EE 511: Introduction to

Fourier Optics and

Image Understanding
Volume 1
I. History and Background
II. Fourier Transforms and Linear Systems

Dwight L. Jaggard
University of Pennsylvania
308 Moore
<jaggard@seas.upenn.edu>
215.898.4411
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 1
 Course Goal
Understand the fundamentals
of physical and ray optics
and their application to
current science and
technology

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 2

What good
is optics?

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 3

 Course Outline (I)
I. History and Background
A. History
B. Types of Optics
C. Applications of Physical Optics

II. Fourier Transforms and Linear Systems

III. Scalar Diffraction Theory (Physical Optics)
IV. Fresnel and Fraunhofer Approximations
V. Vector Diffraction Theory
VI. Geometrical and Ray Optics
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 4
 Course Outline (II)
VII. Properties of Lenses
VIII. Coherent and Incoherent Imaging
IX. Partial Coherence Theory
X. Special Topics (topics selected according to
time and interest of class)
A. Image classification and understanding
B. Non-destructive evaluation and testing
C. Fractal antennas and arrays
D. “Electromagnetic bullets” or focused beams
E. Inverse problems
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 5
 Administrative Information
l Contacts
l Dwight Jaggard , instructor
<jaggard@seas. upenn.edu>
or 215.898.4411
l Lois Clearfield, secretary (appointments
and handouts)
<lois@ee.upenn.edu>
or 215.898.8241
l Office Hours: 4:30 - 5:30 W
l Review Sessions: as needed

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 6

 Course Information
l Grades
l Homework ~15 - 20%
l Midterm ~35 - 40%
l Final ~35 - 40%
l Mini-Project ~10%
l Late homework not accepted
l Midterm Exam: Wednesday, March 7
l Guidelines on collaboration

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 7

 Mini-Project
l Idea:
Take topic related to course and
present topic to class
Work in small groups
Turn in presentation (Power Point)
plus paper on topic
l Talks given last two weeks of
class
l Paper due April 30

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 8

Potential Mini -Project Topics - I
l Image and pattern classification
l Signal reconstruction (from limited data)
l Non-uniform or 2-D sampling
l Rough surface scattering
l Electromagnetic scattering (physical optics
with polarization or exact methods)
l Knife edge diffraction for both polarizations
l Low frequency diffraction by apertures
l Optical computing/neural nets

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 9

Potential Mini -Project Topics - II
l Diffraction by fractals
l Zernike polynomials and optics
l Diffuse beam propagation/imaging
l Higher-order Gaussian beam propagation
l Focused beams/“diffractionless” propagation
l Applications of partial coherence theory
l Ray optics and lens design
l Multilayers: application & design
l Spectroscopy
l Antenna radiation
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 10
Potential Mini -Project Topics - III
l Phase retrieval problem
l Holography
l Inverse problems
l Tomography & radon transform
l Ultrasound imaging
l X-ray diffraction/crystallography
l MRI
l Adaptive optics
l Wavelets
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 11
 Links
l Course website:
http://www.seas. upenn.edu/~ee511
(homework posted here)
l Photonics information & news
www.optics.org
l Some interesting sites for physical optics
www.opticalimaging.org/fourieroptics.html
http://dukemil.egr.duke.edu/Ultrasound/k -
space/bme265.htm
http://wyant.optics.arizona.edu/fresnelZones/fresnelZone
s.htm
http://hyperphysics.phy -
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/diffracon.html#c1

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 12

 Related Journals
l Journal of the Optical Society of America – A
l Optics Letters
l Optics Communications
l Applied Optics
l Optical Engineering
l Journal of Lightwave Technology
l Journal of Optics A: Pure and Applied Optics
l Optik
l Journal of Modern Optics
l Optica Acta
l Applied Physics Letters
l Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics
l Optics Express (online journal)
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 13
I. History and Background

A. History

B. Types of Optics

C. Applications of Physical Optics

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 14

 History (I)
l Classical Times & Greek Philosophers
l Empedocles (circa 490-430 B.C.)
l Euclid (circa 300 B.C.)
l The Golden 1600’s
l Descartes (1596-1650)
l Considered the nature of light
l Light was pressure transmitted through the aether
l Galileo (1564-1642)
l Experimental methods
l Snell (1621)
l Refraction of light at interface
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 15
 History (II)
l More 1600’s
l Fermat (1601-1665)
l “Principle of Least Time”
l Refraction laws verified
l Father Grimaldi (1618-1663)
l First noticed “diffraction”
l Note: diffraction is the bending of light not caused
by refraction
l Newton (1642-1727)
l Discovered basic qualities of color
l White light could be split up into colors
l Experiments with prisms and light and
“refrangibility ” or bending of light at an interface
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 16
 History (III)
l Still More 1600’s
l Huygens (1629-1695)
l Wave propagation of light
l Polarization of light
l Laws of reflection and refraction
l Progress in the 1700’s
l Young (1773-1829)
l Wave theory
l Interference (colors of thin films)
l Fresnel (1788-1827)
l Confirmed wave theory of propagation and diffraction
l Influence of earth’s motion of light propagation
l Interference of polarized rays of light (light no
longitudinal)
l Reflection and polarization
l Cause of dispersion
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 17
 History (IV)
l The Maxwell Era
l Faraday (1791-1867)
l Experiments in electricity and magnetism
l Work independent of optics experiments
l Maxwell (1831-1879)
l Theoretically unified electricity and magnetism
l Showed possibility of electromagnetic waves propagating
with velocity that could be calculated
l Electrostatics, magnetostatics , induction, EM waves and
optics unified under single theory
l Lord Rayleigh (scientific work 1899-1920)
l Investigated waves propagation and scattering
l Examined scattering from small particles
l Studied wave interactions with periodic structures

