o t b e e n c h e c k e d
b y t h e m a y o r , w h o w o u l d g r a n t a u t h o r i t y to l e a v e o n l y i n r e t u r n f o r t h e
p a y m e n t o f a l a r g e s u m of m o n e y . A t K e r k e r a a w h o l e c l a n , c o m p r i s e d of
a b o u t o n e h u n d r e d p e r s o n s , e m i g r a t e d to P h i l i p p e v i l l e as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f
t h e p o l i c y of r e s e t t l e m e n t .
Fig. 18. T h e "Resettlement" of Ain Arbel (detail)
T h e black squares represent the site of the houses that formerly
belonged to the members of the zariba Ain Arbel and the zariba
Brouta. These people have now been resettled in the new village. Each
group of houses sheltered a single social unit and was surroiuickil by
the lands cultivated by the group.
177
178 T h e Algerians
l i v i n g caused by the resettlement policy, w o u l d be sufficient to
cause a slump in business and i n the m a n u a l trades? W o r k of this
n a t u r e constitutes to a certain extent its own end, since i n
reality it has n o end apart from its own existence. T o be en-
gaged in some k i n d of work, even w h e n o n e works f o r n o t h i n g
or f o r a m e r e pittance, is, in one's own eyes and i n t h e eyes of
the g r o u p , to do all that one can to rise a b o v e the position of
the u n e m p l o y e d w o r k e r . T h u s the f u n c t i o n of these o c c u p a t i o n s ,
w h i c h c a n n o t be called trades or professions, is symbolic i n a
d o u b l e sense: they b r i n g a fictitious satisfaction to those engaged
in them, a n d at the same time provide them with justification
i n the eyes of t h e g r o u p . B y giving t h e m a s e m b l a n c e of a n
o c c u p a t i o n , these s m a l l businesses provide an outward show of
a d a p t a t i o n f o r these c o u n t r y dwellers c o n d e m n e d to idleness b e -
cause of the remoteness of their lands a n d because of the l a c k
of e m p l o y m e n t . 14
1 4
T h e c o u n t r y d i s t r i c t s h a v e a l w a y s b e e n t h e s c e n e o£ a s o r t o£ p e n d u l u m
m o v e m e n t : d r i v e n f r o m t h e l a n d b y a p o o r y e a r , s o m e o£ t h e f e l l a h s a n d the
a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r s w o u l d g o a n d seek a l i v e l i h o o d in t h e cities. A promising
y e a r w o u l d b r i n g b a c k to t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l life this p a r t i c u l a r p o r t i o n of the
rural population. T h e resettlement has given full scope to this movement
of derealization, to such an extent that it has perhaps made the latter
irreversible.
1 6
T h e large-scale resettlements, l i k e all great social u p h e a v a l s , f a v o r e d the
a p p e a r a n c e o f a c l a s s of p r o f i t e e r s , w h o w e r e o f t e n supported by the army
b y r e a s o n o f t h e i r " l o y a l t y , " w h o h e l d a m a j o r i t y of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n -
sibilities (the m a y o r a l t y functions, f o r e x a m p l e ) , a n d w h o w e r e a l l o w e d to r u n
the p r i n c i p a l business concerns.
T h e Revolution Within the Revolution 179
of persons on r e l i e f , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s transformed these deruralized
country dwellers i n t o a sub-proletariat who h a d lost all m e m o r y
of their f o r m e r ideals of h o n o r a n d dignity a n d w h o wavered
between attitudes of m e e k resignation and ineffectual revolt.
