Handbook On Investment Casting Gold Jewellery PDF

WORLD GOLD COUNCIL
HANDBOOK ON
INVESTMENT CASTING
THE LOST WAX CASTING PROCESS FOR

CARAT GOLD JEWELLERY MANUFACTURE
WORLD GOLD COUNCIL
HANDBOOK ON
INVESTMENT CASTING
THE LOST WAX CASTING PROCESS FOR

CARAT GOLD JEWELLERY MANUFACTURE
By Valerio Faccenda
Consultant to World Gold Council
with Chapter 3 written by Dieter Ott
Formerly at FEM, Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany
Copyright © 2003 by World Gold Council, London
Publication Date: May 2003
Published by World Gold Council, International Technology,

45 Pall Mall, London SW1Y 5JG, United Kingdom
Telephone: +44 20 7930 5171. Fax: +44 20 7839 6561
E-mail: industry@gold.org
www.gold.org
Produced by Dr Valerio Faccenda, Aosta, Italy

Editor: Dr Christopher W. Corti
Translated by Professor Giovanni Baralis, Turin, Italy
Originated and printed by Trait Design Limited
Note: Whilst every care has been taken in the preparation of this publication, World Gold Council cannot be responsible
for the accuracy of any statement or representation made or the consequences arising from the use of information
contained in it. The Handbook is intended solely as a general resource for practising professionals in the field and
specialist advice should be obtained wherever necessary.
It is always important to use appropriate and approved health and safety procedures.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission in
writing of the copyright holder.
CONTENTS
Preface 6
Glossary 7
3 Alloys for Investment Casting 59
3.1 Yellow and red gold alloys 59
3.1.1. Metallurgy and its effects on physical
1 Introduction 13 properties
3.1.2 High carat golds with enhanced
55
1.1 Development of the modern process 13
1.2 The modern process and product quality 14 properties 64
1.3 Choice of equipment and consumables 15 3.2 White gold alloys 64
1.4 Health and safety 16 3.3 Influence of small alloying additions 67
3.3.1 Improving properties 67
2 The process of investment casting 19
3.3.2 Effect of individual additions 68
2.1 Design 20
2.2 Making the master model 21 4 Equipment 75
2.2.1 Alloy of manufacture 21 4.1 Vulcanisers 76
2.2.2 Feed sprue 21 4.2 Wax injectors 77
2.3 Making the rubber mould 23 4.3 Investing machines 78
2.3.1 Types of mould rubber 24 4.4 Dewaxers 79
2.3.2 Making the mould 25 4.5 Burnout ovens 79
2.3.3 Cutting the mould 26 4.6 Melting/casting machines 81
2.3.4 Storing and using the mould 28 4.6.1 Comparison between centrifugal
2.3.5 Common problems 29 and static machines 81
2.4 Production of the wax patterns 29 4.6.2 Centrifugal machines 82
2.4.1 Types of waxes 29 4.6.3 Static machines 83
2.4.2 Wax injection 30
2.4.3 Common problems
2.5 Assembling the tree
33
33
5 Sources of equipment and
consumables 89
2.5.1 Bases and sprues 33
2.5.2 Tree design 35
2.6 Investing the mould 36 6 Further reading 97
2.6.1 Flasks 36
2.6.2 Investment powders
2.6.3 Safety and storage of investment
36 7 Acknowledgements 102
37
powders
2.6.4 Checking the condition of the 8 World Gold Council technical
investment: the ‘gloss-off’ test 38 publications 103
2.6.5 Mixing the investment 39
2.7 Dewaxing the flask 41
2.8 Burnout 42
2.8.1 The burnout cycle 42
2.8.2 Behaviour of calcium sulphate-bonded
investment during burnout 44
2.9 Melting 45
2.10 Casting 46
2.10.1 Test for system temperature 48
2.10.2 Inspection criteria 49
2.10.3 Test for best feed sprue design 50
2.10.4 Casting with stones in place 51
2.11 Cooling and recovery of cast items 52
2.12 Summary of the basic guidelines for each
step of the process 53
2.13 Schematic list of possible defects 56
PREFACE
Investment (or Lost Wax) Casting is one of the earliest processes developed by man,
dating back 6,000 years or more. Today, it is the most widely used process in
jewellery manufacture but probably the least understood by practitioners of the art.
It comprises a series of process steps, each of which must be performed properly, if
good castings are to result. It never ceases to surprise me just how many casters do
not realize what quality of casting it is possible to achieve consistently, if each process
step is done carefully in a controlled manner.
There are comparatively few good manuals on investment casting. Many date
back some years and focus on centrifugal casting. Our first WGC technical manual,
the Investment Casting Manual, was published in 1995 and has proved popular. Since
then, there have been substantial developments in the technology and our
understanding of the process. Thus, we considered it timely to update it, particularly
as stocks of the original are running out. This Handbook is the result.
It has given me great pleasure to work with Valerio Faccenda and Dieter Ott
(Chapter 3) in the production of this Handbook. Both Valerio and Dieter are well
known to many of you as experts in jewellery technology, especially in investment
casting, with each contributing several articles to Gold Technology magazine over
the years and presenting at several WGC International Technology Symposia at
Vicenza, Italy. Valerio, as a technical consultant to World Gold Council, has also
presented at many WGC technical seminars in countries around the world. He is, of
course, author of the Finishing Handbook. Dieter has made major contributions to
our understanding of the Investment Casting process and to the metallurgy of the
carat gold alloys and is author of the Handbook on Casting and Other Defects which
complements this Handbook. Both have presented at the prestigious Santa Fe
Symposia, Dieter on many occasions. I know that this Handbook will become a classic
in the jewellery field and meets a demand for a good comprehensive and
authoritative book on the subject. I know you will find it useful and enjoyable. I must
also mention Giovanni Baralis who translated this Handbook from Italian into English.
Whilst known to relatively few of you, Giovanni has been responsible for translating
Gold Technology into Italian over many years. He certainly makes my job easier.
This Handbook is the seventh in the range of technical publications published by
World Gold Council. These are designed to assist the manufacturing jeweller and
goldsmith to use the optimum technology and best practice in the production of
jewellery, thereby improving quality of the product, reducing defects and process
time which, in turn, results in lower costs of manufacture. We believe that it is
important for the practising jeweller to understand the technology underpinning his
or her materials and processes if he or she is to achieve consistent good quality. That
is one aim of these Manuals and Handbooks – not only to provide good basic
guidelines and procedures but to explain, in simple terms, why they are important
and how they impact quality. Armed with such knowledge, a jeweller should be
better able to solve problems that will inevitably arise from time to time.
Christopher W. Corti, London, April 2003
6 Handbook on Investment Casting