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 18

 History (V)
l Atomic Nature of Light - The Beginning
l Fraunhofer (1787-1826)
l Discovered absorption lines in the solar spectrum
l Kirchhoff (1824-1887)
l Experimentally measured absorption lines of solar spectrum
l Plank, Bohr and Einstein (early 1900’s)
l Quantum theory makes inroads
l Applications of quantum mechanics to atomic structure and line
spectra (materials have quantized atomic systems)
l Photons postulated
l Certain effects (e.g., photo -electric effect) explained only by
photons
l Dirac (1927)
l Field quantization (electromagnetic fields are quantized)
l Quantum optics

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 19

What are the
“brands” of
optics?

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 20

 Types of Optics
l Ray or geometrical optics
l Wave/physical/Fourier optics
l Scalar theory (no polarization)
l Vector or EM theory (polarization)
l Beam optics

l Statistical optics
l Optics of atomic systems/materials
l Quantum optics

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 21

Hierarchy of Optics

Quantum Optics

Electromagnetic
(Vector) Optics

Scalar Wave
Optics
Geometrical (Ray)
Optics

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 22

Applications of Physical Optics
l Remote sensing & inverse scattering
l Imaging & image systems
l Image processing, pattern discrimination
and classification
l Holography and non -destructive evaluation
and testing (NDE & NDT)
l Rough surface scattering
l Antenna and array design
l Spectroscopy
l Inteferometry
l Optical computing
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 23
 Course Outline
I. History and Background
II. Fourier Transforms and Linear Systems
III. Scalar Diffraction Theory (Physical Optics)
IV. Fresnel and Fraunhofer Approximations
V. Vector Diffraction Theory
VI. Geometrical and Ray Optics
VII. Properties of Lenses
VIII. Coherent and Incoherent Imaging
IX. Partial Coherence Theory
X. Special Topics
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 24
II. Fourier Transforms
and Linear Systems
A. Requirements
B. “Inventing” the Fourier Transform
C. Dirac Delta Function
D. Use of the F.T. in Optics
E. F.T. Properties
F. Some Useful Transforms
G. Two-Dimensional F.T.
H. More Useful Transforms
I. Sampling
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 25
 A. Requirements
l To use Fourier Transforms (F.T.)
there are requirements on:
l System
l Signal

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 26

 System Requirements
l To use F.T. the system must be:
l Linear
l Nonlinear systems often use specialized
methods unique to each system
l No general theory exists

l Time invariant
l Memoryless

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 27

 Signal Requirements
l To use F.T. the signal g(t) must:
∞
l Satisfy
∫ g(t) dt exists
−∞

l Must have finite number of

discontinuities
e.g., cannot be the function
+1 for t rational
g( t) = 
−1 for t irrational
l Have a finite number of max and min
e.g., cannot be the function
g(t) = sin(t−1)
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 28
 More on Signal
Requirements
l Fourier transforms for signals not
satisfying three conditions can
often be found:
l For signals whose absolute value has
infinite area, one can use a damping
function and take the limit
l For signals with discontinuities
impose a Lipschitz condition
l Signals from real systems are most
often well-behaved
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 29
How can we
discover the
Fourier
Transform?
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 30
One Method

Joseph
©2000, D. L. JaggardFourier EE 511 31
(1768-1839)
B. “Inventing” the F.T.
l The spectrum of g(t) is the amount
of each frequency f contained in g(t)

l Mathematically the F.T. is the graph

of the spectrum of g(t)

l Need a way to find out how much of

each frequency f is in g(t)

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 32

 Inner Product and F.T.
l The inner product is a measure of
how much a signal is like another
signal
l Define the inner product of g(t) and
h(t) as ∆
∞

