1

Project Management
A Wikibookian believes this page should be split into smaller pages with a
narrower subtopic.

You can help by splitting this big page into smaller ones. Please make sure to follow
the naming policy. Dividing books into smaller sections can provide more focus
and allow each one to do one thing well, which benefits everyone.
You can ask for help in dividing this book in the assistance reading room.

Project Management is an organized approach to guiding a project from its inception to closure. Managing
projects is becoming more and more important as we enter the digital era. To cope with the pace that this
transition demands, a method is required to manage projects so they can yield quality work, while incorporating
efficient use of time and resources. In this Wikibook, several project management methods/processes are
outlined: the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) and Projects in Controlled
Environments (PRINCE2) approaches can be applied to managing any type of project; whereas methods
such as SDM, DSDM, RAD, ISAC, SA/SD, IEM and OO are specific to managing Information Technology (IT)
projects. Before some of these project management methods/processes are explored in this Wikibook, we will
review some project essentials, such as the definition of a project and the project lifecycle.

Contents
 [hide]

1 Project Management Fundamentals

o 1.1 What Is A Project?

o 1.2 The Project Lifecycle

o 1.3 Project Stakeholders

2 The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)

o 2.1 Process Groups, Knowledge Areas, and Inputs and Outputs

o 2.2 Scope Management

 2.2.1 Planning

 2.2.1.1 Inputs

 2.2.1.2 Techniques

 2.2.1.3 Tools

 2.2.1.3.1 Statement of Scope(SOS)

 2.2.1.3.2 Work Breakdown Structure

(WBS)

 2.2.1.4 Scope Planning Summary

 2

o 2.3 Time Management

 2.3.1 Planning

 2.3.1.1 Inputs

 2.3.2 Tools of Time Planning

o 2.4 Activity Logs

 2.4.1 Using Activity Logs

 2.4.2 Activity Logs Key Points

o 2.5 Action Plans

 2.5.1 Action Plans Key Points

o 2.6 Task Lists

 2.6.1 Task Lists Estimate

 2.6.2 Task Lists Prioritization

 2.6.3 Task Lists Key Points

o 2.7 Gantt Charts

 2.7.1 Gantt Charts Key points

 2.7.2 Techniques

o 2.8 Quality Management

 2.8.1 Planning

 2.8.1.1 Inputs

 2.8.1.2 Tools and Techniques

 2.8.1.3 Summary

o 2.9 Communications Management

 2.9.1 Planning

 2.9.2 Inputs

 2.9.3 Tools

 2.9.4 Techniques

 2.9.5 Outputs

o 2.10 Human Resources Management

 2.10.1 Planning

 2.10.2 Inputs

 2.10.3 Tools

 2.10.4 Techniques

 2.10.5 Summary
 3

o 2.11 Risk Management

 2.11.1 Risk Management Planning

 2.11.1.1 Inputs

 2.11.1.2 Techniques and Tools

 2.11.1.3 Outputs

 2.11.1.4 Risk Planning Summary

 2.11.2 Risk Identification

 2.11.2.1 Techniques

 2.11.2.2 Tools

 2.11.3 Qualitative Risk Analysis

 2.11.4 Quantitative Risk Analysis

 2.11.5 Risk Response Planning

 2.11.6 Risk Monitoring and Control

 2.11.7 Risk Management Summary

3 Citations

4 References

[ edit]Project Management Fundamentals

[edit]What Is A Project?
Organizations need to manage their human, cost, and technological resources effectively; therefore, each
project that an organization undertakes has to have a clear beginning and end point. Having set start and end
dates assists with allocating budgets. Additionally, it allows organizations to logically structure their portfolio of
projects over time.

Each project should also have a clearly defined set of outcomes, which translates into a set of deliverables and
a unique end product or service. Uniqueness matters when considering the end product or service, as it
differentiates one project endeavor from another. Moreover, it sets project work apart from the routine activities
that an organization performs each day.

[edit]The Project Lifecycle

 4

Figure 1: Waterfall Approach to SDLC

In IT projects, work from concept phase to deployment and maintenance of a system is typically organized by
the System Development Lifecycle (SDLC). The SDLC categorizes the type of work that is done at each
stage of product development or enhancement. In the most traditional way of structuring project activities, work
is sequentially performed via the waterfall method, where the next phase of activities does not commence until
work from the previous phase is complete and approved (see Figure 1). This approach to the SDLC is
implemented best in scenarios where the requirements for the new system is relatively stable and probability of
project risk is fairly low (i.e. new technology is not being implemented). On the other hand, when requirements
are likely to change often, or need prototyping for discovery or proof-of-concept, developers will modify the
SDLC and iterate through phases in a spiral-like fashion - completing several rounds of planning, analysis,
design, implementation etc. until the product evolves into a fully functioning system.

What is important to note about the SDLC is that it is specific to the IT industry and is focused on product
development. However, there is another way of understanding the lifecycle of a project, which is discipline
independent. Furthermore, one can conceptualize the lifecycle of a project from a process orientation. Seen
from this perspective, the lifecycle is used to manage the inputs and outputs of the project, which define its
overall structure and control. For example, refer to Figure 2.