GLOSSARY
Note: Certain technical terms exist in two spellings (e.g. carat or karat, mould or mold), reflecting
English and American common usage. In this Handbook, the English versions have been used,
although both are given in this Glossary.
Accelerator: Compound which speeds up setting of investment, mainly to increase the productivity.
In general it is based on crystalline substances such as sodium chloride, sodium citrate, Rochelle salt.
Alloy: A combination of two or more metals, usually prepared by melting them together. They are
designed to have certain desired properties, e.g. strength, hardness, ductility, colour, etc.
Annealing: Restoration of softness and ductility to metals and alloys after cold working by heating
to a temperature that promotes recrystallisation.
Assay: The testing of items to determine their precious metal content, e.g. by fire assay or other
analytical technique.
Base metal: The non precious metals in a jewellery alloy. For instance in a gold-silver-copper-zinc
alloy, copper and zinc are the base metals.
Binder: A substance used to hold together the investment powder, e.g. for casting jewellery, this can
be the Plaster of Paris (q.v.) or acid phosphate.
Burnout: The firing of the invested flask at temperature in an oven after dewaxing (q.v.), to condition
the mould for casting and to completely eliminate any residual wax or other model materials.
CAD/Computer Assisted Design: A sophisticated software system for bi-dimensional or three-
dimensional designing.
CAM/Computer Assisted Machining: A software system for automated machining of a
component, driven by computer software, typically from a CAD system.
Carat/Karat: A unit for designating the fineness of gold alloys, based on an arbitrary division into
twenty-four carats. Pure gold is 24 carat or 100% pure. A 75% gold alloy is 18 carat and so on. (The
carat is also a unit of weight for gemstones, equal to 0.2 grams).
Carat/Karat gold: A gold alloy which conforms to national or international standards of fineness and
can be legally marked or hallmarked.
Castability: The ability of a molten alloy to be poured into a mould, retaining sufficient fluidity to fill
the mould completely and to take up an accurate impression of the details of the mould cavity.
Casting: This word can have two different meanings: 1) the process of pouring a molten metal in a
mould; 2) the metallic object taken out from the mould, after solidification of the cast metal.
Casting grain: Metals or, more usually, alloys prepared for melting and subsequent casting by
dividing the charge material into small particles (like gravel) by pouring a melt into water to form shot
or grains.
Casting temperature: Temperature at which power is switched off and the molten alloy is poured
into the mould.
Centrifugal casting: A method for casting metals in which the molten metal is driven by centrifugal
and tangential forces from the crucible into a heated mould whilst both are rapidly rotated.
Chilling factor: Cooling capacity of a mould calculated from volume specific heat of the mould
material and the mould/melt temperature difference. Value for gypsum binder - low; for silica -
medium; for cold copper - very high.
Cold work/working: Deformation of a piece of metal or alloy to effect a change in shape at
temperatures sufficiently below the annealing temperature to cause work (strain)-hardening, usually
with a loss in residual ductility. The amount of cold work imparted is often measured in terms of
reduction in cross-sectional area (e.g. wire drawing) or in thickness (e.g. rolling of strip).
Cristobalite: The highest temperature phase of silica, stable and with high strength retention from
1470°C (2678°F) to the melting point, 1700°C (3092°F).
De-airing: Removal of air bubbles from an investment slurry, to avoid bubble defects on the final
casting. Assisted by vibration and/or vacuum.
Devesting: Separation of the cast tree from the refractory mould. This can be done by quenching
the flask in water or by hammering or with high pressure water jets, depending on the refractory type.
Dewaxing: The removal of the largest part of the wax from the invested mould. It can be done dry,
in an oven, or wet, with steam.
Handbook on Investment Casting 7

