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Computers in the Schools:

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21st Century Paradigms for Pre-Service

Teacher Technology Preparation
a b
Judy Lambert & Yi Gong
a
The University of Toledo , Toledo, Ohio, USA
b
Keene State College , Keene, New Hampshire, USA
Published online: 17 Feb 2010.

To cite this article: Judy Lambert & Yi Gong (2010) 21st Century Paradigms for Pre-Service Teacher
Technology Preparation, Computers in the Schools: Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and
Applied Research, 27:1, 54-70

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 Computers in the Schools, 27:54–70, 2010
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0738-0569 print / 1528-7033 online
DOI: 10.1080/07380560903536272

21st Century Paradigms for Pre-Service

Teacher Technology Preparation

JUDY LAMBERT
The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, USA
YI GONG
Keene State College, Keene, New Hampshire, USA
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This study investigated major course changes in 11 sections of a

stand-alone educational technology course redesigned around 21st
century skill sets as opposed to technical skill development. Con-
ducted in the fall of 2007 and spring 2008 with a random sample
of 100 pre-service teachers, independent and paired sample t tests
and correlational analyses were used to examine differences in
students’ computer attitude, self-efficacy, and computer skills be-
fore and after instruction. Results of the study suggest that, even in
a more rigorous course, pre-service teachers became less anxious
about computers, their belief in the value of using technology to
enhance teaching and learning as well as their self-efficacy toward
integrating technology in the classroom significantly improved, and
they became more advanced in their technical skills and knowledge
of how to apply these skills in the classroom.

KEYWORDS educational technology, teacher education, 21st cen-

tury skills, attitude, self-efficacy, technology integration

The technological preparation of pre-service teachers has been an ongoing

challenge since the advent of computers in schools. Computer labs were
placed in colleges of education to ensure pre-service teachers had neces-
sary technical skills to use computers in the classroom, but it soon became
obvious that technical skill did not automatically translate into classroom
integration. With the help of millions of dollars in federal funds, univer-
sities initiated full integration strategies across all education courses hop-
ing that faculty modeling would better prepare pre-service teachers with

Address correspondence to Judy Lambert, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, The University of

Toledo, 2801 W. Bancroft St., Toledo, OH 43606. E-mail: judy.lambert@utoledo.edu

54
 21st Century Paradigms 55

technological skills and motivate more classroom technology use. However,

through an examination of research studies reporting on these integration ef-
forts, Kay (2006) found that only a handful of them evaluated their programs
carefully and thoroughly, leaving it unclear which strategies work best for
preparing pre-service teachers to use technology. In many colleges of educa-
tion, faculty have not widely adopted the use of technology or had time for
training and, as a result, the stand-alone educational technology course still
serves as the primary means of pre-service teacher preparation in technology.
Considering the difficulties of the past two decades it comes as no surprise
that the U.S. Department of Commerce statistics show that “education is
dead last in technology use . . . education is the least technology-intensive
enterprise in a ranking of technology use among 55 U.S. industry sectors”
(Vockley, 2008, p. 2). Clearly technology has not yet created a paradigmatic
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shift in classrooms as it has in other sectors of society.

According to Vockley (2008), there are two major obstacles holding
schools back in maximizing the impact of technology as a catalyst for im-
provement. First, education still has a narrow conception of how technology
should be used. Schools have used technology primarily as tools for de-
veloping students’ computer skills; and, even though skills are necessary,
technology proficiency is simply the point of entry to a digital world. Sec-
ond, the assumption that “education already is using technology widely is
unfounded. . . . To a wireless nation, which relies on technology for ordinary
tasks and extraordinary achievements, it is shocking and inconceivable—but
true—that technology is marginalized in the complex and vital affairs of
education” (Vockley, 2008, p. 3). We have entered a crucial time when
fundamental shifts in the economy, changing nature of the workforce, de-
mographic shifts, educational competitiveness, globalization of society, and
computerization of the workplace make the technological preparation of
teachers an urgent problem we can no longer afford to marginalize. Teach-
ers must make the use of technology an integral part of educational opera-
tions just as in other industries to offer a more rigorous, creative, relevant,
and engaging curriculum where students must use and practice 21st cen-
tury skills. Twenty-first century skills, which are so critical in this rapidly
evolving society, include among other things, problem solving, communi-
cation, collaboration, information and media literacy, critical thinking, and
creativity.
There is a growing impetus around the world to integrate 21st century
skills in classrooms (Commission of European Communities, 2002; Educa-
tional Testing Service, 2002; Lambert, Gong, & Cuper, 2009; North Central
Regional Educational Laboratory, 2003; Vockley, 2008). This integration will
require a paradigm shift in 21st century classrooms where technology is used
to support student learning and the standard curriculum through innovative
teaching and learning practices. Technology can engage students in powerful
 56 J. Lambert and Y. Gong