Figure 2: Project Management Lifecycle: Process Group Perspective

 5

In this figure, project activities are organized into 4 process groups, taking the project from its initiation to a
planned and organized closure. (NOTE: in this example execution is aggregated with the monitoring and
control processes; alternatively the PMBOK organizes execution into a separate process group).

If we take a look at project management processes in tandem with the SDLC (Figure 3 uses the waterfall
method for sake of simplicity), we can see how a project manager might guide an IT project through to
handover.

Figure 3: Project Management Processes Superimposed Over SDLC Phases

Let's use managing the time aspect of a project as an example. At the beginning of a project, a project
manager creates an overall plan to manage and control time factors. As part of this process, a Gantt chart may
be used as a tool to plot out project resources overtime. This chart will include tasks for analysis, design, etc.
and often uses the SDLC to structure the Gantt chart (assuming it is an IT project). As the project progresses
throughout the SDLC, s/he executes time management plans, and monitors its targets. This may include
modifying and restructuring time plans, as novel events, which have time impacts, happen throughout the
lifecycle. Lastly, as the project nears the end of implementation and is handed over to stakeholders, the project
manager assesses time plans as part of a final audit. We will go over how project management processes are
used with project inputs and outputs throughout the lifetime of a project in more detail in future chapters of this
Wikibook.

[edit]Project Stakeholders
A broad definition of 'project stakeholder' includes anyone who has a vested interest in project outcomes;
however, for the purpose of this Wikibook, the term, 'stakeholder,' will refer to the clients or end users who have
been selected to be part of the project team. This may include technical end users, executives, managers, or
business users.

[ edit]The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)

 6

[edit]Process Groups, Knowledge Areas, and Inputs and Outputs

PMBOK contents are summarized in a formalized guide, which is published by the Project Management
Institute. As stated previously in this Wikibook, the PMBOK is a process based approach to managing projects.
The five processes covered in the PMBOK are as follows:

 Initiating: defines and authorizes the project (i.e. create project charter).

 Planning: shapes the outcomes/goals for the project by knowledge area.

 Executing: carries out project plans.

 Controlling and Monitoring: assesses actual project outcomes to planned targets and makes
corrective actions when necessary.

 Closing: obtains a formal acceptance of the product/service by stakeholders and tapers out project
activities in a planned, organized fashion.

How the PMBOK got its name is largely related to how it categorizes key aspects of a project, which are termed
as "knowledge areas." There are nine knowledge areas. Knowledge areas are organized by their role in a
project. For example, core areas are considered to be the pillars of a project. Changing one aspect of a core
area will have direct consequences on other core areas. For example, if a project is modified to include more
functionality, then time, cost, and [sometimes] quality factors shift to accommodate changes to scope. This is
known as the triple/quadruple constraint. On the other hand, there are knowledge areas that are supportive to
project success factors, but are not seen as foundational. These are called facilitating functions. Lastly, what
ties all knowledge areas together is integration management, or coordinating all components of a project.

 Core Knowledge Areas

 Scope Management

 Time Management

 Cost Management

 Quality Management

 Facilitating Knowledge Areas

 Communications Management

 Human Resources Management

 7

 Risk Management

 Procurement Management

 Coordination Knowledge Area

 Integration Management
[edit]Scope Management
Scope refers to a project’s boundaries: it determines what work will be completed during the project lifecycle.
This includes identifying the work that won’t be included in the current round of product/service development.
During the planning process, outputs are created to capture and define the work that needs to be completed.
The controlling and monitoring process is concerned with managing scope creep , documenting, tracking,
and approving/disapproving project changes. Finally, the closing process includes an audit of project
deliverables and assesses the outcomes against the original plan.

[edit]Planning

Setting scope is one of the first project management processes completed during the planning phase as it
defines outcomes and deliverables. It is part of creating a vision for the team and stakeholders alike.

Determining the scope of the project is a very challenging process. Many factors affect how scope is
determined and how easy/difficult the process will be. For example, if a project is implementing new
technology, or a relatively new type of service, the requirements gathering process may take longer to
complete. Prototyping, focus groups, and proof-of-concept work may need to be done first to establish
feasibility factors before scope can be set. On the other hand, a project with stable requirements and relatively
well known technology/services can be much easier to plan. Additionally, depending on how well stakeholders
communicate and plan their work environment, the process of gathering facts to set scope can be quite smooth
or it can take many rounds of negotiation to arrive at a shared and detailed vision. These are just a few simple
examples of how factors may determine the scope planning process.

Please note the example in Figure 4. This figure summarizes the scope planning process, using specific inputs,
tools, and techniques, to create the scope planning document as the corresponding output.
 8

Figure 4: Scope Management Inputs, Outputs, Tools and Techniques Example

[edit]Inputs

The project manager gathers initial project facts from the project charter. Moreover, background information on
the stakeholder’s workplace, existing business model and rules etc. assists in creating the vision of the final
product/service, and consequently, the project scope.

[edit]Techniques

Certainly being a seasoned project manager broadens the repertoire of one’s scope planning techniques. S/he
can draw on past experiences with like projects to determine the work that is realistically doable, given time and
cost constraints, for a current project. Communication and negotiation skills are a “must-have” as well. Project
managers need to educate stakeholders about the project impacts of some requirements. Adding complexity to
a project may require more staff, time, and/or money. It may also have an impact on project quality. Some
aspects of the project may be unfeasible – stakeholders need to know this so they can adjust their vision or
prepare for future challenges.

