Solidification Processes

• Starting material is heated

sufficiently to transform it into a
liquid or highly plastic state
ƒ Examples: metal casting, plastic
molding
•
 Ancient Cast Structures

1000 years
4000 -5000 Years 4000 -5000 Years
 Fundamental Factors

Solidification of the materials from the molten/liquid

state

Fluid flow of the material into the mold cavity

Heat transfer during solidification and cooling of the

materials in the mold

Influence of the type of mold materials

Solidification

Liquid
Liquid

Solid
 snow-flakes-ice crystals

Dendrite grains in metal systems

science.nasa.gov (IACS), EPFL

Various Stages during Solidification of a Crystalline Material

(a)Small crystallite nuclei; 
(b)(b) growth of crystallites; 

(c) solidification complete;  
(d) grain structure as 
it appears under a microscope

grain boundary
 Solidification
• Nucleation
• Growth

Nucleation
• Formation of tiny stable solid particles from
liquid (50-60 atoms of ~ 1-2 nm dia.)
• “Undercooling” provides energy for creation
of new S/L interface
• Larger the extent of undercooling, greater
will be the number of nuclei formed
 Types of nucleation
• Two types of nucleation
– Heterogeneous
• Nuclei form on a solid surface (wall of the mold,
particulates in the liquid)
– Homogeneous
• Nuclei form on their own
– Heterogeneous nucleation easier to occur
• See where ice formation starts in the ice tray
 Types of nucleation

Homogenous
Homogeneous Heterogenous
Heterogeneous
Cooling curves
Pure Material
Pouring 
Temperature
a
(T)

L
T
b Freezing 
S Point
c

(t)
t

ab: Superheat;  bc: Undercooling
Cooling Rate: Slope of T vs. t
 Cooling curve Alloys
T(°C) A
1600 •
1500 L (liquid) T
B
1400 • (TL)
s C
u du
i α (TS)
q
L +lidus
1300 li
so
1200 α
1100 (FCC solid
solution) t
1000
0 20 40 60 80 100

A = Pouring Temperature; B = Liquidus  temperature (TL)
C = Solidus Temperature (TS)
BC = Both solid and liquid are present (Mushy zone)
 Example: Cooling in a Cu-Ni Alloy
T(°C) L (liquid) L: 35wt%Ni

1300
A + α
L: 35wt%Ni L
α: 46wt%Ni B
35 46
32 C 43

24 D L: 32wt%Ni
36

1200 + α α: 43wt%Ni
L E
L: 24wt%Ni
α: 36wt%Ni
α
(solid)

1100
20 30 35 40 50
• Consider Co wt% Ni
Co = 35wt%Ni.
Cooling curve

Alloys
 Cooling curves

Typical cooling curves for crystalline and amorphous solids.

In (ii) there was insufficient molten metal to provide latent heat
which would otherwise have caused a return to equilibrium as in
(ii)
 Growth
• Nuclei grow and then aggregate
• Occurs as heat of fusion is extracted from
liquid
• Direction and rate of growth can be
controlled by the manner of heat removal
– Directional solidification
• Movement of S/L interface opposite to the direction
of heat flow.
• Modify heat flow direction
 Alloy Solidification
Metal Solidification

In alloys with large (TL – TS), mushy zone forms 
throughout casting
Grain structure during solidification
Grain Structure in a Casting
 Cast Structure

Chilled Columnar Equiaxed

Zone Zone Zone
Grain Structure in a Casting
Grain Structure in a Casting
 Cast Structure in Aluminum
‐ Effect of mould materials (cooling rate)

1 cm

• Cast in Sand Mould • Cast in water‐cooledCu mould
 Metal Casting Processes

-Expendable mold Permanent mold

Green Sand Molding
Green Sand Molding
 Green Sand Molding

Engine Block Compressor Parts

 Shell Molding
Step I: Step II: Step III:

Step IV: Step V: Step VI:

Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Slip‐Casting

(i) Slip is first poured into an absorbent mould
(ii) a layer of clay forms as the mould surface absorbs water
(iii) when the shell is of suitable thickness excess slip is poured away
(iv) the resultant casting