AIR POLLUTION

Any addition to air that threatens the health, survival, or

activities of humans or other living organisms
Air pollution is the modification of the natural
characteristics of the atmosphere by a chemical, particulate
matter, or biological agent.

POLLUTANTS

Chemicals found at high enough levels in the environment to

cause harm to people or other organisms.
Substances not naturally found in the air or at greater
concentrations or in different locations from usual.
 COMPOSITION OF CLEAN AIR

The air in our atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen

(78%), oxygen (21%), and other gas (1%).

Oxygen is essential for most of life to exist.

All other elements mentioned in the chart also play

important roles for life on earth.

Another important part of the atmosphere is water which

is present as water vapour that has evaporated from the
Earth.

Clouds are formed from water vapour and water comes

back to the Earth as rain or snow.
The other components of air are small solid particles.

These “aerosols” act as condensers for water, (i.e. to

allow tiny “water drops” to hang on to them” and enable
the formation of clouds.

Each time we release emissions into the atmosphere

we endanger the Earth’s natural balance.

Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has

long been recognized as a threat to human health as
well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
There are many substances in the air which may impair
the health of plants and animals (including humans), or
reduce visibility.
These arise both from natural processes and human
activity.
Pollutants can ALSO enter the environment naturally
(eg: from volcanic activity)
Worldwide air pollution is responsible for large
numbers of deaths and cases of respiratory disease.
While major stationary sources are often identified
with air pollution, the greatest source of emissions is
actually mobile sources, mainly automobiles.
Gases such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to
global warming, have recently gained recognition as
pollutants by climate scientists, while they also
recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant
life through photosynthesis.
WHAT ARE THE IMPURITIES
IN THE AIR?????
 POLLUTANTS
CATEGORISED AS;

PRIMARY SECONDARY

not emitted directly. Rather,

substances directly emitted
from a process, such as ash
from a volcanic eruption or
the carbon monoxide gas
from a motor vehicle
exhaust.
they form in the air when
primary pollutants react or
interact. Example-ground
level ozone - one of the
many secondary pollutants
that make up photochemical
smog.

Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary:

that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other
primary pollutants.
Major primary pollutants produced by human activity
include:
Sulfur oxides (SOx) especially sulfur dioxide are
emitted from burning of coal and oil.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) especially nitrogen dioxide are
emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be
seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind
of cities.
Carbon monoxide is colourless, odourless, non-
irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by
incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal
or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon
monoxide.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas emitted from
combustion.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC), such as
hydrocarbon fuel vapors and solvents.
Particulate matter (PM), measured as smoke and dust.
PM10 is the fraction of suspended particles 10
micrometers in diameter and smaller that will enter the
nasal cavity. PM2.5 has a maximum particle size of 2.5
µm and will enter the bronchies and lungs. Toxic metals,
such as lead, cadmium and copper.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), harmful to the ozone
layer emitted from products currently banned from use.
Ammonia (NH3) emitted from agricultural processes.
Odors, such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial
processes
Radioactive pollutants produced by nuclear explosions
and war explosives, and natural processes such as radon.
Secondary pollutants include:

Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary

pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog,
such as nitrogen dioxide.
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and
VOCs.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from
NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

A large number of minor hazardous air

pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA
under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the
Air Framework Directive.
A variety of persistent organic pollutants,
which can attach to particulate matter.
Dust storm approaching
Stratford, Texas

Using a controlled burn on a field in South Georgia

in preparation for spring planting.
 Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations,
activities or factors which are responsible for the
releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources
can be classified into two major activities which are:

Anthropogenic sources Natural sources

(human activity)
Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related
to burning different kinds of fuel
"Stationary Sources" as smoke stacks of power
plants, manufacturing facilities, municipal waste
incinerators
"Mobile Sources" as motor vehicles, aircraft etc.
Combustion-fired power plants
Controlled burn practices used in agriculture and
forestry management
Motor vehicles generating air pollution emissions.
Marine vessels, such as container ships or cruise
ships, and related port air pollution.
Burning wood, fireplaces, stoves, furnaces and
incinerators
Oil refining, power plant operation and industrial
activity in general.
Chemicals, dust and crop waste burning in farming,
(see Dust Bowl).
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol
sprays and other solvents.
Waste deposition in landfills, which generate
methane.
Military uses, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases,
germ warfare and rocketry.
Natural sources

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of

land with little or no vegetation.
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by
animals, for example cattle.
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's
crust.
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.
Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and
ash particulates.
 MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS
(Concentration Units)