[edit]Tools

Two important tools for completing the scope management plan include Statement of Scope (SOS) and Work
Breakdown Structure (WBS) templates. Of course, the most important template for completing this planning
process is a template for the overall scope management plan. In this Wikibook, we outline what is typically
covered in a SOS and WBS.

[edit]Statement of Scope(SOS)

The SOS usually opens with a problem statement. This statement captures a description of the catalysts which
are related to the project’s rationale and a summary of the new product/service that is being created. This
section of the SOS often reads like an executive summary of the entire project.

An important content area of the SOS is the list of product/service characteristics/ requirements and features.
This section often reflects the shared vision that was negotiated between the project manager, stakeholders,
and team members. Product services listed here not only reflect what is being included in the project, but how it
will be implemented (i.e. level of complexity, functionality, depth etc.). This section can also include statements
about the items that will not be addressed in the current scope of the project.

Other sections in a SOS may include a list of anticipated benefits and project success criteria. There may also
be a section which summarizes the list of deliverables that will be included in the scope of the project.

[edit]Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

As the name implies, a WBS lists all of the work that needs to be completed to address items listed in the SOS.
It organizes the list of work by using a tree structure (chart or list). This means that the tool is hierarchical in
 9

nature. As mentioned previously in this Wikibook, IT projects will sometimes structure the WBS by SDLC
phase. The phases often make up the “root nodes” or parent items, and underneath each phase all of its
related tasks are listed (usually organized by deliverables).

[edit]Scope Planning Summary

When scope is planned well, the project manager increases the likelihood of positive team moral and project
quality. However, this does not mean that project scope will act as a static target overtime. Scope changes as
new requirements are discovered during the execution phase. This often occurs as deliverables are rolled out
to stakeholders, thus making product/service features more tangible. Sometimes organizational policies change
during development, which leads to adding/removing features from the end product/service. What this means is
this: no matter how well a project manager plans the scope of project, s/he will have to actively control, monitor,
and adjust the plan as changes occur during the execution phase.

[edit]Time Management
'Our main business is not to see what lies dimly at a distance, but to do what clearly lies at hand.' --Thomas
Carlyle

Time management is another key aspect of managing a project. As such, it is considered to be a core
knowledge area, and is closely knit to scope and cost areas. The main purpose of this knowledge area, as it
name suggests, is to build processes and outputs into the project that assist the manager and team to
complete the project in a timely manner. During the planning process, outputs are created to illustrate how
project tasks will be sequenced and allocated. The controlling and monitoring process is concerned with
tracking and reporting on the progress of work, as well as adjusting time outputs to address shifts and changes
in the project plan. Finally, the closing process includes an audit of time targets. Project managers reflect on
what contributed to time estimates being accurate, too liberal, or conservative. This reflective process helps
them to build better time plans for future projects.

[edit]Planning

Time Management is also among the first processes to be completed. It is necessary because a team needs to
be organized to meet deadlines and to streamline collaboration. Past experience is one of the best guides to
creating a plan. Objectives are taken from the project charter and subdivided down into manageable
subsections and deadlines are attached. They are prioritized and given the amounts of time needed to
complete the objective with extra time added for troubleshooting. The objectives are then put together and each
team member is assigned to the different subsections. The team uses time management tools to focus
priorities, and give clear, detailed deadlines. For the stakeholders it gives them a date that they will receive the
 10

project as well as when different prototypes or earlier objectives will be completed. Times are for the most part
determined by the team, with the final deadline negotiated with the stakeholders, allowing room to negotiate
deadlines for other deliverables.

[edit]Inputs

The project managers must identify the specific schedule activities that need to be performed and document
dependencies among these activities. They must also estimate the types and quantities of resources required
and the number of work periods that will be needed to perform and complete each of the scheduled activities.
This will assist them in creating and controlling the project schedule.

The inputs involved in time planning are: Enterprise Environmental Factors, Organizational Process Assets, the
Project Scope Statement, Work Breakdown Structure, Project Management Plan, Activity List and Attributes,
Approved Change Requests, Activity Resource Requirements, Resource Calenders, Activity Duration
Estimates.

[edit]Tools of Time Planning

[edit]Activity Logs
Activity logs help you to analyze how you actually spend your time. The first time you use an activity log you
may be shocked to see the amount of time that you waste. Memory is a very poor guide when it comes to this,
as it can be too easy to forget time spent on non-core tasks.

[edit]Using Activity Logs

Keeping an Activity Log for several days helps you to understand how you spend your time, and when you
perform at your best. Without modifying your behavior any further than you have to, note down the things you
do as you do them on this template. Every time you change activities, whether opening mail, working, making
coffee, gossiping with colleagues or whatever, note down the time of the change. Learning from Your Log Once
you have logged your time for a few days, analyze your daily activity log. You may be alarmed to see the
amount of time you spend doing low value jobs. You may also see that you are energetic in some parts of the
day, and flat in other parts. A lot of this can depend on the rest breaks you take, the times and amounts you
eat, and quality of your nutrition. The activity log gives you some basis for experimenting with these variables.
Your analysis should help you to free up extra time in your day by applying one of the following actions to most
activities:

•Eliminate jobs that your employer shouldn't be paying you to do. These may include tasks that someone else
in the organization should be doing, possibly at a lower pay rate, or personal activities such as sending non-
work e-mails.