T h e whole of their existence was l a c k i n g that w h i c h nor-
mally constitutes its m a i n f r a m e w o r k : the daily w o r k at one's
customary occupation, with its t e m p o r a l a n d spatial rhythms,
the demands it imposes, the security that it offers, the future t h a t
it allows one to envisage a n d p l a n for. T h e tragedy of unemploy-
m e n t does not lie solely in being deprived of real opportunities
t o work, but i n b e i n g deprived of a regular daily o c c u p a t i o n
a n d the stability g u a r a n t e e d by the assured p r o d u c t of one's
labor. F o r individuals p l a c e d in this catastrophic situation, w h a t
is t h r e a t e n e d is t h e i r whole psychological b a l a n c e and, m o r e
particularly, t h e i r e m o t i o n a l b a l a n c e . T h e y gradually lapse i n t o
a n a p a t h e t i c attitude of fatalistic r e s i g n a t i o n . T h e y inevitably
b e c o m e reconciled and accustomed to a parasitic a n d vegetative
f o r m of existence. Is it not a fact, for e x a m p l e , that, after two
years of idleness a n d misery, the inhabitants of a resettlement
p r o j e c t in the Collo r e g i o n refused the c h a n c e t o m o v e to an-
o t h e r place w h e r e they were assured of finding f a r m s that could
be worked? Is it not likely that f a m i l i a r i z a t i o n w i t h p r o l o n g e d
u n e m p l o y m e n t a n d the h a b i t of p r e t e n d i n g to b e busy at poor
trades will produce parasites w h o are l a c k i n g i n dignity, com-
placently resigned to b e i n g on r e l i e f a n d i m b u e d with a vague
a n d peevish f e e l i n g of resentment r a t h e r t h a n with any truly
revolutionary ideas? T h e r e is a good c h a n c e that such m a y be
t h e fate of the p o p u l a t i o n s of c e r t a i n centers who, as a result
of the lack of any f a r m work, were placed i n a situation of
absolute d e p e n d e n c y on t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o r t h e m i l i t a r y au-
thorities, a n d h a d n o o t h e r means of support t h a n t h e i r p e r i o d i c
a l l o t m e n t of semolina, their pay as auxiliary police, a n d t h e
wages they were able to e a r n i n the workshops t h a t h a d b e e n
o p e n e d u p by the a r m y .
I n t h e w h o l e o f t h e arrondissement ( a d m i n i s t r a t i v e district) of
C o l l o , s o m e 33,000 p e r s o n s — o r m o r e t h a n a t h i r d o f t h e t o t a l p o p u -
l a t i o n — h a v e b e e n r e s e t t l e d . T h e r e s e t t l e m e n t c e n t e r o f K m 10 ( k i l o -
m e t e r 10) w a s c o m p r i s e d o f 3,264 p e r s o n s ( a b o u t 589 f a m i l i e s ) t o w h i c h
w e r e a d d e d i n S e p t e m b e r i 9 6 0 t h e i , o g i i n h a b i t a n t s (205 f a m i l i e s ) o f
t h e zariba K e r k e r a , situated about one-half m i l e a w a y f r o m the re-
s e t t l e m e n t center o n the side of the hill w h i c h o v e r l o o k s the valley of
t h e W a d i G u e b l i . A t R e d i r , 3 7 1 f a m i l i e s , c o m p r i s i n g i,8g4 p e r s o n s ,
w e r e r e s e t t l e d . F i n a l l y , a t K m ig t h e a u t h o r i t i e s g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r t h e
zaribat Lazilet, el Afia, O u t a i e t A i c h a , el H a m m a m a n d Bourguel.
W h e r e a s at A i n A r b e l the n e w v i l l a g e w a s established in a n a r e a a l r e a d y
o c c u p i e d b y o n e of the c o n t r a c t e d g r o u p s , t h e site of t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t
p r o j e c t o f K e r k e r a , at t h e e d g e of t h e W a d i G u e b l i w i t h its d a n g e r o u s
spring overflows, had been occupied by only a few scattered houses. By
r e a s o n o f its s i z e a n d t h e a r b i t r a r y w a y i n w h i c h i t s s i t e w a s s e l e c t e d ,
the K e r k e r a project, w h i c h brings together formerly separate groups,
is t h e p r i z e e x a m p l e o f t h e r u r a l s h a n t y t o w n (bidonville).
(See m a p o n o p p o s i t e page.)
1 0
As a consequence o£ t h e d e p r e s s e d c o n d i t i o n o£ a g r i c u l t u r e and stock
r a i s i n g , t h e r e m a y b e n o t e d i n n e a r l y a l l c a s e s a d r o p i n t h e s t a n d a r d o£ l i v i n g
a situation they detested, prevented f r o m taking control of t h e i r
own destiny, they could not turn their thoughts to devising
methods of developing a cooperative m o v e m e n t that would b e
based on the c o m m o n interest and o n deliberate p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
a c o m m o n effort. R a t h e r , they d e m o n s t r a t e d i n a great m a n y
t h a t is difficult t o e v a l u a t e p r o p e r l y . I n s u c h c o n d i t i o n s a n y a v a i l a b l e capital—
flock, p o u l t r y , r e s e r v e s — i s r a p i d l y consumed. Life becomes a hand-to-mouth
e x i s t e n c e , a s i n k - o r - s w i m affair. T h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n of these people
l e a d s to a v e r y h i g h d e a t h r a t e , p a r t i c u l a r l y a m o n g children.