Typically, the concentration of atmospheric pollutants

by volume is very small. For gaseous pollutants, the
units used is usually parts per million (ppm) on volume
basis.
ppm = Vpol x 106
V air
Where;
V pol = partial volume occupied by the pollutants in the
mixture at total pressure P and temperature T.
V air = total volume occupied by mixture at the same P and
T
 When liquid or solid are involved, ppm means parts per
million by weight. The unit of micrograms of polluitant per
cubic metre of air is used as both for gaseoud pollutants
and particulate matter (Cu or ugm-3)
or the concentration is sometimes expressed in mgm -3 or
gm-3, ppm can be converted to Cu from the relationship
ppm = 8.314TCu
PMi
Where;
T= temperature in Kelvin
P = pressure in Pasca
Mi = molecular gas
Another useful formula is:

Gas concentration (mgm -3) = Ml ppm

24.4
Where molar volume at 25 oC, 101.3 kPa is 24.4 dm3.
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION IN MALAYSIA
(Anthropogenic sources;human activity)

Industrial & development activities

Motor vehicles
Power generation
Everyday routine
Open burning
INDUSTRIAL AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

Malaysia’s economic growth is mainly based on its

manufacturing (especially electronics), chemical and
rubber industries.

But higher production rates also lead to higher

emissions of organic and inorganic gases, chemicals and
dust.

Different industries emit different pollutants.

For example, the chemical industry releases emissions

that contain many nitrogen and sulphur compounds
while refineries discharge sulphur dioxide and
hydrocarbons.
The metal working industry is partially responsible for
the emissions of sulphur dioxide and large amounts of
toxic dust.

Human activities have resulted in harmful substances

and polluting emissions being released into the air.

They endanger our health and our natural ecosystem,

and lead to an additional greenhouse effect.

Besides emissions of toxic dust, unplanned and

uncontrolled development of industrial premises or
zones leads to noise pollution and vibration disturbance.

The use of conventional piling methods and the sound of

exhaust fans in factories are some of the common
activities that generate high sound level.
 MOTOR VEHICLES

Modern society is highly dependent on motorized

transportation such as cars, trucks, and railways.

Movement of people and goods requires energy which

relies mostly on the burning of fossil fuels, thus causing
emissions and noise with adverse local effects.

The air quality of the different transport modes depends

on the kind of energy, engine technology and the
amount of energy consumed.
Within the transport sector motorized road
traffic is the main emission source while public
transport is environmentally friendlier than
passenger cars.

In 2004, nearly 14 million vehicles were registered

in Malaysia, almost double the number from a
decade ago.

The number will increase in the next few years,

with higher disposable incomes, rural-urban
migration and the lack of efficient public transport
systems.
 POWER GENERATION

Most of the energy is produced in conventional

power plants burning fossil fuels like natural gas, oil
or coal.

The effectiveness of these power plants is about

35 to 40 per cent with the remaining chemical
energy converted into heat.

At the moment, Malaysia produces 86% of its

electricity in conventional power plants and 14% in
hydroelectric power plants.
 EVERYDAY ROUTINES

Household contribute to air pollution mainly

through the use of energy that is required to run
machines and electrical appliances such as
refrigerators.

Refrigerators and air conditioners not only

consume energy but they pollute the environment
when their coolant fluids release
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) into the atmosphere.

Chemicals used in houses and gardens are also

sources of pollution as well as toxic waste.
 OPEN BURNING

Burning of older existing plantations for re-

planting creates large amounts of soot particles.

These soot particles can be blown over long

distances and are mainly responsible for the haze
that often covers the sky above Malaysia.

These fires not only pollute the air but also

destroy the rich habitat of the flora and fauna.
Air Contaminant Control and the standards

Part V of the Clean Air Regulations, 1978,

stipulates the air contaminants which come under
control and their relevant standards.

The CAR controls the contaminants by dictating

the maximum allowable concentration of the
contaminants at any time.

These standards as they are commonly known are

stated in Regulation 24 – 30 and reproduced in
Table 3.1 – 3.3.

The discharge of dark smoke is also controlled and

the allowable limit is summarised in Table 3.4.
Control devices

The following items are commonly used as pollution

control devices by industry or transportation
devices.

They can either destroy contaminants or remove

them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted
into the atmosphere.
 Particulate control

Mechanical collectors (dust

cyclones, multicyclones)
Electrostatic precipitators
Baghouses
Particulate scrubbers

Scrubbers

 Baffle spray scrubber

 Cyclonic spray scrubber
 Ejector venturi scrubber
 Mechanically aided scrubber
 Spray tower
 Wet scrubber
 Scrubbers:
Air Scrubbers, Wet Scrubbers and Gas Scrubbers

Air scrubbers, wet scrubbers, and gas scrubbers are air

pollution control devices.