< g(t)h(t) > = ∫ g(t )h (t)dt

*

−∞

l Clearly this is max when g(t) = h(t)

l If inner product is zero, g(t) and h(t)
are orthogonal (just like vector dot
product)
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 33
 Phasors and Signal of
“Pure Frequency”
l An example of a signal of “pure
frequency” is exp(j2πft)
l This is a rotating “phasor” of unit
amplitude and angle 2πft and so rotates
counterclockwise for f > 0
l Real and imaginary parts of this phasor
are cos(2πft) and sin(2πft)
l A phasor exp(-j2πft) simply rotates
clockwise for f > 0 [gives meaning to
“negative frequency’]
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 34
 Signal of “Pure
Frequency” and g(t)
l Let h(t) = exp(j2πft) to find how
much of frequency “f” is in signal
“g(t)” through the inner product
l Define the F.T. as:

F {g(t )} =< g(t)e ∫ g(t)e

− j 2πft
>=
j 2πft
dt
−∞

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 35

 More on F.T. of g(t)
l Fourier transform of g(t) gives
frequency-domain function G(f) which
provides the graph of the spectrum of
g(t)
∞

F {g(t )} = G( f ) =< g(t)e j 2πft >= ∫ g(t)e − j2 πft dt

−∞

l Note: the “spectrum” may also refer to

|G(f)| 2 - so beware!
l Sometimes all we have is |G(f)| 2 which
does not give unique g(t) [“phase retrievel
problem”]
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 36
 F.T. and Its Inverse
l Fourier transform is not unique
l Only combined pair of the Fourier
transform F{g(t)} = G(f) and its
associated inverse transform F–1 {G(f)}
= g(t) are unique where
F {g(t)} = g(t)
−1
F
l Many minor variations in notation
(e.g., factors of 2 π, changes in sign of
exponent)
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 37
 Celebrated F.T. Pair
l The Fourier transform pair used
here is:
∞

F {g(t )} = G( f ) = ∫ g(t)e
− j 2πft
dt
−∞

F −1
{G( f ) } = g(t) = ∫ G( f )e + j 2 πftdf
−∞

l Note: we have only defined the first

equation and postulated the second
l Here f and t are conjugate variables
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 38
 Notes on F.T. Pair
l We use the shorthand
g(t ) ⇔ G( f )
to indicate a function g(t) and its transform G(f)
l There are many other F.T. conventions that
change signs in the exponent and/or change the
position of the factor (2 π)
l If g(t) is discontinuous, F.T. construction will not
give discontinuity but will converge to average
value at discontinuity

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 39

 F.T. Inversion Formula
∞

∫ G( f )e
+ j2 πft
g(t ) = df Assume inversion
−∞ formula is correct,
∞ ∞ now check
∫ ∫ [g(t' )e
− j 2 πft' + j 2πft
= dt']e df
−∞ −∞
∞ ∞

∫ ∫ [g(t' )e
+ j2 πf (t − t )
'
= dt' df
−∞ −∞
∞
 e + j2 πf (t −t ) − e − j2π f (t − t ) 
' '
[sin(t)/t] function is
= lim ∫ g(t' ) dt' sharply peaked and
f →∞ −∞  j2π (t − t' )  “pulls out” or “sifts”
∞ g(t’) at t=t’
 sin[ 2πf (t − t' )]
= ∫ g(t' ) lim 
f →∞ π (t − t' ) 
dt'
−∞
∞
sin[ 2πf (t − t' )] 
= g(t' ) t' = t ∫ lim 
f→∞ π (t − t' ) 
dt' Integral has a
value of unity
−∞

= g(t )
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 40
 Sine and Cosine Integrals
t
sin(t' )
Si(t) = ∫ dt'
0
t'

Si(t) = π
lim
t→∞ 2
∞ ∞
sin(2 πft' ) sin(t' )
∫
−∞ t'
dt' = ∫
−∞ t'
dt' = π

cos(t ' ) − 1
t

Ci(t) = γ + ln(t ) + ∫ dt'

0
t'
where γ ≈ 0.5772156649
...
is Euler's constant
lim
Ci(t) = 0
t →∞

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 41

C. Dirac Delta Function
l Definition
l Candidates
l Some useful relations

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 42

Delta Function Definition
∞ This is not

∫ δ (t)dt = 1
your usual
function
−∞

and
δ (t) = 0 for t≠0

l Note:
l Dirac delta function δ(t) is highly peaked where
its argument is zero
l Its “weight” or “strength” is defined by its
integral (unity)
l This is a “generalized function” or “distribution”

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 43

 Candidates for δ(t)
l Functions that are sharply peaked
and have an area of unity
l Example: define the rectangle
function or “rect function” of
width T as rect(t/T):
1 for t /T <
1

rect(t / T ) =  2
1
0 for t /T >
 2

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 44

 Delta Function and
T–1 rect(t/T)
l Normalize rect function to give
unit area and take limit:
1 1
lim 1  T for t / T <
δ(t) = rect(t / T ) =  2
T → 0 1
T  0 for t / T >
2
T–1rect(t/T)
T