•Schedule your most challenging tasks for the times of day when your energy is highest. That way your work
will be better and it should take you less time.
 11

•Try to minimize the number of times a day you switch between types of task. For example, read and reply to e-
mails in blocks once in the morning and once in the afternoon only.

•Reduce the amount of time spent on legitimate personal activities such as making coffee (take turns in your
team to do this - it saves time and strengthens team spirit).

[edit]Activity Logs Key Points

Activity logs are useful tools for auditing the way that you use your time. They can also help you to track
changes in your energy, alertness and effectiveness throughout the day. By analyzing your activity log you will
be able to identify and eliminate time-wasting or low-yield jobs. You will also know the times of day at which
you are most effective, so that you can carry out your most important tasks during these times.

[edit]Action Plans
An Action Plan is a simple list of all of the tasks that you need to carry out to achieve an objective. Wherever
you want to achieve something significant, draw up an Action Plan. This helps you think about what you need
to do to achieve that thing, so that you can get help where you need it and monitor your progress. To draw up
an Action Plan, simply list the tasks that you need to carry out to achieve your goal, in the order that you need
to complete them. This is very simple, but is still very useful. Keep the Action Plan by you as you carry out the
work and update it as you go along with any additional activities that come up. If you think you'll be trying to
achieve a similar goal. Maybe colleagues would have been able to follow up on the impact of your newsletter
on clients if you have communicated with them about when it would be hitting clients' desks.

[edit]Action Plans Key Points

An Action Plan is a list of things that you need to do to achieve a goal. To use it, simply carry out each task in
the list.

[edit]Task Lists
One of the basics of effective time management is to be aware of all that needs to be done. Though many
people keep track of day-to-day activities in their heads, effective time managers facilitate planning and
productivity by making a task list. If you develop the skill of listing tasks regularly, you'll benefit in several ways:

•You will be less likely to forget even minor tasks.

•You may procrastinate less when you have a realistic idea of the work that needs to be done, and the time
available to do it.

•You'll have more flexibility when deciding what to do and when to do it because you determine which tasks
have high priority.

•You'll have both a short- and long-range view of the work coming up.
 12

The first step is to write down all the related tasks that need to be done. For most people this is just an
extension of what they're already doing. Almost everyone uses a calendar of some sort to jot down due dates
and appointments. The key differences are that you do it regularly — usually once a week works well — and
that all the study tasks you have, everything from day-to-day work to writing reports or major projects, are put
on the list.

[edit]Task Lists Estimate

This second step is critical, but very few people do it. For each task on the list, estimate the amount of time it
will take you to complete it. At first you may find this difficult, and your guesses may be way off. With practice,
however, your accuracy will quickly increase. Major tasks which span several weeks may pose a problem, but
by breaking the work down into steps, estimating becomes much easier. A report, for example, could break
down like this:

•Do bibliographic search to make sure enough information is available on topic.

•Finalize topic and do research.

•Organize and categorize research material and create an outline.

•Write rough copy.

•Get feedback on rough copy and revise.

•Edit, polish, and print good copy.

•Do references and footnotes.

Estimate how long each step will take, and then total the estimations. Next, add a safety margin to the total.
This "red zone" allows for all the unexpected things that can happen over the course of several weeks —
everything from your getting sick to not finding a source you need. Fifty percent over the initial estimate is
commonly used, but the more experience you have, the less safety margin you'll need. Divide the new total by
the number of weeks you have to do the task. For example: Estimated time for work: 10 hours x 1.5 (sanity
zone) = 15, 15 hours divided by 5 weeks to do assignment = 3 hours per week. You would then put 3 hours for
this task on your task list for each of the next five weeks. If you need to compromise a few hours somewhere,
assignment time is usually a safe choice if the due date is far enough away. Although at first it may be wild
guessing, estimating how long study tasks will take is one of the few ways of getting a realistic picture of how
much work you really have to do.

[edit]Task Lists Prioritization

The next step is to prioritize — decide what tasks are most important to do first and number them in rank order.
Sometimes (particularly if you've been procrastinating) there will be more items on the list than can be
realistically completed in a week. If time is tight you can delegate certain tasks or postpone low priority items.
 13

Prioritizing forces you to weigh the importance of each item on the task list, and to make a conscious,
thoughtful decision about what to do when.

[edit]Task Lists Key Points

Task lists are a great way to setup and plan your work. Prioritizing and time estimation help to maximize your
work potential.

[edit]Gantt Charts
Gantt Charts are useful tools for analyzing and planning complex projects. They can:

•Help you to plan out the tasks that need to be completed

•Give you a basis for scheduling when these tasks will be carried out

•Allow you to plan the allocation of resources needed to complete the project, and

•Help you to work out the critical path for a project where you must complete it by a particular date.

When a project is under way, Gantt Charts help you to monitor whether the project is on schedule. If it is not, it
allows you to pinpoint the remedial action necessary to put it back on schedule. An essential concept behind
project planning is that some activities are dependent on other activities being completed first. As a shallow
example, it is not a good idea to start building a bridge before you have designed it! These dependent activities
need to be completed in a sequence, with each stage being more-or-less completed before the next activity
can begin. We can call dependent activities 'sequential' or 'linear'. Other activities are not dependent on
completion of any other tasks. These may be done at any time before or after a particular stage is reached.
These are nondependent or 'parallel' tasks.