How do they function/work;

Use a high-energy liquid spray to remove aerosol and
gaseous pollutants from an air stream.

The gases are removed either by;

• absorption or
• chemical reaction.

In addition to fume and gas abatement, scrubbers may

also be used for process air cleansing and dust
collection.
Dry scrubbers are available, but they are often more
costly than slurry method scrubbers.

Common application of scrubbers;

Air scrubbers, wet scrubbers, and gas scrubbers are
commonly used to help control emissions of sulfur into
the atmosphere.

This is of particular interest to those involved with

electric power generation via combustion of coal.

The gases that are emitted from the combustion process

are passed through tanks containing a lime substance
(often a limestone slurry) that can capture and
neutralize the sulfur dioxide.
 Super scrubber

Vapor Phase Carbon - Air Scrubbers

NOx Removal

Scrubbing Solution
NOx control

 Low NOx burners

 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
 Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
 NOx scrubbers
 Exhaust gas recirculation
 Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
VOC abatement

 Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon

 Flares
 Thermal oxidizers
 Catalytic oxidizers
 Biofilters
 Absorption (scrubbing)
 Cryogenic condensers
 Vapor recovery systems
Acid Gas/SO2 control

 Wet scrubbers
 Dry scrubbers
 Flue gas desulfurization

Mercury control

 Sorbent Injection Technology

 Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
 K-Fuel
Dioxin and furan control

Miscellaneous associated equipment

 Source capturing systems

 Continuous emissions monitoring systems
(CEMS)
Air quality standards

In general, there are two types of air quality standards.

The first class of standards (such as the U.S. National
Ambient Air Quality Standards) set maximum atmospheric
concentrations for specific pollutants.

Environmental agencies enact regulations which are

intended to result in attainment of these target levels.

The second class (such as the North American Air Quality

Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds,
which is used to communicate to the public the relative
risk of outdoor activity.

The scale may or may not distinguish between different

pollutants.
Smog in Cairo
Looking down from the Hollywood Hills, with Griffith Observatory on the hill
in the foreground, air pollution is visible in downtown Los Angeles on a late
afternoon.
In the 1960s, 70s, and 90s, the United States Congress
enacted a series of Clean Air Acts which significantly
strengthened regulation of air pollution.

Individual U.S. states, some European nations and eventually

the European Union followed these initiatives.

The Clean Air Act sets numerical limits on the concentrations

of a basic group of air pollutants and provide reporting and
enforcement mechanisms.

In 1999, the United States EPA replaced the Pollution

Standards Index (PSI) with the Air Quality Index (AQI) to
incorporate new PM2.5 and Ozone standards.
In an October 2006 letter to EPA, the agency's
independent scientific advisors warned that the ozone
smog standard “needs to be substantially reduced” and
that there is “no scientific justification” for retaining the
current, weaker standard.

The scientists unanimously recommended a smog threshold

of 60 to 70 ppb after they conducted an extensive review
of the evidence. [18]

The EPA has proposed, in June 2007, a new threshold of

75 ppb.

This falls short of the scientific recommendation, but is

an improvement over the current standard.
Polluting industries are lobbying to keep the current
(weaker) standards in place.

Environmentalists and public health advocates are

mobilizing to support compliance with the scientific
recommendations.

The National Ambient Air Quality Standards are pollution

thresholds which trigger mandatory remediation plans by
state and local governments, subject to enforcement by
the EPA.
 WHY NEED WORLD REGULATION????

An outpouring of dust layered with man-made sulfates,

smog, industrial fumes, carbon grit, and nitrates is
crossing the Pacific Ocean on prevailing winds from
booming Asian economies in plumes so vast they alter the
climate.

Almost a third of the air over Los Angeles and San

Francisco can be traced directly to Asia.

With it comes up to three-quarters of the black carbon

particulate pollution that reaches the West Coast.

(TRANSBOUNDARY POLUTION)
Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated
metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries
where environmental regulations are generally relatively
lax.

However, even populated areas in developed countries

attain unhealthy levels of pollution.
 Most Polluted World Cities by PM[20]

Particulate
matter, City
μg/m³ (2004)

169 Cairo, Egypt

150 Delhi, India

128 Kolkata, India (Calcutta)

125 Taiyuan, China

123 Chongqing, China

109 Kanpur, India

109 Lucknow, India

104 Jakarta, Indonesia

101 Shenyang, China

Counties in the United States that violate National Ambient Air Quality
Standards, as of June 2007.
Air pollution is a health concern even in developed countries like the U.S.
Total carbon dioxide emissions
(106 Tons of CO2 per year)

United States: 2,790

China: 2,680
Russia: 661
India: 583
Japan: 400
Germany: 356
Australia: 226
South Africa: 222
United Kingdom: 212
South Korea: 185

Per capita carbon dioxide emissions

(Tons of CO2 per year per capita)

Australia: 10
United States: 8.2
United Kingdom: 3.2
China: 1.8
India: 0.5
 Chloro fluoro compounds (CFC, HCFC)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are

compounds containing chlorine, fluorine
and carbon only, contain no hydrogen.