1/T
Take limit T–> 0

t
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 45
 Candidates for δ(t)
δ (t) =
lim 1
rect(t / T ) l Candidates can
T→ 0 T be continuous or
discontinuous;
lim sin(αt)
δ (t) = monotonic or
α →∞ πt oscillatory; have
lim α finite support or
δ (t) =
2
exp(−αt ) infinite support
α →∞ π
lim α l All are peaked at
δ (t) = exp( −α t ) the origin and
α →∞ 2
are normalized
lim α to have unity
δ (t) = area
π(α + t )
2 2
α →0

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 46

Properties of Dirac Delta
∞
l Sifting Property ∫ f(t)δ(t − a)dt =
−∞
f (a)

1
l Scaling Property δ (at) = δ (t)
a
∞
l Derivative
∫ f ( t)δ' (t − a)dt = − f ' (a )
−∞

l Parity δ(t) = δ( −t)

δ' (t) = −δ' (− t)

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 47

 Additional Properties
l Shift & δ (at + b) = 1a δ (t + ba ) (a ≠ 0)
Scale
t δ (t) = (−1) n!δ(t)
n ( n) n
l Powers
δ ( t − t0 )
l Roots δ [ f ( t)] = ∑ f ' (t n )
n

where f (t) = 0 has roots tn

and f' (tn ) is non - zero and
and exists

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 48

Some Useful Relations
∞

∫ exp(+ j2πft)df = δ (t)

−∞
∞

∫ exp(− j2πft)dt = δ ( f )
−∞

l Prove by using Euler identities and

property of the Sine integral
l This implies F.T. and F.T. –1 of unity yields
a delta function

F {δ(t)} = 1
F {1} = δ( f )
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 49
 ∞

Example: Show ∫ exp( + j2πft)df = δ(t) −∞

∞ ∞

∫ exp( + j2πft) df = ∫ [cos( 2πft ) + j sin(2πft )]df

−∞ −∞
sine function is
∞ odd and its
= 2∫ [cos( 2πft)]df integral vanishes

lim sin(2πft )
= 2
f → ∞ 2πt
= δ(t)

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 50

II. Fourier Transforms
and Linear Systems
A. Requirements
B. “Inventing” the Fourier Transform
C. Dirac Delta Function
D. Use of F.T. in Optics
E. F.T. Properties
F. Some Useful Transforms
G. Two-Dimensional F.T.
H. More Useful Transforms
I. Sampling
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 51
 D. Use of the Fourier
Transforms in Optics
l Spatial frequency

l Analogy between electrical and

optical quantities

l Essence of Fourier Optics

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 52

 Spatial Frequency
l Conjugate variables for g(t)
t (seconds) f (seconds –1)
l In space we have conjugate
variables for g(x)
x(meters) f x (meters –1)
l fx is denoted spatial frequency
along coordinate x

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 53

More Spatial Frequency
l For two-dimensional surfaces f x is the
spatial frequency along the x-axis while f y
is the spatial frequency along the y-axis

l Note:
l fx is the number of cycles per meter of
variation of a spatial signal
l fx = k x /2π (normalized wavenumber)
l fy = k y /2π (normalized wavenumber)

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 54

 Examples:
Surface Height h(x,y)
h(x,y) = surface height h(x,y) = surface height

y y

x x

Which fractal surface has more higher

spatial frequencies?
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 55
 Summary
l Signals in Time l Signals in Space
l g(t) signal l g(x) signal
l t variable l x variable
l f cyclic l fx spatial
frequency frequency
l ω=2π f radian l kx=2π fx wavenumber
frequency

Note: Spatial frequency (=1/λ) is the

normalized wavenumber k (=2π/λ)

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 56

Electrical/Optical Analog
l Electrical
l Fourier transform
l Quadratic phase filter
l Linear FM generator
l Filtering
l Pulse shaping
l Autocorrelation
l Narrow band filter
l Optical
l Fraunhofer diffraction
l Fresnel diffraction
l Lens
l Contrast improvement
l Apodization
l Coherence
l Fabry-Perot cavity
Interferometer

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 57

 Essence of
Fourier Optics
l Far-zone field U(f x,f y) is the two-
dimensional Fourier transform of the
aperture field U 0(x,y)
x’ fx ~x

U0 (x’,y’) U(fx,fy)
z
y’ fy ~y
Diffracted field is the F.T. of the aperture field
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 58
 E. Fourier Transform
Properties
1. Linearity
2. Oddness & Evenness
3. Scaling
4. Shifting
5. Modulation
6. Convolution
7. Correlation
8. Rayleigh , Parseval and Power Theorems
9. Differentiation
10. Moments
11. Periodic Functions
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 59
 Fourier Transform
Properties - Linearity
Ag(t ) + Bh(t) ⇔ AG( f ) + BH ( f )
Proof: Follows from definition