learning and create collaborative learning environments where 21st century

skills must be used. If technology is to be used like this in the classroom, the
“preparation of tomorrow’s teachers does not depend solely on how well
we incorporate emerging technologies into college coursework; instead, it
rests on how well we teach incoming teachers to leverage the technologies
to help their students develop these same skills” (Lambert & Cuper, 2009,
p. 5).
It is an opportune time for stand-alone technology courses to play a
renewed but more important role in teacher preparation programs. The use
of technology is essential for living in today’s world; therefore, stand-alone
courses can be an effective place to introduce and advocate a 21st century
shift in thinking in future teachers and potentially provide them with a more
convincing rationale for using technology in the classroom. Requirements
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in a course such as this would be more rigorous because it would combine

pedagogical concepts, knowledge of content and curriculum, and technology
training. Therefore, the greatest concerns are whether pre-service teachers
can handle the conceptually challenging requirements simultaneously with
technical training and if so, how will this rigor affect their attitudes toward
using technology in the classroom?
Considering these concerns, faculty at a Midwestern university have
spent the last five years re-envisioning and redesigning sections of a stand-
alone educational technology course with an instructional focus on the 21st
century benefits of using classroom technology rather than the develop-
ment of technology skills. For example, rather than beginning a unit on
using word processing, the unit began with readings and discussions on
the nature of 21st century forms of communication and collaboration. Pre-
service teachers then learned how particular technologies such as word-
processed newsletters, podcasts, blogs, mail merge memos, nonlinear multi-
media, wikis, and videoconferencing were tools that could promote this kind
of communication or collaboration in their future classrooms. Pre-service
teachers then applied their newly learned 21st century knowledge by cre-
ating products that would (a) solve instructional problems and/or make
their own teaching more productive and (b) promote 21st century think-
ing by requiring future students to use technology as part of their own
learning.
As an example of this process, the first product was a newsletter to
enhance communication between teachers and parents about happenings
in the classroom. The second product illustrated samples of newsletters
that pre-service teachers could expect from their students. Before begin-
ning this second product, pre-service teachers read about and discussed the
21st century benefits of communication, information literacy, and creativ-
ity that students would practice when completing this kind of assignment.
Because it is difficult for pre-service teachers to place themselves in two
 21st Century Paradigms 57

different perspectives when doing similar assignments, they were scaffolded

in their metacognitive awareness by asking them to imagine teaching a unit
of instruction in their content area and then assigning a newsletter as a
final product to assess student learning in lieu of the typical test or pa-
per. Because a newsletter was an authentic product, it required students to
show their learning in several ways: They would practice information literacy
skills by locating and organizing concepts; use creativity to present concepts
attractively; practice language arts skills to communicate concepts appropri-
ately; and if working in teams, they would collaborate on completing the
assignment.
As an illustration of the second product, one pre-service teacher imag-
ined that several 11th-grade students would collaborate in creating a newslet-
ter from the perspectives of differing historical characters to debate the causes
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of World War II. This pre-service teacher based her learning objectives on the
social studies curriculum and included higher levels of thinking necessary in
the 21st century. Her students not only gathered and organized information
about the war, they also analyzed different perspectives on the war and cre-
ated a product that communicated and justified their positions. This kind of
assignment provided a more effective means to measure whether students
had learned the content and adequately applied 21st century skills while
doing so. As suggested by Lambert and Cuper (2009), creating authentic
products expected from their own students requires pre-service teachers to
think about 21st century skills and how they might leverage technology to
promote these skills in their future students. Other 21st century skill units in
the course included,

• critical thinking and problem solving (e.g., spreadsheet analysis, database

creation and queries, and geospatial technologies);
• creativity and innovation (e.g., desktop publishing, video creation, and
Web site creation);
• information and media literacy (e.g., nonlinear multimedia, concept map-
ping, and Internet scavenger hunts); and
• civic literacy and global awareness (e.g., ethical issues, privacy, Web site
evaluation, diversity, and videoconferencing).