Dross: The scum that forms on the surface of molten metals, due largely to oxidation, but sometimes
also to the rising of impurities and inclusions to the surface.
Feeding: The necessary process of introducing molten metal through suitable channels (the sprues)
and into the cavities of the mould to fill them and to compensate for contraction (shrinkage) as
castings solidify. Can be gravity assisted, or otherwise pressurised.
Feed sprue: A system of wax rods connecting the central sprue to the pattern to be cast. It forms
the channel for the melt to fill the mould cavity. It should be kept as short as possible and must not
freeze prematurely. Its junction with the pattern is called the “gate”.
Fineness: Precious metal content expressed in parts per thousands (‰). 18 carat is 750 fineness.
Flask: The outer metal container of an investment casting mould, used from the investment process
through to extraction of the cast tree. It is available in standard sizes and reusable. It may be a solid
cylinder or a cylinder perforated with holes to allow escape of air from the mould under vacuum.
Fluidity: Complex property describing the ability of a molten alloy to run into a mould and take up
an accurate impression of the mould cavity. It generally increases with superheat, freedom from
oxidation and some alloying additions (such as zinc & silicon).
Flux: Inorganic mixture applied to melt surface to protect the melt from oxidation. It should melt at
a temperature lower than melting temperature of the alloy.
Form filling: The ability of a molten metal to fill the mould cavity completely.
Fuel gas to oxygen ratio: The volumetric flow ratio matching the molecular ratio for complete
combustion. With a hydrogen/oxygen flame a ratio of 2 gives a neutral flame with a sharp inner cone.
A lower ratio gives an oxidising flame; a higher, a reducing flame.
Furnace: See Oven
Gate: The part of the feed system that controls the flow of metal from the feed sprue to the pattern.
When it freezes, it is closed and no more metal can pass that point into the pattern.
Gloss time /Gloss-off time: The time between the addition of the investment powder to the water
and the moment where the slurry surface loses its “gloss”. It denotes the start of setting of the
investment.
Gloss-off test: A test for determining the gloss-off time of a batch of investment powder. Useful in
defining or eliminating possible causes of casting problems and defects.
Grain: See “casting grain”. It can also refer to the tiny crystals - or “grains” - forming the bulk or
microstructure of a metal or alloy.
Graining: The process of preparing casting grain, normally by pouring the molten alloy into water.
Grain control/ grain size control: The metallurgical procedure to keep the grain (crystal) size of an
alloy under control, by addition of particular metals or compounds (grain refiners, q.v.).
Grain refiner: An addition of suitable metals or compounds to control the grain size of an alloy
during solidification or annealing (recrystallisation).
Grain size: Dimension of the crystalline grain of metals and alloys. In jewellery alloys, a fine grain size
is usually preferred.
Gypsum: Calcium sulphate, used as a binder in investment.
Gypsum-bonded (investment): The traditional refractory investment based on silica powder
bonded with Plaster of Paris (selected hemihydrated calcium sulphate) mainly used by jewellery
industry for investment casting of gold alloys.
Hallmarking: The stamping of precious metal articles by an independent assay office to show the
fineness of that article. Term derives from the U.K. for marks applied by Goldsmiths Hall -’marked by
the Hall’. Term is often used loosely to describe a mark applied by a manufacturer to show fineness in
non-hallmarking countries.
Heat treatment: A treatment given to metals and alloys, involving a combination of temperature,
time, heating and cooling, to effect a change in microstructure and other properties.
Hot shortness: Brittleness at high temperature, often intergranular, caused by either low melting
point segregates or other non-ductile grain boundary constituents.
Hygroscopic: A material possessing a marked ability to absorb water vapour from the atmosphere.
Some compounds can react with atmospheric water vapour to form new compounds (e.g. calcium
sulphate hemihydrate forms calcium sulphate dihydrate). Gypsum-bonded investment is hygroscopic
and should not be left exposed to the atmosphere.

