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ARSENIC SOURCES
The Earth s crust is an abundant natural source of arsenic. It is present in more
than 200 different minerals, the most common of which is called arsenopyrite. About
one-third of the arsenic in the Earth s atmosphere is of natural origin. Volcanic
action is the most important natural source. The next most important source is
arsenic-containing vapor that is generated from solid or liquid forms of arsenic
salts at low temperatures. Inorganic arsenic of geological origin is found in
groundwater used as drinking water in several parts of the world, for example
Bangladesh, India and Taiwan. Organic arsenic compounds, that is, those containing
carbon, are mainly found in sea-living organisms, although some of these compounds
have also been found in species living on land.

USES
There are many different uses of Arsenic, but caution must be taken in every case.
Whether using Arsenic for wood preservation of as a conductor, it is a toxic
element and must be handled with caution.Arsenic has been known since ancient
times, though probably in compound form rather than in its pure state. It is used
in combination with other materials in pigments, poison gases and insecticides
(such as Paris Green, calcium arsenate and lead arsenate) and is well known from
former use as a rat poison. Arsenic has a long history of medical applications;
before penicillin was developed an arsenic compound was used to treat syphilis and
yaws.Arsenic is used in ammunition manufacturing because it helps to create harder
and rounder bullets.Arsenic is used in small quantities in semi-conductor
manufacturing. It is used as a preservative in tanning and taxidermy, as well as on
the exterior of wood such as deck and playground materials.In short, though arsenic
is an extremely poisonous substance it has numerous industrial applications and has
been used widely for many years.Another potential source of arsenic in our
environment is as a byproduct of copper smelting arsenic occurs naturally in copper
ores. During copper processing, arsenic passes from the solid state into the
gaseous state and leaves the smelter through the smokestacks in the form of toxic
dusts.If you believe that you or a love one has been affected by Arsenic or Arsenic
poisoning, then fill out the form below for a free case evaluation.
ADVANTAGES

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Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment known under many names, including
'Paris Green' and 'Emerald Green'. It caused numerous arsenic poisonings. Scheele's
Green, a copper arsenate, was used in the 19th century as a colouring agent in
sweets.[36] Also used in bronzing and pyrotechnics. [37] Up to 2% of arsenic is
used in lead alloys for lead shots and bullets. Arsenic is added in small
quantities to alpha-brass to make it dezincification resistant. This grade of brass
is used to [38] make plumbing fittings or other items which are in constant contact
with water. Arsenic is also used for taxonomic sample preservation. Until recently
arsenic was used in optical glass. Modern glass manufacturers, under pressure from
environmentalists, [39] have removed it, along with lead.

DISADVANTAGES
Widespread arsenic contamination of groundwater has led[when?] to a massive
epidemic of arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh[51] and neighbouring countries.
Presently 42 major incidents around the world have been reported on groundwater
arsenic
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contamination. It is estimated that approximately 57 million people are drinking

groundwater with arsenic concentrations [52] elevated above the World Health
Organization's standard of 10 parts per billion. However, a study of cancer rates
in Taiwan suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality appear only at
levels above 150 parts per billion. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural
origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater owing to the anoxic
conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after local and
western NGOs and the Bangladeshi government undertook a massive shallow tube well
drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to
prevent drinking of bacterially contaminated surface waters, but failed to test for
arsenic in the groundwater. Many other countries and districts in South East Asia,
such as Vietnam, Cambodia and China have geological environments conducive to
generation of high-arsenic groundwaters. Arsenicosis was reported in Nakhon Si
Thammarat, Thailand in 1987, and the dissolved arsenic in the Chao Phraya River is
suspected of containing high levels of naturally occurring arsenic, but has not
been a public health problem owing to the use of bottled water.

TOXICITY
Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Many water
supplies close to mines are contaminated by these poisons. Arsenic disrupts ATP
production through several mechanisms. At the level of the citric acid cycle,
arsenic inhibits lipoic acid which is a cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase; and by
competing with phosphate it uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, thus inhibiting
energy-linked reduction of NAD+, mitochondrial respiration and ATP synthesis.
Hydrogen peroxide production is also increased, which might form reactive oxygen
species and oxidative stress. These metabolic interferences lead to death from
multi-system organ failure, probably from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis. A
post mortem reveals brick red coloured mucosa, owing to severe haemorrhage.
Although arsenic causes toxicity, it can also play a protective role.[69] Elemental
arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as "toxic" and "dangerous for the
environment" in the European Union under directive 67/548/EEC. The International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as
group 1 carcinogens, and the EU lists arsenic trioxide, arsenic pentoxide and
arsenate salts as category 1 carcinogens.