Fourier transforms add and scale in

amplitude as do the original functions

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 60

Example: rect function1/ 2

F {rect(t)} = ∫e
− j 2 πft
dt
−1 / 2

e − jπ f − e+ jπf
=
− j2πf
sin(πf )
=
πf
≡ sinc( f )
or
rect( t) ⇔ sinc( f )
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 61
 Fourier Transform
Properties - Oddness
and Evenness
g(t) G(f)
Symmetry of
Real & ev en Real & ev en
Real & odd Imaginary & odd
Imaginary & even Imaginary & even function gives
Comp lex & even Complex & even rise to
Comp lex & odd Complex & odd symmetry of
Real & asymmetrical Complex & hermitian its transform
Imaginary and asymmet. Complex and antiherm.
Real even plus Real
imaginary odd Note: g(t) = g*(–t)
Real odd plus imaginary Imaginary
even indicates Hermitian
Even Even function
Odd Odd

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 62

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 63
 Fourier Transform
Properties - Scaling
1
g( at) ⇔ G( f / a)
a
Proof:
∞

F {g( at)} = ∫ g( at)e

−j 2 πft
dt let y = at
−∞
∞
1
∫ g( y)e
− j2 πfy / a
= dy for a>0
a −∞

1
= G( f / a)
a
similar proof for a < 0

There is an inverse scaling relation

between functions and their
transforms
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 64
Example: rect function
T/ 2

F {rect(t / T)} = ∫ [1]e − j2 πft

dt
−T/ 2

− j2 πft T/ 2
e
=
− j2πf −T /2

sin(πTf )
=T
(πTf )
= T sinc(Tf )
If rect function is stretched by
factor “T” then its transform is
compressed by same factor “T” and
its amplitude is also scaled (to
conserve power)
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 65
 Fourier Transform
Properties - Shifting
g( t − a) ⇔ G( f )exp(− j2πfa)
Proof:
∞

F {g (t − a )} = ∫ g (t − a )e
− j 2 π ft
dt let y =t − a
−∞
∞
= ∫ g (y )e
− j 2 π ( y +a ) f
dy
−∞
∞
= e− j 2 π fa ∫ g ( y )e − j 2 π f y dy
−∞

= e− j 2 π fa G ( f )

Shifting in the time -domain leads to

phase delay in the frequency -domain
(no shift in frequency -domain) so F.T.
amplitude is unaltered
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 66
 Two Time Shifts -
Makes Difference
Example:
∞
F { g (t − a) +g (t + a )} = ∫ [g (t − a) + g (t + a )]e
− j 2 π ft
dt
−∞

=L
= G ( f )[e− j 2π fa + e+ j 2π fa ]
= 2G( f )cos(2π fa)
What does this
mean for two -slit
diffraction?

In Fourier optics this represents the

interference for two-slit diffraction
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 67
 Fourier Transform
Properties - Modulation
g(t) exp(+ j2πf0t) ⇔ G( f − f0 )
Proof :
∞

F {g(t )e + j2πf 0 t }= ∫ g(t )e

+ j 2πf 0t − j2πft
e dt
−∞
∞

∫ g(t )e
− j 2π ( f − f 0 )t
= dt
−∞

= G( f − f0 )
Modulation in the time -domain leads
to frequency shifting in the
frequency -domain
Useful for modulated pulses
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 68
 Example: Modulated Pulse
l Consider F. T. of rect(t/T) cos(2πf0t)
 e+ j 2πf 0t + e − j 2πf 0t  − j 2πft
T /2
F {rect(t / T)cos(2πf0t } = ∫ e dt
 2 
−T / 2

 e+ j 2π ( f 0 − f ) t + e− j2π ( f0 + f )t

T /2
= ∫
−T / 2  2 
dt

Half the T/ 2 T /2
transform is e 
+ j 2π ( f 0 − f )t
 e 
− j2π ( f0 + f )t

shifted to = +
positive frequency  j4π( f0 − f )   − j4π( f 0 + f ) 
− T /2 − T /2
and half to
negative
frequency =L
T T
= sinc[T( f − f0 )] + sinc[T( f + f 0)]
2 2
How many cycles need to be in the
pulse so that the relative bandwidth
of the transform is ~10%?
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 69
 Fourier Transform
Properties - Convolution ∞
g(t) ⊗ h(t) ≡ ∫ g(τ )h(t −τ )dτ
−∞
This is an
g( t) ⊗ h(t ) ⇔ G( f )H ( f ) inner
product of a
Proof: function and
∞ ∞ a shifted &
reversed
F {g(t )⊗ h(t )} = ∫ ∫ g(τ )h(t − τ)e
−∞−∞
− j2 πft
dτdt function

integrate over t
∞

= ∫ g(τ )H(f )e
−∞
− j2 πfτ
dτ

= G( f )H( f )
Convolution in the time -domain leads to
multiplication in the frequency -domain
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 70
Sufficient Conditions for
Convolution
l For g(t) = f(t) V h(t) to exist (assuming
f and h are reasonably well-behaved and
single valued):
l Both f(t) and h(t) are absolutely integrable
on (–8 ,0); or
l Both f(t) and h(t) are absolutely integrable
on (0, 8 ); or
l Either f(t) or h(t) are absolutely integrable
on (–8 , 8 )