181
182 T h e Algerians
ways t h e i r refusal to p a r t i c i p a t e . Is there, indeed, any b e t t e r
17
End of a W o r l d
M
T o t a k e a s i n g l e e x a m p l e : a t t h e t i m e o£ a l a r g e - s c a l e m i l i t a r y o p e r a -
t i o n i n 1959, t h e w i v e s o£ a m a r a b o u t , f r o m a v i l l a g e n e a r M i c h e l e t , f l e d i n
t h e m i d d l e o f t h e n i g h t to a n e i g h b o r i n g v i l l a g e w h e r e t h e y h a d n o a c q u a i n t -
ances. T h i s c o n d u c t , w h i c h w o u l d formerly h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d scandalous,
s i n c e t h e w i v e s of a m a r a b o u t r a r e l y l e a v e t h e i r h o m e , w a s l o o k e d o n as b e i n g
almost normal.
T h e Revolution Within the Revolution 185
t h e i r society a n d t h e values they associated with it have b e e n p u t
to t h e cruelest k i n d of test. As witness of this, we h a v e these
words of an old m a n of the K a b y l e s : " A t the end of all this, there
will not be a m a n left w h o can say 'I am a m a n . ' " T h e r e are the
cases of rape a n d abduction of women, of army interrogations
during w h i c h the husband was slapped or k n o c k e d about in the
presence of the w o m e n . T h i s r e n o u n c e m e n t of traditional values
took place in an atmosphere of despair and great m o r a l anguish.
L i k e some i n f e r n a l m a c h i n e , the war has m a d e a clean
sweep of the social realities, g r i n d i n g u p a n d scattering to the
four winds the t r a d i t i o n a l communities of the village, clan or
f a m i l y . T h o u s a n d s of m e n were in t h e u n d e r g r o u n d movement,
i n the i n t e r n m e n t camps, i n prison, or living as refugees in
T u n i s i a a n d M o r o c c o ; others departed f o r the cities of Algeria
or F r a n c e , leaving their families b e h i n d i n the resettlement p r o j -
ects or in their h o m e villages; m a n y others have died or disap-
peared. I n entire regions there are practically n o m e n left. I n
these deserted villages will there r e m a i n even a memory of the
f o r m e r traditions? F o r this enforced separation i n t e r r u p t e d the
transmission of the t r a d i t i o n a l civilization, which, because of
t h e i r adherence to n e w values, t e n d to be n o l o n g e r regarded
with reverence by the young people. T h e w o m e n and the old
m e n h a v e r e m a i n e d b e h i n d in t h e villages w i t h t h e children.
T h e young men, t h r o w n i n t o an u r b a n way of life, n o longer
learn f r o m their elders the precepts, the customs, the legends or
the proverbs w h i c h f o r m e d the soul of t h e c o m m u n i t y . T h e
teaching of t h e elders has b e e n r e p l a c e d by a k i n d of politi-
cal education i m p a r t e d by those w h o are able to read. T h e
m a i n t e n a n c e of t r a d i t i o n presupposes a c o n t i n u i n g contact be-
tween the successive g e n e r a t i o n s and a respect f o r the elders o n
the p a r t of the young. T h e patriarchal family, the p r i m o r d i a l
c o m m u n i t y which h a d escaped disintegration to a m u c h grc.ner
e x t e n t in the country areas t h a n in the cities, and which r e m a i n e d
the keystone of the whole social structure, now is sometimes
dispersed a n d is split by the conflict between the different
generations, w h i c h is really the expression of the conflict b e t w e e n
the old and the new systems of value.
W h e r e v e r t h e F r e n c h m a n goes,
H e leaves b e h i n d bloody traces;
N o one is spared,
E v e n the old are struck down.
H e has despoiled the trees which were l a d e n with fruit.