The types of assignments described support the newly revised National Ed-
ucational Technology Standards for Students (International Society for Tech-
nology in Education [ISTE], 2007) and Teachers (ISTE, 2008) established
by the International Society for Technology in Education to reflect more
sufficiently skills needed in the 21st century. It was believed that a 21st cen-
tury focus such as this would provide pre-service teachers with a stronger
rationale for using educational technology, and as a result, improve their
attitudes and motivation toward using technology in future classrooms.
 58 J. Lambert and Y. Gong

Adoption theories provide a framework for redesigning an educational tech-

nology course in this manner.

LITERATURE REVIEW

According to adoption theories, potential adopters of technology progress

through five stages (Geoghegan, 1994; Rogers, 1995). First, they must learn
about the technology (knowledge); second, they must be persuaded of the
value of the technology for educational purposes (persuasion); third, they
then must decide to adopt it (decision); the innovation must then be im-
plemented (implementation); and last, the decision must be reaffirmed or
rejected (confirmation). The first three stages are within the influence of the
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teacher preparation period. The last two stages occur in the real classroom
when teachers implement and apply their learned knowledge to use tech-
nology (Stage 4, implementation) and subsequently confirm or reject their
decision based on success and other factors (Stage 5, confirmation). While
the last two stages are somewhat outside the realm of teacher education
unless some form of university-school collaborative effort exists or follow-
up service is offered in the area of technology, it is critical that we under-
stand if and how the first three stages—knowledge, persuasion, decision—of
adoption can be influenced most successfully during pre-service teacher
preparation.
In much of the past research, training has been shown to affect teachers’
confidence for using technology, and it was assumed that the present study
would simply add further support in this area (knowledge). However, we
still do not know what might persuade teachers to actually use technology
more often in their classrooms and, as is the case with technology skills,
more confidence does not necessarily translate into more classroom use. In
the present study, it was also assumed that future teachers would become
more persuaded of the value of using technology for teaching and learning
purposes (persuasion) given the 21st century reasons for its use (i.e., pro-
motes critical thinking, problem solving, communication, etc., in students).
Experienced teachers look for more effective ways to teach and help students
learn. Focusing on 21st century skills and how technology will promote the
development of these skills and, at the same time, make teaching and learn-
ing more engaging and support the standard curriculum may persuade more
pre-service teachers to seriously consider using technology when they enter
their careers. Addressing the needs of individuals when designing adoption
strategies has been shown to increase the likelihood that technology will be
successfully integrated in the curriculum by reluctant teachers (Geoghegan,
1994; Rogers, 1995).
Adoption theories also tell us that an introduction to technology for re-
sistant teachers should be related to their specific curriculum areas since
 21st Century Paradigms 59

these teachers enjoy and tend to focus on discipline/content credibility

(Geoghegan, 1994). Resistant teachers will be more interested in and willing
to transfer technology training that pertains to their curriculum. The very
existence of technology may be reasonable enough for early adopters to use
it since they have an innate interest in technology that predisposes them to
adoption. On the other hand, reluctant teachers tend to derive their purposes
from discipline-specific problems and therefore must see technology demon-
strated as an effective way to meet needs directly tied to their discipline.
Authentic subject-related tasks are critical for these pragmatic teachers to
consider the adoption of technology, and these are the types of tasks which
served as the core assignments in the redesigned course. In the present
study, it was assumed that when these factors were present—subject-related
classroom tasks, principles of teaching and learning, knowledge of content
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(i.e., curriculum), 21st century reasons for using technology, and increased
technical skills—together they would influence more pre-service teachers to
commit to using technology in their future classrooms (decision).