TREATMENT
There are many ways to treat arsenic but most rely on converting all of the arsenic
to a valence of +5 (some will be +3) which is easier to remove. The technologies
for removal include adsorption on alumina, reverse osmosis membrane separation, ion
exchange, or lime softening. Alumina may have a problem with progressive loss of
capacity and may be suitable for only a few cycles. Standard treatments oxidize any
trivalent arsenic with peroxide, permanganate, ultraviolet light, or other oxidizer
followed by precipitation, filtration, etc. as above. UV light and titanium oxide
have improved oxidization efficiencies for other compounds but I haven't seen any
data on arsenic yet.The following links will take you to sites that review the
basic treatment technologies. Each source (your water) should be analyzed and
specific treatments tested before you invest in a system.

NICKEL

SOURCES
Although today it is not profitable to mine nickel in the U.S., small amounts of
by-product nickel are being recovered from copper and palladium-platinum ores in
the Western United States.Approximately 87,000 tons of nickel is recovered annually
by recycling stainless steel and other nickel-iron alloys. This represents about
39% of the nickel used each year.It is estimated that there is about 140 million
tons of nickel available in identified deposits. Eighty-four million tons, or 60
percent of the total available nickel is in laterite deposits. A deposit in which
rain and surface water leached nickel-rich rock and concentrated the nickel at or
near the surface of the Earth is a laterite deposit. Nickel sulfide deposits
contain the remaining forty percent (56 million tons).Demand for nickel in the
United States is much higher than what recycled nickel can provide, so nickel is
imported into the country. Most of the imported nickel comes from Canada (40%),
while the rest is imported from Norway (13%), Russia (12%), Australia (10%), and
various other nations (25).

USES
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In the United States, large amounts of nickel (42% of consumption in 2001) are used
in the specialty steel industry for stainless steel and related alloys. In 1913,
Harry Brearly, an English scientist, was the first to produced stainless steel,
when he accidentally discovered that the addition of chromium to steel makes the
steel resistant to staining. Today, stainless steel also contains some molybdenum,
titanium and nickel, to increase its resistance to corrosion. Thirty-eight percent
of annual nickel use is in nonferrous alloys (or mixed with metals other than
steel) and superalloys (metal mixtures designed to withstand extremely high
temperatures and/or pressures, or to have high electrical conductivity). Nickel is
used as a coating on other metals to slow down corrosion. Nickel coatings accounts
for 14% of nickel use. The remaining 6% of the annual nickel use is for a variety
of purposes including the production of coins, nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal
hydride batteries; as a catalyst for certain chemical reactions; and, as a
colorant, nickel is added to glass to give it a green color. The U.S. 5-cent piece
is called a "nickel" because it only contains 25% nickel. The other 75% is copper.
Rechargeable nickel-hydride batteries are widely used for cellular phones, video
cameras, and other electronic devices. Nickelcadmium batteries are used primarily
to power cordless tools and appliances.
ADVANTAGES

The Nickel Advantage isn t limited to the attributes it brings to different

materials and processes. There are the environmental and socio-economic dimensions
that go beyond the technical reasons why you are using or considering the use of a
nickel or nickel-containing material. Nickel is an investment that makes possible
many new and emerging products and processes important to increased environmental
efficiency. Nickel makes many other existing products and processes more energy
efficient, durable and tough. The value of nickel ensures that it is used
efficiently and highly recycled. The attributes of nickel-containing materials are
wholly supportive ofe c o - e f f i c i e n c y. The production, use and recycling
of nickel is a value-added economic activitythat supports communities and
governments. Nickel is produced by an industry that embraces its responsibilities
to workers, communities, shareholders and the environment. Nickel makes significant
contributions to sustainability and is responsibly managed through its life cycle
by the nickel value chain, starting with the primary nickel industry itself.

DISADVANTAGES
Nickel is SAFE for most adults in amounts up to 1 mg/day. More than 1 mg/day might
not be safe. Taking amounts slightly above the 1 mg/day level increases the chances
of unwanted side effects. High doses are poisonous. Workers who have been exposed
to nickel on the job over an extended period of time can develop allergies, lung
disorders, and cancer.

TOXICITY
Exposure to nickel metal and soluble compounds should not exceed 0.05 mg/cm³ in
nickel equivalents per 40-hour work week. Nickel sulfide fume and dust is believed
to be carcinogenic, and various other nickel compounds may be as well.[39][40]
Nickel carbonyl, [Ni(CO)4], is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal
carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of the metal as [41][42] well as the
carbonyl's ability to give off highly toxic carbon monoxide gas, and this one is no
exception. It is explosive in air. Sensitized individuals may show an allergy to
nickel affecting their skin, also known as dermatitis. Sensitivity to nickel may
also be present in patients with pompholyx. Nickel is an important cause of contact
allergy, partly due to its use in jewellery intended for pierced ears.[43] Nickel
allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings
are now made nickel-free due to this problem. The amount of nickel which is allowed
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skin is regulated by the European Union. In 2002 researchers found amounts of

nickel being emitted by 1 and 2 Euro coins far in [44] excess of those standards.
This is believed to be due to a galvanic reaction.