Formerly used widely in industry, for

example as refrigerants, propellants, and
cleaning solvents.

Their use has been regularly prohibited

by the Montreal Protocol, because of
effects on the ozone layer (see ozone
depletion).
They are also a powerful greenhouse gas,
in terms of carbon dioxide equivalence
(over a time period of one hundred
years) between 5000 and 8100 per kg.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) are of a class of
haloalkanes where not all
hydrogen has been replaced by
chlorine or fluorine.
They are used primarily as
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
substitutes, as the ozone
depleting effects are only about
10% of the CFCs.
 Overview of haloalkanes

This table gives an overview of most haloalkanes in general use or commonly known. Listing includes bulk commodity products as well as laboratory chemicals.

Common/Trivial
Systematic name Code Chem. formula
name(s)
Halomethanes
Chloromethane Methyl chloride CH3Cl
Dichloromethane Methylene chloride CH2Cl2
Trichloromethane Chloroform CHCl3

Tetrachloromethane Carbon tetrachloride, Freon 10 CFC-10 CCl4

PFC-14
Tetrafluoromethane Carbon tetrafluoride, Freon 14 (CFC-14 and HF-14 also used, although CF4
formally incorrect)

Trichlorofluoromethane Freon-11, R-11 CFC-11 CCl3F

Dichlorodifluoromethane Freon-12, R-12 CFC-12 CCl2F2

Chlorotrifluoromethane CFC-13 CClF3

Chlorodifluoromethane R-22 HCFC-22 CHClF2
Trifluoromethane Fluoroform HFC-23 CHF3
Chlorofluoromethane Freon 31 CH2ClF
Difluoromethane HFC-32 CH2F2
Fluoromethane Methyl fluoride HFC-41 CH3F
Dibromomethane Methylene bromide CH2Br2
Tribromomethane Bromoform CHBr3
Bromochloromethane Halon 1011 CH2BrCl

Bromochlorodifluoromethane BCF, Halon 1211 BCF, or Freon 12B1 Halon 1211 CBrClF2

Bromotrifluoromethane BTM, Halon 1301 BTM, or Freon 13BI Halon 1301 CBrF3

Trifluoroiodomethane Trifluoromethyl iodide Freon 13T1 CF3I

Haloethanes
1,1,1-Trichloroethane Methyl chloroform, tri Cl3C-CH3
Hexachloroethane CFC-110 C2Cl6

1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane Trichlorotrifluoroethane CFC-113 Cl2FC-CClF2

1,1,1-trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane CFC-113a Cl3C-CF3

1,2-Dichloro-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane Dichlorotetrafluoroethane CFC-114 ClF2C-CClF2

1-Chloro-1,1,2,2,2-pentafluoroethane Chloropentafluoroethane CFC-115 ClF2C-CF3

2-Chloro-1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane HFC-124 CHFClCF3

1,1,2,2,2-pentafluoroethane Pentafluoroethane HFC-125 CHF2CF3

1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoroethane HFC-134 F2HC-CHF2

1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane R-134a HFC-134a, Suva-134a F3C-CH2F

1,1-Dichloro-1-fluoroethane HCFC-141b Cl2FC-CH3

1-Chloro-1,1-difluoroethane HCFC-142b ClF2C-CH3

1,2-Dichloroethane Ethylene dichloride Freon 150 ClH2C-CH2Cl

1,1-Dichloroethane Ethylidene dichloride Freon 150a Cl2HC-CH3
1,1-Difluoroethane HFC-152a F2HC-CH3
Longer haloalkanes, polymers

1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptafluoropropane HFC-227ea, FE-227, FM-200 F3C-CHF-CF3

Decafluorobutane perfluorobutane R610, PFB, CEA-410 F3C-CF2-CF2-CF3

Polychloroethene polyvinyl chloride, PVC -[CHCl-CH2]x-

Polytetrafluoroethylene,
Polytetrafluoroethene -[CF2-CF2]x-
PTFE, Teflon
Worldwide air pollution is responsible for large
numbers of deaths and cases of respiratory disease.
While major stationary sources are often identified
with air pollution, the greatest source of emissions is
actually mobile sources, mainly automobiles.
Gases such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to
global warming, have recently gained recognition as
pollutants by climate scientists, while they also
recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant
life through photosynthesis.