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The educational technology course, which is offered to all pre-service teach-

ers, is taken by students typically in their freshman or sophomore years with
a smaller percentage of students in their junior and senior years. Course revi-
sions in the present study were implemented across 11 sections of the course
with five instructors teaching the course, using a common syllabus focusing
on 21st century skills. The main goals of this study were to examine the
effects of a large-scale course redesign effort on students’ technology skills,
attitudes, and self-efficacy and to investigate the individual differences that
might relate to these outcomes. Both personal attributes (e.g., self-efficacy,
attitude, gender, and year of college) and external factors (e.g., prior tech-
nology use and exposure to modeling) affect an individual’s decision and
attitude toward using technology. Understanding pre-service teachers’ per-
sonal beliefs and dispositions toward technology is critical, since these are
some of the most significant factors inhibiting teachers’ use of computers in
the classroom (Levin & Wadmany, 2008). It has been determined that tech-
nology training can significantly change attitudes in teachers and pre-service
teachers (Kadel, 2005; Lambert, Gong, & Cuper, 2009), but for teachers to
widely adopt technology in the classroom, they must believe it will benefit
student learning. Teachers must also believe or have the self-efficacy that
they possess the ability to use technology in ways that will produce desired
learning outcomes.
Self-efficacy is shaped and developed by social modeling, persuasive
social influences, and mastery experiences throughout one’s life (Bandura,
1995). It is important that we understand how self-efficacy is influenced
 60 J. Lambert and Y. Gong

by instruction and exposure to technology integration modeling in prior

schooling. Research has documented the critical role of modeling in the
preparation of pre-service teachers to integrate technology into teaching and
learning (Brown & Warschauer, 2006; Fleming, Motamedi, & May, 2007).
However, very little is known about the influence of K–12 technology in-
tegration modeling on pre-service teachers. Only one study was found that
investigated the effects of K–12 modeling and in this study, earlier experi-
ences with technology in the classroom, as opposed to personal use, led to
higher levels of perceived importance and self-efficacy toward technology by
female students (Cady & Terrell, 2007). The perceived value of technology
has been found to be a strong predictor of computer use among teachers
(Bovée, Voogt, & Meelissen, 2007; Kumar, Rose, & D’Silva, 2008). Also, prior
computer experience and ability have been found to influence a user’s at-
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tributes for success or failure in computer-related tasks (Rozell & Gardner,

2000) as well as their perceptions of the usefulness of computers (Barcy &
Barcy, 2008).
The present study addressed two primary objectives:

1. Is there any correlation between pre-service teachers’ background charac-

teristics (i.e., gender, year of college, prior exposure to K–12 modeling of
technology integration, and prior use of technology) and their attitudes/
beliefs about using technology in the classroom before course instruction?
2. Do pre-service teachers change their attitudes and beliefs toward using
technology in the classroom after course instruction?

METHODOLOGY
Participants
The sample included 100 students, 50 females and 50 males, randomly se-
lected from 164 students who took the educational technology course in
11 sections of this Midwestern university with a majority of these students
being first-generation college students. Of these 100 students, 48 were fresh-
men, 33 sophomores, 13 juniors, and 6 seniors. Student ages ranged from
17–18 years (n = 29), 19–20 years (n = 41), 21–22 years (n = 15), to over
23 years (n = 15). Four students had never had access to home computers
during their growing up years but 19 students had computers the entire time
they lived at home. Of those who had access, a majority of students had
access to home computers beginning in grades 1–4 (n = 37) while others
gained access in grades 6–8 (n = 25) and grades 9–12 (n = 15). Thirty-eight
students rated themselves as non-experienced or only minimally experienced
in using a few types of technology while 62 students believed themselves
to be very experienced either in using a few types of technology or in us-
ing many types of technology. Thirty-nine students had college professors
 21st Century Paradigms 61

FIGURE 1 Percentage of time exposed to teacher modeling and academic use of computers
in elementary grades.
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who used technology in their teaching less than 25% of the time, 40 had
professors who used technology 50% of the time, and 21 had professors
who used technology 75% of the time. The percentages of time students
were exposed to teacher modeling and time they used computers as part of
their school assignments during K–12 academic experiences are shown in
Figures 1 and 2.