[edit]Gantt Charts Key points

Gantt charts are useful tools for planning and scheduling projects. They allow you to assess how long a project
should take, determine the resources needed, and lay out the order in which tasks need to be carried out. They
are useful in managing the dependencies between tasks.

[edit]Techniques

Here are some Techniques that would help manage your time more effectively.

Make a Plan

Planning is one of the most important project management and time management techniques. Planning is
preparing a sequence of action steps to achieve some specific goal. If you do it effectively, you can reduce
much the necessary time and effort of achieving the goal.

Prioritizing effectively
 14

Prioritizing skills are your ability to see what tasks are more important at each moment and give those tasks
more of your attention, energy, and time.

Eliminate procrastination

Ability to beat procrastination and laziness is among the most important time management skills to learn.

[edit]Quality Management
When gathering requirements for a project, a manager needs to go beyond specifying what is being developed
(scope) and when it will be delivered (time). S/he also needs plan quality measures into each deliverable, which
contributes towards the end product or service. One can think of quality management as answering the "how"
part of problem solving. In the planning process, a project manager assesses product/service specifications
and arrives at S.M.A.R.T (Smart, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and Timely) quality criteria for each
deliverable. These plans are executed throughout the project lifecycle (via testing, inspections, walkthroughs
etc.). As the project manager controls and monitors the project, s/he may modify and correct product/service
specifications and plans to achieve better quality. Lastly, the project manager conducts an audit of
product/service quality as the project reaches closure. A key concern of the project manager at this stage is to
have stakeholders formally accept the final product/service through achieving a sign-off document. If quality
planning and execution are done properly within a project, it makes the end-product more appealing to
stakeholders.

[edit]Planning

Quality planning involves identifying which quality standards are relevant to the project and determining how to
satisfy them. It is important to perform quality planning during the Planning Process and should be done
alongside the other project planning processes (i.e. Time Planning, Risk Planning, etc.) because changes in
the quality will likely require changes in the other planning processes, or the desired product quality may
require a detailed risk analysis of an identified problem. It is important to remember that quality should be
planned, designed, then built in, not added on after the fact.

[edit]Inputs

 Enterprise Environmental Factors

Factors which are related to the type of business the project is being produced for can have an effect on its
quality. Such factors include government or industry standards, marketplace conditions and stakeholder risk
tolerances.

 Organizational Process Assets

 15

Organization Process Assets (or "OPAs") are inputs which come from the organization(s) producing the project.
They include quality policies, procedures and guidelines, historical databases and lessons learned from
previous projects. An organization's quality policy may be adapted to a particular project, or used "as is." If no
quality policy exists, or if more than one organization is working on the project, the project management team
needs to develop one. The project management team is also responsible for making sure the stakeholders are
aware of quality policy.

 Project Scope Statement

The project scope statement details the deliverables, objectives, thresholds and acceptance criteria that the
project must meet. This makes it very important to quality planning. Acceptance criteria describe the
requirements and conditions that must be achieved before deliverables will be accepted. If the deliverables
satisfy the acceptance criteria, then the result is the customer's needs being met. The acceptance criteria can
drastically increase or decrease the costs of project quality. In addition, the product scope statement may
contain a scope description which contains issues that may affect quality planning.

[edit]Tools and Techniques

 Cost-Benefit Analysis

During the quality planning process it is important to consider cost-benefits trade-offs. The key benefit of
meeting sufficient quality requirements is that it results in less rework, which in turn results in higher
productivity, lower costs, and greater satisfaction from the stakeholder. The main cost of achieving such quality
requirements is the expense the comes with activities relating to Project Quality Management.

 Benchmarking

The process of benchmarking compares planned or existing project practices to the practices set in place for
other projects in order to generate ideas as to which areas of the project could be improved upon. Furthermore,
it is also used to provide a basis for measuring overall performance. The projects used for comparison can be
from within the performing organization or from a source outside of it, and do not necessarily have to be from
within the same application area to be used.

 Design of Experiments (DOE)

Design of Experiments (DOE) is a method used to identify factors which may influence certain aspects of a
product or process during the time it is under development or in production. It also holds a key role in the
process of optimizing products/processes. An organization would use DOE to reduce the sensitivity of product
performance to factors caused by differences in manufacturing or the environment. The main benefit of DOE is
that it provides the organization with a framework to systematically change all of the important factors
 16

associated with a project, rather than changing them one at a time. By analyzing the data obtained, an
organization can find the optimal conditions for their product/process, with a focus on factors influencing the
results, and showing the existence of correlations and interactions within the factors.

 Cost of Quality (COQ)

Quality costs are the total of all costs incurred in preventing non-conformance to established project/process
requirements, appraising the product for conformance to requirements, and any rework necessitated by a
failure to meet requirements. Failure costs are divided into internal and external costs. Failure costs are also
known as cost of poor quality.