Inclusion: Non-metallic particle that is found in a metallic body. It can be generated from fragments
of extraneous materials (e.g. refractory from furnace crucible or mould) or from the reaction of the
metal with foreign materials (e.g. atmospheric oxygen, sulphur compounds generated from
investment reaction, etc.).
Induction melting: Heating to above the melting point by generating eddy currents within a
conducting material surrounded by a water-cooled copper coil carrying an alternating current at low
(<150 Hz), medium (>500 Hz) or high (>100 kHz) frequency. Also creates a stirring effect in the melt
by induced electromagnetic forces.
Investment/Investment powder/Investment mould: The investment is a mixture of fine silica
powder and a binder, formulated to withstand the high temperatures of burnout and casting. For the
investment casting of gold jewellery, the commonest binder is gypsum, in its hemihydrated form
(Plaster of Paris). Besides these main ingredients, commercial investment contains small amounts of
other chemicals (modifiers), designed to impart to the investment the required characteristics for
optimum performance. When mixed with water to form a slurry, the binder undergoes a hydration
reaction (like cement) to set the investment into a solid mould.
Liquidus temperature: The temperature above which an alloy is completely liquid, i.e. no more
solid metal is present. Below liquidus temperature there is an increasing proportion of solid phase until
at the solidus temperature no liquid remains in equilibrium.
Lost wax: Original name for investment casting. A wax model (or pattern) forms the cavity in the
investment. Then the wax is melted out before firing of the mould. So the wax is "lost", from which
the name of the process derives.
Master alloy: A premixed metal alloy (q.v.) that is added to fine gold to produce the final carat gold
alloy. Generally contains silver and copper with other additions, e.g. zinc, nickel, palladium, deoxidisers
and grain refiners.
Master model: The master model is the reference model for the design and can be made of wax or
plastic or metal. Nickel silver or silver alloys are frequently used. Metal models can be rhodium plated
to improve wear and corrosion resistance. CAD/CAM systems can also be used to produce master
models.
Melting range: The temperature interval between the solidus and liquidus temperatures (see Solidus
temperature and Liquidus temperature).
Mould/Mold: A hollow object, containing a cavity that is the outer form of the piece(s) to be
reproduced by wax injection or by metal casting. In the case of investment casting, the mould can be
made of various materials, e.g.: metal, rubber (for wax patterns) or refractory investment (for casting).
Mould clamp: A pneumatic device for maintaining a constant clamping pressure to a rubber mould
during wax injection.
Mould/Mold Frame: A metal frame, usually rectangular (but can be circular), used to contain the
rubber layers and master model during production of the rubber mould in the vulcanising press.
Negative tolerance: Used in the context of standards of fineness. It implies a small allowance in
precious metal content below the specified minimum that is acceptable in some countries.
Oven: A furnace where a controlled and relatively uniform temperature can be held for the required
length of time. It can be heated by combustion of a suitable fuel (e.g. natural gas, propane, etc.) or
by electrical resistance elements. The temperature is controlled through suitable regulators. For
burnout, the oven should be of the muffle type with a large volume to contain several flasks. It may
be fan-assisted and/or have a rotary hearth to aid temperature uniformity.
Overheating: When the temperature of the material becomes too high. Not to be confused with
superheat (q.v.). Overheating is an unwanted and potentially detrimental occurrence. The overheated
material can begin to decompose or react with other materials into which it comes in contact.
Overheated melts can oxidise more readily.
Pasty zone: The pasty zone corresponds to the temperature range between the liquidus and the
solidus (q.v.). In this temperature range the metal is not fully liquid nor fully solid. It is in a "pasty" state.
Compensating shrinkage by feeding liquid alloy under these conditions may be difficult. Pure metals
and eutectic alloys do not show a pasty zone.
Pattern: A master (usually metal) or consumable (lost wax process) model of a component that is to
be reproduced by casting. Pattern dimensions may need to allow for net shrinkage or expansion over
the whole casting process.
Phosphate-bonded (investment): Investment with acid-phosphate and magnesia, which first gels
silica flour and then bonds it by subsequent dehydration. It is used preferably for high melting point
alloys, e.g. palladium white gold and platinum.
Pickling: The process of dissolving away surface oxides and flux by immersion in a suitable dilute acid
bath (‘pickle’). Normally used for cleaning cast trees, soldered or welded parts or scrap (before melting).