H e has p o i s o n e d t h e waters of t h e streams.
igo T h e Algerians
W h e r e v e r the F r e n c h m a n goes,
B u l l e t s pierce the walls,
T h e wheat fields are destroyed by fire.
T o feed the people even acorns are b e c o m i n g h a r d to find.
A n d as for the h o n o r that has been violated,
W o r d s are not sufficient to describe it.
F r o m one generation to a n o t h e r
T h e message will b e transmitted
So that it will never be f o r g o t t e n —
H o w the people were seized by the throat.
Every day each village can count one m o r e person w h o has died.
P o o r child w h o weeps w i t h o u t understanding
T h e stiffness of the body of its m o t h e r .
T h e F r e n c h s y s t e m o£ o r t h o g r a p h y f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g t e r m s is employed
in this book because it reflects the local dialect in a way the standard
orthography does not; also, since almost all works on the subject are in
F r e n c h a n d use t h e F r e n c h o r t h o g r a p h y , it was d e e m e d advisable for con-
v e n i e n c e of reference to f o l l o w the practice in the field.
193
194 Glossary
French Standard Definition
Orthography Orthography
akoufi aküfi (Berber.) Large jar of dried clay,
placed either in the u p p e r part of
the house near the entrance, for
i m p o r t a n t f o o d supplies (grains), or
on the p r o t r u d i n g wall that sepa-
rates stable from living quarters,
for smaller provisions (dried figs,
meal, beans and other leguminous
f o o d s , seeds). T h e l a t t e r j a r s , much
smaller, are also called tikoufiyin
(tikufiyin), sing, takoufit (thaku-
fith).
chefda shafä'ah ( A r a b i c . ) R i g h t o£ r e d e e m i n g r e a l
e s t a t e o r o£ p r e - e m p t i o n , whose
d e v e l o p m e n t received great i m p e t u s
f r o m B e r b e r c u s t o m in o r d e r to
keep strangers or foreigners a w a y
f r o m the property.
( A r a b i c . ) A c t of v e i l i n g , h i d i n g , si-
lencing; arrangement permitting
hitman kitmän
M o z a b i t e a u s t e r i t y to a d j u s t t o r e l i -
gious prescriptions.
r o o f as t h e r e s t o f t h e h o u s e , a b o v e
t h e s t a b l e , adainin, and connecting
with the living quarters (taqa'at).
Reached by ladder or by "adhab-
dhar," a small built-up elevation
s u p p o r t i n g l i t t l e akoufi (akufi).
( B e r b e r . ) L i t e r a l l y , of jadd; grand-
tadjadit tajaddith
father, ancestor. Consanguinity;
l i n e a g e . A l l t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of the
same ancestor, real or mythical.
taqbilt thaymat ( B e r b e r . ) C o n f e d e r a t i o n o£ t r i b e s .
D a h r a , 57
Gandoura, 7g
Daoud, Ouled, 25, 35
G a u t i e r , E. F., 38, 45-46
Despois, 84, 86
G e n t i l i t i a l f a m i l y . See F a m i l y o r g a n i -
Diia, 33
zation
Divorce, 29-30
G h a r d a ' i a , 4 0 , 68
Djebabra, i72n
Gourbi, xi, 63, i72n, 182
Djebel Bous, 26
Gours, 37
Djelj lands, 67
Granary, as s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n , 33-34.