 Additional Quality Planning Tools

Additional quality planning tools are often used to better define the situation and assist in planning effective and
efficient quality management activities. These include brainstorming, affinity diagrams, nominal group
techniques, matrix diagrams, flowcharts, and prioritization matrices.

[edit]Summary

By keeping the benchmarks for required levels of quality in mind, such as Enterprise Environmental Factors
and Organizational Process Assets, projects will be much more likely to satisfy end-user requirements. In
addition, by utilizing the tools listed above, the costs incurred for assuring quality can be minimized, while
ensuring project success.

While all PMBOK areas are an important part of a project, quality controls are what shape the final product. By
holding the project itself to high standards of quality, that project will produce results of similar worth.

[edit]Communications Management
In this PMBOK area, project managers focus on making sure that stakeholders are understood in terms of their
communications needs. It also involves determining what communication outputs will be exchanged over the
course of the project (i.e. status updates, minutes of meetings, reports on deliverables etc.). Project managers
make careful plans to outline who receives which communications, who is responsible to deliver and respond to
communication content, and how and when communications will be delivered. These details are summarized in
a communications plan, which is created during in the planning phase. Communications plans are then
executed and monitored over the course of project implementation.
 17

[edit]Planning

Preparing a communication plan in Project Management involves four key points, which are defining the
audience, defining the requirements, building a communications schedule, finding a responsible team member
for preparing and scheduling the piece of communication, defining the medium of communication, and finally
preparing the content.

Defining the audience:

Defining the audience is the simplest part in building a communications plan. What needs to be done in this
area is, listing the key stakeholders who need information about the course of events in the project.

Defining the requirements:

In this part, the project manager answers the question: “What do the key stakeholders want to know?” This
question should be answered according to the audience’s level of technical knowledge.

Building a communications schedule:

At this point, the project manager should have the audience and requirements information. Now, it is time to
answer the question: “When to do it?” A flexible schedule should be prepared and verified by the audience. The
schedule must be flexible and should give response to the situations in which a meeting (or meetings)
was/were missed. This plan should also be in coordination with the project development schedule.

Finding the responsible team member:

Project manager can do this on his/her own, but involving team members or executives in the communication
ensures high level of commitment to the project. So, at this phase, the group who will lead the communication
process is selected.

Defining the medium of communication:

Presenting the information smoothly is important – especially for stakeholders. They are not involved in the
project, but they need to know what is going on. An appropriate medium should be selected at this step to
ensure that the information is delivered successfully to the stakeholders.

Preparing the content:

Now that everything is defined, the project manager (or the assigned team member) should prepare the content
of communication. The content must be checked by the project manager before presenting to the stakeholders.
The content should include the purpose of the process, the steps involved in undertaking the process, and the
roles and responsibilities of team members at the current stage of the project. Using a template to prepare the
content generally speeds up this final step.
 18

[edit]Inputs

The four inputs are as follows:

Communications requirements: Sum of the information requirements of the project stakeholders.

Communications technology: The technologies or methods used to transfer information back and forth.

Constraints: Factors that will limit the project management team's options.

Assumptions: Factors that will be considered true, real, or certain for planning purposes. (Assumptions
generally involve a degree of risk and may be identified here or in the risk identification process).

[edit]Tools

There are many tools with which to use for communication. What you need to communicate will
depend on what you use to send it.

Some Communication tools are:

 E-mail

 Instant Messaging

 Fax

 Phone

 Internet
[edit]Techniques

There are many techniques in managing communication, for example, one is to “establish a
communication schedule”, which plans when events happen and keep your clients up to date
throughout the project. Another technique used is “managing the flow of information”, in and out of the
project. Then you need to put yourself in your audiences shoes and ask yourself, what do they need to
know, what do they want to hear?, and what will stop them from listening. Using the data gathered you
can plan how and when to communicate the necessary information to who ever needs it.
[edit]Outputs

The key to getting the best output is communicating with all the members of the team. This is also
when you discuss the steps of strategy process and they have a clear understanding of what you
are doing. There should be no surprises for them. This communication can be with target audience,
stakeholders, management team etc. in various different forms. The output can be in different forms
like:

1. Reports like direct mail, online informational output

2. To the management in form of e-mail, discussion forum

 19

3. To the stakeholder in form of advertisement, public relations At the project’s end, be sure to issue
a closedown announcement/memo and give a copy to all the members of the project team as well
as management folks who should be aware a particular project is complete. A proper accountability
has to be set.

The report has the progress information of the project. This can be in detailed to tell about the
various status part of the project. It can be put in the form of a documented detailed report.

1. It can have graphs, histograms, charts of various form or tables which can show the structure of
the budget and its analysis.

2. The future analysis can be done also.

3. If any changes or corrections has to made in the report this has to be done immediately and
notify the team about the update.

4. It can be mailed directly to them.In order to involve the stakeholder they should be told about the
planning process, the different stages, roles and importance of these. The knowledge of all these
steps are important to them in order to understand their involvment in the phase. The starting and
ending of the project and the frequency of the meetings and its output. Also they should be told
about the project notification and the feedback obtained if useful tried to be implemented.

For the Management. This includes the details in regard to the team meetings, the progress of
these meetings and mail the details back to them.