MEASUREMENTS
Background Variables
A demographic questionnaire was administered at the beginning of the
semester. In addition to gender and year of enrollment in college, the per-
centage of time pre-service teachers were exposed to K–16 teachers and
professors who integrated technology in the classroom was used as an esti-
mate of prior exposure to technology. Prior use of technology was estimated
as the percentage of time the sampled students were required to use tech-
nology in their K–16 learning experiences.

FIGURE 2 Percentage of time exposed to teacher modeling and academic use of computers
in middle to high school grades.
 62 J. Lambert and Y. Gong

Attitude Toward Computers (TAC)

The survey of Teachers Attitude Toward Computers (TAC, v. 2.22) was
adopted to collect students’ attitudes toward computer learning and
perceived usefulness of computers in the classroom (Christensen & Knezek,
1999). This questionnaire is a 99–199 item Likert/semantic differential
instrument with 16 subscales or factors. Internal consistency for the 16-factor
structure of the TAC ranges from .96 to .74. Among all the 16 factors collected
by this survey, we particularly selected five factors to meet the goal of this
study, including anxiety about using computers (CASA, r = .91), confidence
when using computers (CASC, r = .81), propensity to like computers (CASL,
r = .89), perception of the general usefulness of computers in everyday life
(CASU, r = .85), and belief in the value of using technology in the class-
room (F6, r = .90). TAC data were collected at the beginning and end of the
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semester, and composite scores for each of the six factors were calculated
using the average score of the various items on each factor.

ISTE General Preparation Profile for Prospective Teachers Survey

This instrument, developed by the International Society for Technology
in Education based on National Educational Technology Standards (NETS)
for Teachers surveyed pre-service teachers’ self-perceived ability (i.e., self-
efficacy) to integrate technology in classroom teaching (ISTE, 2003). The
17-question instrument contains a 5-point Likert-type scale (strongly agree,
disagree, undecided, agree, or strongly disagree) asking students how they
perceived their ability to perform each skill. Analysis of testing yielded high
(alpha = .93) internal reliability. ISTE data were collected at the beginning
and the end of the semester and composite scores were generated using
average scores for 10 ISTE items.

Computer Skills Test

This online instrument, designed by educational technology faculty at this
university, included 50 multiple-choice questions with half the questions re-
lated to the technical skills of using technology and the other half related
to classroom pedagogy or classroom applications of technology. For ex-
ample, one question asked, “As a teacher, you are very concerned about
using technology to promote students’ higher level thinking skills. Accord-
ing to Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956), which of the following requires
the least amount of thinking abilities?” Another question asked, “In your fu-
ture classroom, you want your students to use a visual thinking program
to show you the concepts they learned in a unit on animal habitats. What
 21st Century Paradigms 63

TABLE 1 Variable Description

Gender Gender of the subject (dichotomous, 1 = male, 2 = female)

Year of College Year of enrollment in college (dichotomous, 1 = freshman, 0 =
sophomore, junior and senior)
Prior Exposure Prior exposure to technology integration during K–16
(continuous, composite summary score of elementary,
middle/high, and college exposure)
Prior Use Prior use technology integration during K–12 (continuous,
composite summary score of elementary and middle/high)
TAC-CASA Loyd & Gressard Computer Anxiety (continuous, composite
score of 8 CASA items)
TAC-CASC TAC-CASL Loyd & Gressard Computer Confidence (continuous, composite
score of 8 CASC items)
TAC-CASU F6 Loyd & Gressard Computer Liking (continuous, composite score
of 10 CASL items)
ISTE Loyd & Gressard Computer Usefulness (continuous, composite
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score of 10 CASU items)

CompSkill Factor 6: Belief in the value of using technology in the
classroom (continuous, composite score of 14 Factor 6 items)
Perceived ability (i.e., self-efficacy) to integrate technology in
the classroom (continuous, composite score of 10 ISTE items)
Computer Skills Test (continuous, Computer Skills Test score)

program would they use to complete this assignment?” The test included six
questions in each of eight areas: curriculum and instruction, database, emerg-
ing technologies, ethical issues, general knowledge, multimedia, spread-
sheets, and word processing. The test has not been validated and is there-
fore a limitation within the study. Data were collected at the beginning and
end of the semester. A detailed description of the variables is shown in
Table 1.