Plaster of Paris: White powder of calcium sulphate hemihydrate (2CaSO4.H2O). It is obtained by
suitable heat treatment at relatively low temperature of the mineral gypsum (calcium sulphate
dihydrate - CaSO4.2H2O). It reacts with water to form the more stable dihydrate. This reaction is used
for investment setting.
Porosity: Network of holes in castings, often at the surface, caused by entrapped or dissolved gas or
by shrinkage on solidification.
Protective atmosphere: An oxygen-free or low oxygen gas atmosphere used to protect a material
from oxidation during melting, casting, soldering, welding or heat treatment.
Quenching: Fast cooling of a hot material by rapid immersion in a suitable fluid, such as water, oil, or
even air or other fluid mixture. The quenchant is usually water for carat gold alloys.
Rapid prototyping: Modern technique for producing prototypes with automated machines driven
by CAD/CAM systems. Many quite different techniques of rapid prototyping have been developed. A
modern method for producing a master model.
Reducing flame: A torch flame with excess fuel gas in comparison with available oxygen. Often used
for shielding molten metal from oxidation.
Refractory: High melting point inorganic (ceramic) material used for furnace linings, crucibles or
moulds, usually based on graphite, oxides, nitrides or silicates. Often needs a suitable binder to hold
the refractory particles together. Preferably, it should also be resistant to thermal shock and chemical
attack.
Retarder: Many organic compounds and colloids retard the start of setting of gypsum-bonded
investment. This increases the available working time (q.v.).
Scrap: Any redundant or reject metal/alloy from a manufacturing operation, that may be suitable for
recycling as feedstock to the primary operation.
Segregation: The non-uniform distribution or localized concentration of alloying elements,
impurities or precipitates within the alloy microstructure, originating from solidification or heat
treatment.
Setting time: The length of time the investment slurry requires to set, harden or cure.
Shot: See Casting grain.
Shrinkage: Volume contraction of a molten metal during solidification, typically about 5% for carat
golds. Can give rise to porosity in investment castings.
Silica: Silicon dioxide selectively processed for producing refractory and abrasive materials. Exists in
the vitreous state or as quartz, tridymite or cristobalite phases in equilibrium at increasing
temperatures.
Silicone rubber: A heat stable, flexible material containing organic radicals and silicon. Can be used
in the place of natural rubber for making rubber moulds. Can also be used for heat resistant sealing
gaskets.
Silicosis: A serious lung disease caused by the inhalation of very fine silica (SiO2) particles. Precautions
must be taken when handling investment powders.
Soaking: Holding the material in an oven at a constant temperature for the purpose of obtaining a
uniform temperature throughout the mass.
Solidus temperature: The temperature below which an alloy is completely solid, i.e. finishes
freezing on cooling or begins to melt on heating. Above the solidus temperature there is an increasing
proportion of liquid phase until at the liquidus temperature no solid remains in equilibrium.
Spalling: The breakaway of the surface of the mould due to internal or external stresses, mechanical
and/or thermal. Can be a sign of a weak investment.
Sprue: Main, central pouring channel in the mould. It forms the stem of the tree and is connected to
the castings through the feed sprues (q.v.). It is obtained by melting the wax sprue used to build the
wax tree (q.v.).
Sprue base: A pad, often of rubber, that makes a bottom for the flask during mould making. The
cone (or hemisphere) on a sprue base makes the recess that will be the pouring basin for the molten
metal.
Superheat: Difference between the melting point / liquidus of an alloy and the casting temperature,
required to allow the molten metal to fill the mould without premature freezing. Experience shows
that it should be as low as possible to avoid overheating (q.v.).
Third hand: Mechanical device, usually fixed to the workbench, to assist in rubber mould cutting.