TREATMENT
Clinical studies summarized in an Auckland Allergy Clinic fact sheet show that an
estimated 15 percent of all people throughout the world have some allergy to the
metallic element nickel. This allergy usually develops through repeated or
prolonged exposure to nickel, an allergic person exposed to nickel breaks out in a
painful, itching rash with dry patches of skin and blisters that can drain pus. The
rash heals by itself within a month of removal of the nickel-containing product
that caused the allergic reaction. While nickel allergies cannot be cured, several
over-the-counter and prescription medications can relieve the symptoms people
experience when they have an allergic reaction to nickel

CHROMIUM

SOURCES
y y y y y y y y y
Catnip Horsetail Licorice Nettle Oat straw Red clover Sarsaparilla Wild yam Yarrow

USES
Chromium has found a wide range of applications, mainly due to its hardness and
resistance to corrosion. It is also known for its remarkable magnetic property. It
is mainly used in the manufacture of stainless steel, along with nickel, as it
prevents corrosion and discoloration of steel. Today, chromium is a very important
alloying material for steel. Acidic chromate or dichromate solutions are also used
for surface coating. This is usually done with the help of electroplating
technique, in which a thin layer of chromium is usually deposited on the surface of
metals. However, for imparting wear resistance quality, a thick layer is required
to be deposited. Another method of doing this is the chromate conversion coating
process, through which chromates are used to deposit a protective layer on certain
metals like aluminum (Al), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), silver, magnesium (Mg), etc.
Chromium is also used as a pigment. Chrome yellow, made of lead chromate was widely
used as a pigment in the past, but due to environmental issues, its use has
significantly declined as it contains lead, which is a toxic material. Other
pigments of chromium include chrome red, chrome oxide green and chrome green, which
is a mixture of chrome yellow and Prussian blue. Chromium oxide is used for
imparting greenish color to glass. Besides, emeralds also owe their green tint to
the effect of
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chromium. Chromium oxide is also used in manufacturing synthetic rubies.

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Chromium (III) or trivalent chromium is required in the human body, but in very
small amounts. It is mainly required for carrying out lipid and sugar metabolism.
Nowadays, chromium is used in many dietary supplements claiming to have several
health benefits. But, some compounds of chromium can be harmful to health and
should be avoided. For example, hexavalent chromium or Chromium (VI) is known as a
toxic and mutagenic (causing mutation) substance, while chromium (IV) is known for
its carcinogenic or cancer causing properties. Chromate salts have also been found
to induce allergic reactions in some individuals. Due to these health and
environmental issues, restrictions have been imposed on the use of certain chromium
compounds in many countries.
ADVANTAGES

Several chromium compounds are used as catalysts. For example the Phillips
catalysts for the production of polyethylene are mixtures of chromium and silicon
dioxide or mixtures of chromium and titanium and aluminium oxide.[41] Chromium(IV)
oxide (CrO2) is a magnetic compound. Its ideal shape anisotropy, which imparts high
coercivity and remanent magnetization, made it a compound superior to the -Fe2O3.
Chromium(IV) oxide is used to manufacture magnetic tape used in high-performance
audio tape and standard audio cassettes.[42] Chromates can prevent corrosion of
steel under wet conditions, and therefore chromates are added to drilling muds.[43]
Chromium has been suggested to be connected to sugar metabolism, although no
biological role for chromium has ever been demonstrated biochemically. The dietary
supplements for chromium include chromium(III) picolinate, chromium(III)
polynicotinate, and related materials. The benefit of those supplements is still
under [44][45] investigation and is questioned by some studies.

y y

Chromium(III) oxide is a metal polish known as green rouge. Chromic acid is a

powerful oxidizing agent and is a useful compound for cleaning laboratory glassware
of any trace of organic compounds. It is prepared in situ by dissolving potassium
dichromate in concentrated sulfuric acid, which is then used to wash the apparatus.
Sodium dichromate is sometimes used because of its higher solubility (50 g/L vs.
200 g/L respectively). Potassium dichromate is a chemical reagent, used in cleaning
laboratory glassware and as a titrating agent. It is also used as a mordant (i.e.,
a fixing agent) for dyes in fabric.