[edit]Human Resources Management

The most important resource to a project is its people - the project team. Projects require specific
expertise at specific moments in the schedule, depending on the milestones being delivered, or the
given phase of the project. An organization can host several strategic projects concurrently over the
course of a budget year, which means that its employees can be working on more than one project
at a time. Alternatively, an employee may be seconded away from his/her role within an
organization to become part of a project team because s/he has a particular expertise. Moreover,
projects often require talent and resources that can only be acquired via contract work and third
party vendors. Procuring and coordinating these human resources, in tandem with managing the
time aspect of the project, is critical to overall its overall success.

[edit]Planning

When Planning Human Resource Management the first thing is to identify all the project roles and
responsibilities. Documenting the reporting relationships and the Staffing management plan are key
in the planning process.
 20

Project roles are roles taken up by individuals or groups within or outside of the project it self. The
Staffing management plan brainstorms ideas for acquiring team members. It figures out training
needs and hiring and releasing information. It holds information about safety and the impact the
plan has on the project.

[edit]Inputs

To properly define responsibilities and project roles we must look at the inputs involved.
Understanding the ways that the existing groups will be involved and how the technical disciplines
and individuals interact.

organizational inputs a team must determine what organization groups there are for the project,
what role and service they provide and how the groups interact with each other allowing them to
complete tasks as one unit. Once all the groups are determined. Then we must look at the
Technical side of things and determine what special technologies may need unique ways of
integration such as (New computer Software, languages, New Hardware Systems). A team will also
have to try and predict any problems that might occur during transition from each life cycle Phase
that might greatly hinder and slow down the project. Having tried to predict some of the problems
will greatly help the team by allowing them to have an understanding of what things might occur so
that they can be ready for them if or when they happen. While the team is looking at what problems
might occur they should also look at other areas of the project that might need special attention.
This should be done so that if something special is needed to be done to complete a task it’s not a
surprise to the team and someone with the abilities needed, can be found and ready to help. Finally
we must view the interpersonal relationships and determine the preexisting relationships and
communications barriers that could exist as well as the relationship, if any, between supplier and
client. Then we should ask some Logistics questions: How much distance is involved between
individuals and technologies within the project?(For example a server in a different continent while
two team members are based in opposing continents) What kind of transportation may be needed
between two parties involved in the project?

In conjunction with these questions about the inputs it is a good idea to have some tangible tools
while analyzing all inputs. As experience with project management grows so does certain lessons
learned. It is a good idea to stick with things which worked in the past and avoid the things that
didn't. By forming Templates and Checklists these things can be easily done and therefore reduce
project time greatly. With Templates documentation can be completed much faster and allow for
more uniform work. With Checklists projects can keep on schedule, they allow everything to be
done and not forgotten allowing the project train to stay on it's tracks.

[edit]Tools
 21

Organization Charts and Position Descriptions There are a few different ways to record roles
and responsibilities of team members. There are three different ways to document information;
hierarchical, matrix, and text-oriented. However the methods are used, the main idea is to make
sure each team member knows their roles and responsibilities.

[edit]Techniques

Necessary Conditions To Consider -Support -Commitment -Participation (For all Staff)

Templates All projects are different but the majority of projects have similarities. The organizational
planning time will move faster if similarities between projects are implemented or using role and
responsibility definitions.

Creating a Template for the entire project to make sure staff don’t start drifting out of scope can also
be a good idea. This template (Depending on your project) most likely will not be functioning, more
or less just a visual representation of the work to be completed. Once a Visual Representation is
setup people will know in what order tasks need to complete.

Project Roster Proper Planning will have you determining the required skills to place employees in
the proper areas to work most efficiently. This could include Hiring new Staff or Transferring
Employees from certain sections. A Great idea on determining placement For employees is creating
a project Roaster. A roaster will help you outline the roles and responsibilities for each staff
member, by the projects scope, and work to be completed. In developing the roaster, eventually it
will identify how many members should be designated to which section, or where to fill in the gaps
so to speak.

Project Support Team Setting up a project support team is something to consider. It does require
additional funding and staff; however stalls or problems in the project may be completed faster if
Veteran Project Managers or IT Professionals are on call.

Hiring a Consultant Hiring a Consultant could be a good way for you to get the ball rolling for a
major project. Some one with experience motivating people and following through with large scale
projects would definitely be an asset to the work at hand.

Human Resource Practices There are many policies, guide-lines, or procedures that a business or
organization might have that can greatly speed up organizational planning. A project management
team can use these to better understand the roles of specific management or how other processes
in the organization work.

Organizational Theory needs to be understood by all team members so that they can quickly
 22

respond to the requirements of a project by having the general knowledge of the way teams,
departments and people perform.

Costs

Keeping track of costs and budgeting can be a small problem. A Good option is to make an excel
spread sheet or some other type of basic budget to abide by for the initial process of the project.
This way other spending can be outlined to speed up the process or set funding where it would be
better used.

[edit]Summary

All aspects of staff working and their potential in a specific project section have to be considered to
have a good start in a project. If required people can be moved but then Project Managers have to
re-evaluate the situation and then bring the transfered members up to speed, which can be lengthy
and non cost-effective. Keep in mind the mentioned aspects above when creating a project, they
will definitely save time and money when working with large scale projects.