DATA ANALYSIS

Data analyses were conducted at two stages. At the first stage (i.e., prior
to instruction) independent sample t tests were used to determine whether
students of different genders or year of college differed in terms of attitude,
self-efficacy, and computer skills. Correlations between students’ technology
background (technology exposure to modeling and technology prior use)
and their attitude, self-efficacy, and computer ability were also analyzed.
At the second stage, i.e., after instruction, independent sample t tests were
used to investigate whether students of different genders and year of college
still differed in terms of attitude, self-efficacy, and computer skills. Paired
samples t tests were adopted to investigate whether there was a significant
change in attitude, self-efficacy, and computer skills test scores before and
after instruction.
 64 J. Lambert and Y. Gong

TABLE 2 Comparison of Pre-Instruction Attitude Factors, Self-Efficacy, and Computer Skills

Test Scores Between Male and Female Pre-Service Teachers

Male Female
Variable M SD M SD t Sig.

TAC
CASA 4.02 .74 3.85 .68 1.18 .24
CASC 3.85 .76 3.70 .67 1.05 .30
CASL 3.54 .86 3.28 .77 1.60 .11
CASU 4.17 .39 4.08 .42 1.07 .29
Factor 6 3.93 .62 3.84 .54 .82 .42
ISTE 3.65 .60 3.66 .70 −.26 .80
CompSkill 58.62 10.59 56.36 9.32 1.13 .26
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RESULTS

Before course instruction, there were no significant differences in pre-service

teachers’ level of anxiety or self-efficacy based on gender or year of col-
lege (see Tables 2 and 3). Males and females did not differ significantly in
terms of computer skills scores (see Table 2) but non-freshmen (M = 60.61,
SD = 10.35) had significantly higher computer skills scores than freshmen
(M = 54.11, SD = 8.48) (see Table 3). Pre-service teachers’ prior exposure
to technology modeling was found positively correlated to attitude (CASA),
r = .19, p < .05; liking (CASL), r = .20, p < .05; perceived classroom value
(F6), r = .17, p < .05; and self-efficacy (ISTE), r = .30, p < .01. Pre-service
teachers’ prior use of technology was also found positively correlated to
attitude (CASA), r = .19, p < .05, and self-efficacy (ISTE), r = .22, p < .05.
However, additional correlations were found between prior exposure, prior
use, and other attitude factors or computer skills scores (see Table 4).
After course instruction, there were no significant differences in atti-
tude, self-efficacy, or computers skills scores based on gender (see Table 5).

TABLE 3 Comparison of Pre-Instruction Attitude Factors, Self-Efficacy, and Computer Skills

Test Scores Between Freshman and Non-Freshman Pre-Service Teachers

Freshmen Non-Freshmen
Variable M SD M SD t Sig.

TAC
CASA 3.92 .74 3.94 .68 −.16 .87
CASC 3.75 .74 3.79 .70 −.30 .77
CASL 3.35 .86 3.48 .79 −.77 .44
CASU 4.11 .39 4.14 .42 −.34 .73
Factor 6 3.77 .57 3.99 .57 −1.96 .05
ISTE 3.64 .67 3.69 .64 −.39 .70
CompSkill 54.11 8.48 60.61 10.35 −3.42 .001∗∗
∗∗ p < .01.
 21st Century Paradigms 65

TABLE 4 Correlation Between Prior Exposure, Prior Use and Pre-Instruction Attitude Factors,
Self-Efficacy, and Computer Skills Test Scores

CASA CASC CASL CASU F6 ISTE CompSkill

Prior exposure .19∗ .16 .20∗ .09 .17∗ .30∗∗ −.02

Prior use .19∗ .09 .06 −.02 .05 .22∗ .08
∗p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01.
TABLE 5 Comparison of Post-Instruction Attitude Factors, Self-Efficacy, and Computer Skills
Test Scores Between Male and Female Pre-Service Teachers

Male Female
Variable M SD M SD t Sig.