Djemâa, 42, 43n, 70, 140
See also Guelâa
Djerba, 45
G r e a t f a m i l y , 78; a n d p o w e r of n a m e ,
Djurdjura, in
88-go
Doutrs, 35, 59, 7 1 , 1 3 9 - 1 4 0
Guebli, Wadi, 180
Douro, 10; lahlâl, 10
Guelâa, 33, 40, 104
Doutté, 87
Guerrara, 3g, 40
Dresch, 135
Education, 48, 5 1 , 95, 165. See also
Habous, 5 , 6, 7 4 , 7 5 , 82
War, effects of
Hachouma, g6
El Arab (Bou Okkaz family), 84
Halqa, 4 1 , 43n
El Ateuf, 39, 40
Hamada, 37
Emigration, 39; and group ties, 11,
Hammam, 62
45- 4 6 - 4 7 . 49- 5 0 - 5 . 7 " 2 . 1 8 8 l 6
5
E x c o m m u n i c a t i o n , 43, 4 9 Hanencha (Harar family), 84
Hanotreau and Letrouneux, 7-8
Family organization, 3-5: Arab, 60; Haouita, 42
K a b y l e , 5-12; Mozabite, 41; Shaw- Harfiqt, 32-34, 36
ian, 27-32; of b u s i n e s s , 4 8 , 60; as Haqd-dkhoul, 10
structural model, 97-98: Kabyle, Hillalian Arab invasions, 56, 8g
12-24; S h a w i a n , 3 5 - 3 6 Home Army, 152
2o6 Index
H o n o r , 96, 1 1 2 : K a b y l e , 3, 6, 10, 17, Mao Tse-tung, 164
2 0 - 2 3 ; S h a w i a n , 28, 33; d e c l i n e o£, Marabouts, 4, 27, 89, 93; tribes of
184; as g u a r a n t o r of sharecropper 89. See also P r i e s t s
pacts, 78-81 M a r ç a i s , G., 85, 89
Honorable e x c h a n g e , 9, i 6 n , 8 1 , 103 M a r ç a i s , W . , 62
H'orm, 40 M a r c y , G., 92
H'orma, 87 M a r k e t s , x i i i , 26, 40, 5 9 , 62, 68
Hospitality, 28 M a r r i a g e c o m p e n s a t i o n : K a b y l e , 8-10;
Humboldt, Wilhelm, von, 113 S h a w i a n , 29-30
Marriage customs, 4: Kabyle, 5-10;
Inheritance customs, 3, 5, 102; Ka- S h a w i a n , 29-30
byle, 5-6; Shawian, 28 Matmoura, 71
I r r i g a t i o n , 6 7 , 68 M a y , 1958, d e m o n s t r a t i o n s of, i4gn,
I s l a m , c o n v e r s i o n s t o , 5 6 , 62 150, 1 5 8 - 1 5 9 , 164
Islamic law, 6, 13, 38, 42, 7 4 , 92; Mechmel, 1
cultural influence, 107-118 Mechta, 71
Isnard, 126 Meddah, x i i i , 94
Ittifâqât, 39, 42-44, 47 Médéa, 62
Médersas, 60
J e w s , 63, 93, 111 Medina, 67n
Medjana, Ouled (Mokran family),
Kabylia, topography, 1
84
Kerkera, i76n, 180
Mektoub, 109
Khammès, I38n
M e l i k a , 4 0 , 47
Kharedjites, See Abadhites
Melk, 12 i n
Khelouf, Ouled, 78
M e n a â , 35
Khouan, 109
Métayage au quint. See Sharecrop-
Khouidem, Ouled, 78
ping
Kinship, fictitious, 84-86
Michelet, i84n
Kitmân, 54
M i l i a n a , 62, i 7 2 n
Koranic s c h o o l s , 4 3 , 48, 60
M i t i d j a , 57, i 2 5 n
K o u l o u g h l i s , 62
M o h a m m e d D i b , 148
Ksar, 67n
M o n t e s q u i e u , 20-21
Ksourien, 67-68, 69
M o o r s , A n d a l u s i a n , 62
Liada imeitvura, 95 M o r o c c a n s , 84
Laghouat, 66, 68 M o r o c c o , 60, 185
Landholding, 5, 102: Arab, 66-67, M o s q u e , 40-42, 49, 59, 60, i i 4 n
70, 7 4 - 7 6 ; K a b y l e , 1-2, 5 ; M o z a b i t e , M o u l o u d M a m m e r i , 95
34-36; a b a s i s f o r s o c i a l u n i t y , 82-83; M'turni, 159
colonial policy on, 120-122; sale Mutual a i d , 2, 1 1 - 1 2 , 28, 4 8 , 6 0 , 7 5 ,
of nomads' lands, 58. See also 112; pacts, 76
Resettlement policy M z a b , t o p o g r a p h y , 37
Lartique, 35 M z a b , W a d i , 37, 40
Lévi-Strauss, 91
N a i l , O u l e d , 84, 86, 91
L i t t l e K a b y l i a , 56
Nazils, 43
M a d h i , O u l e d , 84, 86, 89, 90 N e d r o m a , 62