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 71

Properties of Convolution
l Delta Function
l g(t) V d(n)(t) = g(n)(t) = nth derivative of g(t)
l Commutative Property
l f(t) V h(t) = h(t) V f(t)
l Distributive Property
l [av(t) + bw(t)] V h(t) = a[v(t) V h(t)]
+ b[w(t) V h(t)]
l Shift Invariance
l If f(t) V h(t) = g(t)
then f(t –t 0) V h(t) = g(t –t0 )
l Associative Property
l [v(t) V w(t)] V h(t) = v(t) V [w(t) V h(t)]

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 72

Physical Interpretation
of Convolution
i(t) o(t)
h(t)
I(f) H(f) O(f)

Input Linear System Output

l O(f) = H(f) I(f) [system transfer function]
l If we want O(f) = I(f) –> H(f) = 1
l Or h(t) = δ(t) since F–1{1} = δ(t)
l o(t) = i(t) V h(t) so h(t) = δ(t) = F–1{H(f)}
l Therefore, h(t) is called the “impulse
response”
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 73
 More on Convolution
l What happens if the linear system
distorts input?
l Convolution is the natural
operation to find the time -domain
response o(t) to the system for
arbitrary input i(t)

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 74

 Convolution Example
“Flip and Let
Shift”
e − t t> 0
aE(ατ ) E(t )= 
0 t <0
bE(βt − βτ) ∞

aE(αt )⊗ bE(βt) = ab ∫ E(ατ)E(βt − βτ)dτ

τ −∞
t

= abE(βt )∫ E (ατ − βτ)dτ

aE(αt) ⊗ bE( βt) 0

E (αt − βt)− 1
= abE(βt )
t β −α
E(αt) − E(βt)
= ab
Convolution β −α
calculation

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 75

 Result of Multiple
Convolutions
l Convolution usually
smoothes function
sinc(f)
(running average)
rect(t)

t f
l Width of
convolution is sum
f of widths of
t
individual functions

l Central Limit
t f Theorem yields
Gaussian for many
convolutions
t f
Multiple convolutions of
rect(t) and its F.T.
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 76
 Fourier Transform
Properties - Correlation
∞
Rgh (t) ≡ g( t)Ηh(
é t) ≡ ∫ g(τ )h (τ − t)dτ
∗

−∞
This is an
∗ inner
éh(t) ⇔ G( f )H ( f)
g(t)Η product of a
function and
a shifted &
• Proof is similar to convolution conjugate
function
relation proof
• Definitions vary with authors
• Autocorrelation is Rgg = g(t) é g(t)

Correlation in the time -domain leads to

multiplication in the frequency -domain
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 77
Properties of Correlation
l Cross-correlation does not commute
l g(t) é h(t) ? h(t) é g(t)
l Autocorrelation is Hermitian
l Rgg (t) = Rgg*(–t)
l Maximum modulus of autocorrelation
occurs at the origin
l |Rgg(t)| < R gg (0)
l Autocorrelation decay provides
“correlation time” or “correlation length”
or characteristic scale of signals and
surfaces
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 78
Fourier Transform Properties
- Rayleigh/Parseval Relation
∞ ∞

∫ g(t) dt = ∫ G( f )
2 2
df
−∞ −∞
P roof:
∞ ∞

∫ g(t) g (t)dt = ∫ g(t)g (t)e

∗ ∗ −j 2 πf ' t
dt for f' = 0
−∞ −∞

= G( f ' ) ⊗ G∗ (− f ' ) for f' = 0

∞

∫ G( f )G ( f − f ' )df
∗
= for f' = 0
−∞
∞

= ∫ G( f )G∗ ( f )df
−∞

Area under the absolute value squared of a

function is equal to area under the absolute
value squared of its transform
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 79
Rayleigh Theorem
Example
g(t) G(f)

t f
|g(t)|2 |G(f)|2

t f

l Equal areas under |g(t)| 2 and

|G(f)|2 imply conservation of
power for optical (and other
wave) signals
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 80
 Fourier Transform
Properties - Differentiation
d n g(t)
n = g ( n )(t) ⇔ ( j2πf )n G( f )
dt
l Prove by usual means
l Differentiation in the time -domain
leads to multiplication by frequency in
the frequency -domain
l Useful for solving D.E.s
l Useful for finding F.T. of piecewise
continuous functions:
l Take second derivative
l Find inverse transform as sum of delta
functions
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 81
 Fourier Transform
Properties - Moments
∞

m n = ∫ t n g(t)dt = m th moment of g(t)