TAC
CASA 4.04 .69 4.08 .83 −.26 .79
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CASC 3.87 .76 3.84 .73 .20 .84

CASL 3.48 .80 3.35 .91 .73 .47
CASU 4.03 .51 4.09 .50 −.63 .53
Factor 6 4.00 .73 4.09 .71 −.81 .42
ISTE 4.19 .72 4.35 .67 −1.14 .26
CompSkill 64.74 13.36 60.88 11.71 1.54 .13

TABLE 6 Comparison of Post-Instruction Attitude Factors, Self-Efficacy, and Computer Skills

Test Scores Between Freshmen and Non-Freshmen Pre-Service Teachers

Freshmen Non-freshmen
Variable M SD M SD t Sig.

TAC
CASA 4.03 .77 4.08 .75 −.33 .74
CASC 3.85 .78 3.87 ..71 −.14 .89
CASL 3.35 .88 3.47 .84 −.68 .50
CASU 4.01 .51 4.11 .50 −.78 .33
Factor 6 3.86 .81 4.20 .58 −2.40 .02∗
ISTE 4.16 .78 4.37 .60 −1.49 .14
CompSkill 60.85 12.96 64.62 12.20 −1.50 .14
∗p < .05.
TABLE 7 Comparison of Attitude Factors, Self-Efficacy, and Computer Skills Test Scores Be-
tween Pre-Instruction and Post-Instruction

Pre-instruction Post-instruction
Variable M SD M SD t Sig.

TAC
CASA 3.93 .71 4.06 .76 −2.19 .03∗
CASC 3.77 .72 3.86 .74 −1.50 .14
CASL 3.41 .82 3.41 .86 .02 .99
CASU 4.13 .40 4.06 .51 1.33 .19
Factor 6 3.88 .58 4.04 .72 −2.58 .01∗
ISTE 3.67 .65 4.26 .67 −7.86 <.001∗∗
CompSkill 57.49 9.99 62.81 12.65 −4.89 <.001∗∗
∗p < .05, ∗∗ p < .001.
 66 J. Lambert and Y. Gong

Freshmen and non-freshmen did not differ significantly in terms of self-

efficacy, computer skills scores, or attitude except on factor F6 (i.e., belief
in the value of using technology in the classroom), for which non-freshmen
(M = 4.20, SD = .58) were significantly higher than freshmen (M = 3.86,
SD = .81) (see Table 6). Pre-service teachers showed significant changes
in four areas after instruction. They had lower levels of anxiety (M = 3.93,
SD = .71 vs. M = 4.06, SD = .761 ), stronger beliefs in the value of using
technology in the classroom (M = 3.88, SD = .58 vs. M = 4.04, SD = .72),
improved self-efficacy (M = 3.67, SD = .65 vs. M = 4.26, SD = .67), and
higher computer skills test scores (M = 57.49, SD = 9.99 vs. M = 62.81,
SD = 12.65) (see Table 7).
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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the results of implementing ma-
jor changes in 11 sections of a stand-alone educational technology course
focused on 21st century classroom applications of technology. Because atti-
tudes and computer ability could be significantly affected by a more rigorous
course, researchers examined the change in pre-service teachers’ attitudes
toward using technology, beliefs in the value of using technology in the
classroom, perceived ability to integrate technology, and computer ability.
The most significant results were that, even with course changes, pre-
service teachers became less anxious about computers, their belief in the
value of using technology to enhance teaching and learning as well as their
self-efficacy toward integrating technology in the classroom significantly im-
proved, and they became more advanced in their technical skills and knowl-
edge of how to apply these skills in the classroom. No significant differences
were found after instruction in terms of gender and year of college indicat-
ing that the pedagogical approach of a 21st century classroom has an equal
effect on pre-service teachers. Findings indicated that pre-service teachers,
even those in the early stages of their professional preparation, are capa-
ble of learning a more advanced curriculum that simultaneously includes
technical skill training and conceptual development related to pedagogy,
content, and 21st century skills. Since teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy
are predictors of teachers’ use (Anderson & Maninger, 2007; Kumar et al.,
2008), there are important implications of this research. It could be argued
that pre-service teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy changed as a result of
the 21st century focus in the course. This focus, especially when combined
with classroom-specific assignments, was explicitly communicated as a way
to develop pre-service teachers’ understanding in two areas: (a) technol-
ogy, when used in appropriate ways inherently promotes higher levels of