[edit]Risk Management
Risk Management's goal is to increase the impact and probability of positive risks and decrease
them for negative risks. The point is not only avoiding failure, but to bring about opportunities. Time
and energy can be spent avoiding, transferring to a third party, and mitigating potential failures.
They can be similarly be spent on accepting, sharing with third parties and enhancing opportunities.
It is task of Risk Management to determine how much time and energy should be on avoiding
failures and promoting opportunities.

Risk management includes six main processes in PMBOK theory [1]. These are risk management
planning, risk identification, qualitative risk analysis, quantitative risk analysis, risk response
planning, and risk monitoring and control.

[edit]Risk Management Planning

In the Risk Management Planning process, it is decided how to execute the risk management

activities of a project. The level of risk management is decided as it needs to be in line with the risk
and importance of the project as a whole. This way resources can be properly alloted at this stage.

Risk Planning is usually the last project management process to be completed during the planning
phase as the overall plan and scope are needed to find out where risk management tasks can be
alloted.

[edit]Inputs
 23

There are four inputs within the PMBOK model[2]. Enterprise Environmental Factors involve the
attitudes and policies set down by the organization that sets the levels and tolerance of risk that is
deemed acceptable. Organizational Process Assets are possible predefined risk management
approaches set down by the organization. These may include templates, roles, authority levels, risk
categories, and definitions. The last two inputs are the Statement of Scope (from the Project
Scope Management) and Project Management Plan (from Project Integration Management).

[edit]Techniques and Tools

The project team have meetings to set out the basic plans for Risk Management throughout the
project. These include budgeted cost, scheduled time, assigned responsibilities, and established
risk templates. Establishing the risk templates includes customizing the risk categories and
definitions for organizing risk levels, probabilities, and impact.

[edit]Outputs

The output of the planning process of Risk Management results in a methodology, roles and
responsibilities, budget, schedule, risk categories (possibly including a Risk Break Structure), the
definitions of risk probability risk impact (these can be numerical or relative "very unlikely"),
probability and impact matrix, a revised stakeholders' tolerance, formats for any reports, and
documentation of how the risk management aspects of the project will be tracked.

[edit]Risk Planning Summary

The goal of risk planning is to establish how the overall risk management will be conducted for the
project. The time spent, the role and responsibilities, and template formats of the reports should be
all established in this process. Once the preliminary work is done, identifying, analyzing, and
adjusting for risks can be done.

[edit]Risk Identification

[edit]Techniques

There are a few strategies or techniques when determining project risks. The easiest strategy is the
scenario based strategy. This strategy involves using creative brainstorming ideas to come up with
positive and negative risks inside the scope of the project.

An example of the scenario based strategy would be: 'What happens if we exceed the time limit
budgeted in the time planning phase?'

The second strategy to determining positive and negative risks in a project would be the relative
experiences strategy. Here, risks are determined by relating past projects and experiences and
tweaking them to fit the scope of the current project.
 24

An example of the relative experiences strategy would be, say in your project, there were problems
with unavailable team members. What if that were to happen again?

There is a third strategy to determining risks in project management. This is called the objective
based scenario. This strategy follows the same ideas as the scenario strategy and the relating past
experiences strategy, but instead of making up scenarios or using past experiences, risks are
determined based on goals and wanted outcomes for the project. This type of strategy works best
with finding the positive risks in a project versus the negative risks.

[edit]Tools

There are a few tools required for completing Risk Management starting with the three strategies
mentioned above. The biggest tool is the formula for calculating the rank of a risk. The Risk
Management can then be formatted nicely into a professional report for presenting to the clients.

[edit]Qualitative Risk Analysis

[edit]Quantitative Risk Analysis

The final strategy for Risk Management would be the handy formula for determining the rank of a
risk. This formula requires two variables, one for the likelihood of the risk to happen and one for the
impact of the risk if it did happen. You can rate these variables, for example, out of 5 stars. The
formula then calls for the first variable to be added to the second variable, and then divide by the
total number of possible stars, which would be 10 stars. Once all of your risks have an answer to
that calculation, the risks are then ranked by their answers from highest to lowest.

Once the risks have been created, they must then be ranked in an order of most important to the
least harmful. A way of determining the rank of a risk is to use a small mathematical formula. Once
the risks have been ranked in an ascending order from highest to lowest, the risks must then be
given a treatment or an avoidance strategy. This last step of risk planning is critical because if a risk
happens to fall upon the project in the future, the team will already know how to solve it or prevent it
from happening in the first place.

[edit]Risk Response Planning

The project manager brainstorms and gathers all the positive and negative risks. These risks would
then be inputted into a report followed by the likelihood, impact, and rank of each risk.

[edit]Risk Monitoring and Control

The final input for Risk Management would be the control/treatment plans for each risk in case the
risk unfolds into the project down the time line. The Risk Monitoring and Control process is where
 25

the risks are diagnosed with treatment and control plans. The team also examines the scope items
to ensure they are out of the way of the negative risks.

[edit]Risk Management Summary

After the positive and negative risks of a project have been well defined and ranked, the team can
then refer and familiarize themselves with all of, or just the highest ranked risks, in order to prevent
them from occurring during the lifetime of that project. If the risk occurs, the team will know how to
respond to it if they know the treatment plans outlined in the risk management document. Poor risk
planning is a major factor in projects failing. It is an easily overlooked section of the PMBOK theor