−∞
( n)
G (0)
mn =
(− j2π )n

l The moment of a function is related

to the behavior of its transform near
the origin
l Therefore low frequency regime of
transform may be valuable in
classification & identification
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 82
 Properties of Moments
m0 = G(0 ) zeroth moment or area
(1)
G (0)
m1 = first moment or centroid
− j2π
G (2 ) (0)
m2 = second moment or moment of inertia
−4π 2
m2 G ( 2) (0)
= radius of gyration
−4π G(0)
2
m0

Moments can be used for signal or

image classification

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 83

Second Moment Examples
g(t) G(f)

l Moments of
t f g(t) affect
G(f) at the
origin
t f

l Infinite
g(t) G(f) moment of g(t)
gives cusp at
t f origin for G(f)

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 84

Fourier Transform Properties -
Periodic Functions
If g(t) is periodic with period T = 1 / f0
∞ T/2
g(t ) = ∑G
−∞
n
exp( j2nπf0t ) where Gn = ∫ g(t) exp( − j2 nπf t )dt
0
− T /2
This is the
∞ 
F {g(t )}= F ∑ Gn exp( j 2nπf0t ) complex
Fourier
 −∞  series
∞ The
= ∑ G F {exp( j2 nπf t)}
n 0
spectrum of
a periodic
−∞ function is a
∞ “line
= ∑ G δ ( f − nf )
−∞
n 0
spectrum”

To find the F.T. of a periodic

function, find the F.T. of its Fourier
series
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 85
 Some Notes
l F{F{g(t)}} = g(–t)
l If we know a F.T. pair, we can invert this
pair by inverting the coordinate
l If one lens in optics gives a F.T., then a
second lens can be used to provide an
inverted image
l If g(t) and its first (n–1) derivatives
are continuous, its F.T. decays as
least as rapidly as |f| –(n+1)

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 86

II. Fourier Transforms
and Linear Systems
A. Requirements
B. “Inventing” the Fourier Transform
C. Dirac Delta Function
D. Use of the F.T. in Optics
E. F.T. Properties
F. Some Useful Transforms
G. Two-Dimensional F.T.
H. More Useful Transforms
I. Sampling
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 87
 F. Some Useful
Transforms
l Unity and Delta Function
l Rect
l Triangle
l Gaussian
l Signum and Step
l Comb
l Sine and Cosine

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 88

Some Useful Functions
1 t / T <1 / 2
rect(t / T ) = 
0 t / T >1 / 2
1 − t / T t / T < 1
Λ(t / T ) = 
 0 t /T >1
Gaus(t / T ) = exp[−π (t / T )2 ]
∞ ∞
comb(t / T ) = ∑ δ (t / T − n ) = T ∑δ (t − n / T )
−∞ −∞

1 t >1
sgn( t) = 
−1 t <1
1 t >1 1 1
u(t) =  = + sgn(t)
0 t <1 2 2
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 89
Some Useful F.T. Pairs
1⇔ δ( f )
δ (t) ⇔ 1
rect(t / T) ⇔ T sinc (Tf )
Λ(t / T) ⇔ T sinc 2 (Tf )
comb(t / T) ⇔ T comb(Tf )
Gaus(t / T) ⇔ T Gaus(Tf )
2
exp(−t ) ⇔
4π 2 f 2 +1
t −1 ⇔ − jπ sgn(−πf 2 )
sgn( t) ⇔ ( jπf )−1
u(t) ⇔ 2 −1 δ (t) + ( j2πf )−1
cos(2πf0t) ⇔ 2 −1 [δ( f − f0 ) + δ( f + f0 )]
sin(2πf0t) ⇔ (2 j)−1 [δ ( f − f0 ) − δ( f + f 0 )]
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 90
G. Two-Dimensional F.T.
l Separable Function
l Circular Symmetry
l Hankel transforms
l Fourier-Bessel transforms
l Some Two -Dimensional F.T. Pairs

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 91

Separable Functions -- Easy
Fourier Transforms
l If the two -dimensional function is
separable, its F.T. is the product of
two one-dimensional F.T.s:
l Let
g(x,y) = j(x) h(y)
l Then
F{g(x,y) = F{j(x)} F{ h(y)} = J(f) H(f)

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 92

Polar Separable Case
l Let g(r,θ) be separable in polar
coordinates:
l Let
g(r,θ) = g R(r)ejm θ
l Then I.C.B.S.T.
F {g(r,θ)} = (–j)m ejm θ Hm {g R(r)}
where ∞

Hm {g R (r)} = 2π ∫ r g R(r) Jm (2πρr)dr

0
is the Hankel transform of order m and Jm is
the Bessel function of order m

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 93

Case of Circular Symmetry
l Let g(r,θ) = gR(r) = g(r) [circular
symmetry]:
l Then I.C.B.S.T. ∞