Tree: See Wax Tree
Vacuum: A space in which the pressure is much lower than normal atmospheric pressure. Vacuum
can be applied to remove air from the mixed investment slurry or to "suck" molten metal in the flask.
Vulcanisation/Vulcanization: A chemical reaction of sulphur (or other vulcanising agent) with
rubber to cause cross-linking of polymer chains. It increases strength and resiliency of the rubber.
Performed as a step in making rubber moulds from the master model.
Vulcaniser/Vulcanizer: A piece of equipment used to carry out the vulcanisation, i.e. to produce a
rubber mould around a metal master model. Essentially, a press with heated platens.
Water blasting: Surface treatment in which high pressure water jets are used to remove the
investment from a cast tree.
Water quality: The content of ionisable (dissolved) salts and organic matter in the water. Important
for mixing of investment slurry, it should be accurately controlled, because it affects the working time
and gloss-off time (q.v.). Deionised water is the preferred water quality.
Water temperature: The temperature of the water mixed with investment powder. It should be
accurately controlled, because it affects the working time and gloss-off time (q.v.).
Wax: Any of a group of organic substances resembling beeswax. In general they are formed by esters
of fatty acids with higher alcohols. Mixtures of different composition are used to obtain the required
properties for making patterns for lost wax casting (melting point, hardness, flexibility, etc.). Usually,
the different wax types are differentiated by colour.
Wax injector/ Wax pot: Equipment containing molten wax under pressure for injecting into rubber
moulds to replicate the desired patterns. Often has a vacuum facility for removing air from the mould
prior to injection of wax.
Wax pattern: Wax replica of a master model, usually produced by injection of molten wax in a rubber
mould. The solidified wax patterns are removed and used in the assembly of a wax tree, which is then
invested, to form an investment mould.
Wax tree: The assembly of wax patterns on a central sprue, from which the investment mould will
be made. Usually shaped like a tree, hence the name.
Wettability: The ability of a solid surface to be wetted when in contact with a liquid. Wettability is
high when the liquid spreads over the surface. It is related to surface or interfacial tension.
Working time (investment): Time available for the preparation of the invested flask. It includes:
mixing investment with water, de-airing, pouring the slurry in the flask and de-airing again. In the
whole it should be about 1 minute shorter than the gloss time (q.v.).