DISADVANTAGES One functional disadvantage of hexavalent chromium plating is low

cathode efficiency, which results in bad throwing power. This means it leaves a
non-uniform coating, with more on edges and less in inside corners and holes. To
overcome this problem [2] the part may be over-plated and ground to size, or
auxiliary anodes are used around the hard-to-plate areas. From a health standpoint,
hexavalent chromium is the most toxic form of chromium. In the U.S. it is heavily
regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); the EPA lists it as a
hazardous air pollutant because it is a human carcinogen, a "priority pollutant"
under the Clean Water Act, and a "hazardous constituent" under the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act. Due to the low cathodic efficiency and high solution
viscosity a mist of water and hexavalent chromium is released from the bath, which
is toxic. To control these emissions wet scrubbers are used. The discharge from the
wet scrubbers is then treated to [2] precipitate the chromium from the solution,
because it cannot be discarded in the waste water. Maintaining a bath surface
tension less than 35 dynes/cm requires frequent cycle of treating the bath by a
wetting agent and [3] confirming the effect on surface tension. Traditionally
surface tension is measured by a stalagmometer. This method is, however, tedious
and suffers from inaccuracy (errors up 22 dynes/cm has been reported), and is
dependent on user's experience and capabilities.[4] Additional toxic waste that is
created from hexavalent chromium baths include lead chromates which form in the
bath because lead anodes are used. Barium is also used to control the sulfate
concentration, which leads to the formation of barium sulfate, a hazardous waste.
TREATMENT
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Chromium primarily exists in nature in the trivalent and hexavalent states. Due to
its widespread industrial use, it has been found in at least 120 of the 1,591
current or former NPL sites and is often found in contaminated groundwater along
with complex mixtures of pollutants, which can make its remediation more difficult.
Many Cr(VI) compounds are highly soluble and exist in solution as hydrochromate,
chromate, and dichromate ions. The goal of remediation schemes is to reduce the
carcinogenic, soluble, and mobile Cr(VI) to the less toxic and less mobile Cr(III),
which forms minimally soluble precipitates. Successful removal of Cr(VI) hinges
upon the formation and stability of Cr(III) precipitates. Ex situ treatment
technologies for water use commonly use chemical reduction of the Cr(VI) to Cr(III)
followed by precipitation. The treated water is filtered and the chromium rich
precipitates are properly disposed of. Available in situ technologies or treatment
approaches for chromate contamination use chemical reduction and fixation for
remediation (e.g., geochemical fixation, permeable reactive barriers (PRBs), and
reactive zones). Other types of in situ approaches under development include
enhanced extraction, electrokinetics, biological processes that can be used within
PRBs and reactive zones, phytoremediation, and natural attenuation TOXICITY
Chromium enters the air, water, and soil mostly in the chromium (III) and chromium
(VI) forms. In air, chromium compounds are present mostly as fine dust particles
which eventually settle over land and water. Chromium can strongly attach to soil
and only a small amount can dissolve in water and move deeper in the soil to
underground water. Fish do not accumulate much chromium in their bodies from water.
Chromium (III) Chromium (III) is an essential nutrient that helps the body use
sugar, protein, and fat. Cr (III) is a very stable oxidation state for chromium. In
this state, the chrome is labile and kinetically very slow to react or form
complexes. It is not a strong oxidiser and the human's natural body acidity is
enough for the chrome to keep to this Cr (III) state. (reference) Chromium (VI)
Breathing high levels of chromium (VI) can cause irritation to the nose, such as
runny nose, nosebleeds, and ulcers and holes in the nasal septum. Ingesting large
amounts of chromium (VI) can cause stomach upsets and ulcers, convulsions, kidney
and liver damage, and even death. Skin contact with certain chromium (VI) compounds
can cause skin ulcers. Some people are extremely sensitive to chromium (VI) or
chromium (III). Allergic reactions consisting of severe redness and swelling of the
skin have been noted. Cr (VI) is not a very stable state when compared to Cr(III).
The Cr (VI) is a very strong oxidizing agent (therefore very fast in reacting,
unlike Cr (III) and likely to form complexes). The main reason why Cr (VI) is so
toxic is that one of the reduction products of Cr (VI) is Cr (V). Chrome (V) is a
known carcinogen and will lodge in any tissue to form cancerous growths. There are
reports that chromium (V) is also a factor leading to premature senility in parts
of Russia. In the body, the acidity and action of enzymes on Cr (VI) will promote
the formation in small quantities of Cr (V). However, as the size of this is
normally too large to be adopted by a tissue, the Cr (V) will pass out. The only
place where the Cr (V) is likely to lodge is in some of the fine capillaries in
either the kidneys, intestines or lungs. During the passage out, Cr (VI) will
continue to oxidize anything it can, leaving deposits of the relatively safe Cr
(III) and completely unsafe Cr (V) behind.
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