F {g(r)} = 2 π ∫ r g R(r) J0(2πρr)dr

0
is the Fourier-Bessel transform of g (r)
where J 0 is the Bessel function of order 0
l This gives the Fourier-Bessel pair
∞
G( ρ) = 2π ∫ rg(r)J0 (2πrρ)dr
0
∞ Also known
as Hankel
g(r) = 2π ∫ ρG( ρ)J 0 (2πrρ)dρ transform
of order
zero
0

g( r) ⇔ G (ρ)
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 94
Fourier-Bessel Proof∞ ∞
− j2π ( f x x + fy y)
G( f x , f y ) = ∫ ∫ g(x,y)e dxdy
−∞ −∞

r= x +y 2 2
ρ= fx 2 + f y 2
θ = tan −1 (y / x) φ = tan − 1 (f y / f x )

y  cosθ   fx   cosφ
  = r   f  = ρ 
y  sinθ   y  sinφ 
F {g(r)} = G(ρ)
2π ∞

∫ ∫ g(r)e
− j2π rρ (cosθ cos φ +sin θ sin φ )
= rdrdθ
0 0
2π ∞
= ∫ ∫ g(r)e
− j2π rρ cos(θ −φ )
rdrdθ
0 0
2π

∫e
− ja cos(θ −φ )
Note: dθ = 2πJ0 (a)
0
∞

F {g(r)} = G(ρ) = 2πD.∫rg(r

©2000, L. Jaggard
)J 0 (2πrρ)dr EE 511 95
0
Some Useful Relations
x

∫ yJ
0
0 (y)dy = x J1 (x)

∞
βν
∫x
ν +1
exp( −αx )J ν (βx)dx = exp( −β / 4α)
2 2

0
2α ( ν +1)
(1 / 2 )x ν
Jν (x)  → (v ≠ −1,−2, −3,...)
x→0
Γ(ν +1)
2
Jν (x)  → cos[ x − (1 / 2 )νπ − (1 / 4)π
πx
x→∞

where Γ (ν + 1) = ν! for ν = integer

Γ(ν + 1) =ν Γ (ν )

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 96

Bessel Functions J 0 & J 1

l All Bessel functions except J 0 are zero at the origin

l J0 is unity at the origin
l Bessel functions have significant value in the regime
where their order equals their argument
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 97
Two-Dimensional Functions
1 r / a <1
circ(r / a) ≡ 
0 r / a >1
J (2π ρ)
jinc(ρ) ≡ 2 1
2πρ
Gaus(ax, by) ≡ exp[−π (a 2 x2 + b 2 y2 )]
Gaus(ar) ≡ exp[−π a2 r 2 ] = exp[−πa 2 (x2 + y2 )]
δ (r)
δ ( x, y) ≡ δ (x)δ( y) =
πr
∞ ∞
comb( ax)comb(by) ≡ ∑ ∑δ (ax − n, by − m)
n= −∞ m= −∞

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 98

“sinc” and “ jinc” Functions
sinc(x)
jinc(r/2)

sinc2(x)
jinc2(r/2)

What are the differences between

sinc and jinc functions?
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 99
Two-Dimensional F.T. Pairs
rect (x / a)rect (y / b) ⇔ absinc(afx )sinc(bfy )
circ(r / a) ⇔ π a jinc(aρ)
2

δ (r)
⇔1
πr
1
δ (ax,by ) ⇔
ab
1 1
⇔
r ρ
1 ⇔δ ( f x , f y )
cos(πr2 ) ⇔ sin(πρ2 )
exp( ± jπr2 ) ⇔ ± j exp( mjπρ 2 )
1
Gaus(ax,by ) ⇔ Gaus( f x / a, f y / b )
ab
1
Gaus(ar) ⇔ 2
Gaus( f ρ / a)
a
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 100
comb(x / a)comb(y / b) ⇔ abcomb( afx )comb(bfy )
 How Often Does a
Signal Need to be
Sampled in Order to
be Exactly Replicated?

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 101

 Sampling of Signals
l Whittaker-Shannon Sampling Theorem
A signal which is bandlimited (i.e., all
frequencies less than f max) can be exactly
reconstructed by accurate samples at times
T < ( 2 f max ) −1
l The frequency 2 fmax (number of samples per
second) is known as the Nyquist frequency
l Requirement on sampling frequency is fs > 2
fmax
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 102
 Miracle of Sampling

sinc function
is “interpolating
function” for exact
reconstruction

l Exact reconstruction if overlap avoided by T < 1

2 fm
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 103
 Imperfect Sampling
l What if samples of finite width are used
so that each sample is an average of a
part of the signal?
l What if the signal is only sampled for a
finite length of time?
l What if unequally spaced samples are
used?
l What if the samples are descretized?
©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 104
Two-Dimensional Sampling
l Various geometries can be used
l Space-bandwidth product:
l If g(x,y) has significant value in the
region |x|<LX and |y|<LY, and if g(x,y) is
sampled on a rectangular lattice
(Nyquist rate) with spacing (2B X)–1 and
(2BY) –1 in the x and y directions, then
the total number of (possibly complex)
samples needed to represent g(x,y) is
l M = 16 LX LY BX BY

©2000, D. L. Jaggard EE 511 105