Magic, 10, 1 1 8 ; a n d w o m a n , 29, 30- N e g r o e s , 63
N e m e n c h a s , 164
3 - 49- 93. 95. 9
1 8
Index
207
Nomads, Saharan, 76; Shawian, 27, Sersou, 69
32-33 Sétif, 64, 65n
Shantytowns, 178
Oases, paradox of, 37-38 Sharecropping, 2, 78-82
O a t h , collective, 22-23, 33 Sheik, 42, 83-84
O i l , 5 4 " . 69 Social structures: continuity of, 66-
Oran, 57, 60,6511, 66, 12511 67, 98; decline of, 139-144
Oranie, plains of, 57 Souq, 62
Ostracism, 17, 22, 43, 45 Speech, conventions of, 96, 107
Ouarsenis, 57 Standard of living, 135, 177-178
Stock raising, 57, 58, 65, 70-73, 128,
Pacts, 76, 78-82, 103 i34-»35
Past, idealization of, 94-95. See also Swing-plow, 67, 72
T r a d i t i o n a l i s t society
Syncecism, 44
Pastoral society, decline of, 69
Patrimony: legalized break-up, 58,
Taddart, 3
82-83; as social factor, xii, xiii,
Tajmaât, 3, 12, 17, 22
33. " 3
8 2 8
Takharroubt, 3, 12
Personality, concealment of, 96
Takiya, 54
Philippeville, i25n, i76n
Taleb, 47
P i é m o n t , 164
Tamaouokt, 10
Pied noir (pioneer), i3on, 152
T'amen, 3
Politeness, 95
Tamesroit, 3m
Population: growth, 63n, 119, 128,
Taousa, 9, 106
134-135; ratios, 67n
Taqbilt, 3
Population growth, European, 123 T e l l region, xi, 45-49, 58, 65n, 66,
Priests, 42-44. See also Marabouts 68, 69, 76, 84
Proletariat, in A r a b cities, 64, 191 Terrorism, 153
Theocracy, 43
Qanoun, 13, 20-23 Thresholds, 12
Tiaret, 69
Racism, 133-134, 150 T i l l i o n , G., 35, 36
Rahnia, 105 Timechret', 3, 12, 22
Ramadan, fast of, 113 Tiouizi, 11
T l e m c e n , 60, 62, 140
Rechaich, Ouled, 121
Tolls, paid by nomads, 66
Resettlement policy: economic ef-
T o u a b a , 10, 33
fects, 164, 170-179; failure, 182;
Touaregs, 3111,9111
motives, 164, 166; procedures, 169-
Toufiq, 13
170; social effects, 164-165, 171-176
Trabadjar, 183
Resolutions of 1748, 6
Traditionalism, colonial, 155-156
Richard, Captain, 76
Traditionalist society, 94-96; aUi-
Rivière, T . , 36
tudes toward work, 104; and eco-
nomic planning, 104-105; sources,
Sahara, x i , 25, 27, 60, 64, 67, 68, 69 109-114
Saussure, Ferdinand, d e , 90 T r a n s h u m a n c e , 25, 35, 71, 334
Section Administrative Spécialisée, T r i b e : A r a b , 82, 83-84, 86-87; Kabyle,
i72n, 183 3; Shawian, 32, 36
Senatus Consulte of 1863, 33n, 35, 58, Tunisia, 185
82, 120, i22n, 139, 166 T u r k s , 62
208 Index
Umma, 112 W e b e r , M a x , 104, 114
Unemployment, 129, 174-176, 182- Wife, role of, 1, 4, 95: Arab, 83;
183, 191 K a b y l e , 7; S h a w i a n , 25, 27-31. See
U s u r y , 39, 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 also W o m a n , status of
Winegrowing, colonial industry of,
V a i s s i e r e , C a p t a i n , 88, 121, i22n 123-126
V e i l , 154, 156 Woman, s t a t u s o f , 97-98: K a b y l e , 5-
Village, Kabyle: layout, 1; social 10; M o z a b i t e , 49; S h a w i a n , 29-32;
u n i t , 3, 13 c h a n g e i n , 186-187. S e e
Wife,
r o l e of
W a r , A l g e r i a n : c a u s e s , 145-147; a n d
cultural exchange, 187-188; and Y a c o n o , 78
decolonization, 163; a n d native
v i e w o f d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e , 159-162 Zaouia, 8g, 116
W a r n i e r l a w o f 1873, 120-121 Zariba, 175, 180