1
Higher CASA scores indicate lower levels of anxiety.
 21st Century Paradigms 67

thinking and (b) technology provides the vehicle necessary for practicing
21st century skills. While this assumption cannot be stated with certainty,
it is reasonable considering that in cases where technology, pedagogy, and
content have been interrelated in teacher technology training, it has been
shown to affect the attitudes and self-efficacy of in-service teachers in regard
to technology use (Hoban, 2007; Kersaint, 2007; Lambert & Sanchez, 2007;
Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Robin, 2008; Shafer, 2008). This assumption also
supports the premises of adoption theory—that resistant teachers need to
see practical and authentic applications of technology in their subject areas
to be persuaded that technology has value in the classroom (Geoghegan,
1994; Rogers, 1995).
While it is imperative that we integrally connect technology to pedagogy
and content through subject-specific applications, we must make explicit in
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our training the 21st century reasons for using technology for teaching and
learning. Teachers teach because they believe they can make a difference
in a child’s life. They use instructional strategies they believe will produce
the desired learning outcomes. They inherently want to see learning happen
when they teach. It is suggested that technology training go one step further
and explicitly help teachers develop a personal philosophy that persuades
them that technology can make teaching and learning more effective and
provide the conduit to allow students to practice 21st century skills. Pre-
service teachers may be more influenced if they could develop this essential
philosophy of using technology early in their preparation. Even if teachers
have classroom-ready technology activities and better attitudes, they still
need valid reasons to use technology and it cannot be assumed they will
develop these without assistance.
Another important finding of this study was that the gender of pre-
service teachers did not play an important role in their computer attitude,
which again confirms the narrowing of a gender gap in regard to general
computer use. Of equal importance, exposure to K–16 instructor modeling
of technology integration and prior educational uses of technology by pre-
service teachers correlated to lower levels of computer anxiety and perceived
abilities to integrate technology. Prior exposure to instructor modeling also
related to pre-service teachers’ propensity to like technology and improve
their beliefs in the value of using technology for teaching and learning
purposes (i.e., Factor 6). All these results confirm that pre-service teachers
need to see models of technology integration throughout their schooling
from the earliest grades to college. The additive results have the potential to
produce more technology-using teachers.
Based on the results of this study, there exists a critical need for suit-
able curriculum materials to train pre-service and in-service teachers in 21st
century concepts related to pedagogy, content, and technology. Addition-
ally, further investigation is needed on how to infuse technology with a 21st
century paradigm throughout teacher preparation courses and longitudinal
 68 J. Lambert and Y. Gong

study is necessary to follow up on the actual long-term use of technol-

ogy by pre-service teachers after a course such as the one in this study.
Instructional approaches, philosophies, and prior classroom experience of
instructors are all variables that affect teaching practice and subsequent
student learning. Therefore, it cannot be stated with any certainty exactly
which factors had the most influence in producing the results in this study
without more research. Furthermore, with a faculty-created course design
and syllabus, caution is encouraged when generalizing to other settings.
Present findings are promising and while longitudinal study is still needed to
know how much of the learning and intended use transfer to other courses
and future classrooms, the current study may offer other colleges of edu-
cation some incentive and suggestions in transitioning their technological
training for pre-service teachers into the 21st century.
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LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Given the exploratory nature of the design of this study, correction of al-
pha level for independent sample t tests was not used during analyses. The
dependent variables for analyses were different constructs from published
surveys with established validity and reliability, which allowed for the as-
sumption that these variables were independent from one another, at least
to some extent. Furthermore, the goal of this study was to explore various
factors that might contribute to pre-service teachers’ use of technology in
their classroom teaching. The results of the study will be used informatively
for technology course design in teacher education program. However, to
fully unveil the relationship among those variables, an experimental design
or a multivariate analysis is necessary.

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