The oldest example of a gold investment casting:
The Onager or wild ass, cast in electrum (the natural
alloy of gold-silver), part of the rein ring from the
sledge-chariot of Queen Pu-Abi. From the royal tomb
at Ur, Mesopotamia, dating to about 2,600 B.C.
INTRODUCTION
1
1 INTRODUCTION
Investment casting is probably the first process used by man for jewellery production,
dating back over 6,000 years. This happened long before man used the same process
for manufacturing weapons or other objects. Perhaps uniquely, investment casting is
the only manufacturing process that has been used first for jewellery production and
then subsequently for other production fields, like the mechanical engineering
industry.
Investment casting is also named lost wax casting: this latter name reminds us that
we start from a wax pattern that is invested with a refractory material to form a mould.
The wax pattern is then removed by melting (the wax is ‘lost’!) leaving a negative
impression in the mould, into which the molten metal is subsequently poured.
The word “investment” in the context of investment casting has nothing to do
with financial investment. It refers to the fact that the wax patterns are “invested”, i.e. Figure 1.1.1 Greek ring, fourth century B.C.
(Schmuckmuseum, Pforzheim)
coated, with a refractory material. After setting of the refractory, the wax is melted
out and molten metal can be poured in the cavity that accurately reproduces the
shape and size of the wax pattern. The cast metal item accurately reproduces also
the fine details of the wax model.
1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN PROCESS

All past civilisations left us wonderful examples of investment cast jewellery. Such
jewellery specimens have been found in the treasures of the Pharaohs of Egypt and
in Atzec and Inca tombs of Central and South America. Also, in Europe, the ancient
Etruscans, the Greeks, Figure 1.1.1, the Romans and the Byzantines, Figure 1.1.2, left
us investment cast jewellery, and later, during the Renaissance, the great Masters
created wonderful masterpieces.
The starting point for the utilization of investment casting in industry has been the
application of the refractory investment in the form of a fluid slurry, invented near the
end of 1800. But, until the middle of the past century (I refer to the 20th century!),
investment casting has been used almost exclusively for the production of one-off Figure 1.1.2 Byzantine earring, sixth century A.D.
pieces for the very few persons who could afford it. (Schmuckmuseum, Pforzheim)
Around the middle of the past century, three major breakthroughs made
investment casting an industrial process, usable for mass production. The first
breakthrough has been connected to automatized chain making. Whilst this process
is not related to investment casting, it enabled production of large quantities of
jewellery (chain and bracelets) and favoured the access of jewellery to the field of
fashion and to an ever wider market.
The second breakthrough has been the invention of flexible rubber moulds, for the
mass production of wax patterns, by the Canadian, T.G. Jungersen. This invention was
rapidly patented in the USA, in 1944, Figures 1.1.3 and 1.1.4, and allowed goldsmiths to
reproduce intricate objects, with marked undercuts, without problems or limitations.
Finally, the third breakthrough has been the realization that the casting machines
developed for use in dentistry, with minor modifications, could be used also for the
industrial production of jewellery. These were spring-driven centrifugal casting
machines and explain why, even today, centrifugal casting machines are widely used
for jewellery production, in spite of the advent of static casting machines, particularly Figure 1.1.3 Patent for elastic rubber moulds,
registered in USA in 1944
in the last decade.

1 INTRODUCTION
After flexible rubber moulds and casting machines were made available, a simple
optimisation of the consumable materials has been sufficient to allow a profitable
industrial utilisation of investment casting.
In particular, we refer to the wax and investment powder. The wax types used for
dental applications were too brittle and cracked easily during the extraction of the
wax pattern from the rubber mould, especially when marked undercuts were present
in the pattern. In this case, a correct balance of properties had to be sought, to
develop a product that could be used without particular problems.
The investment used in dentistry was too expensive for the goldsmith, who didn’t
need the high dimensional precision required for dental applications. Therefore, less
costly, but in no way inferior quality, investment types have been developed to meet
the requirements of the goldsmith. We refer here to silica-based, calcium sulphate-
bonded investment powder.
Since investment casting developed into an industrial process, it has become ever
more widely used. Today, we can say that at least 50% of jewellery worldwide is
Figure 1.1.4 Description of the mould and of
the centrifugal wax injector, from the patent of
produced by investment casting, as a result of the remarkable technical progress
Figure 1.1.3 made, whilst the ancient, time honoured basic concepts remain unchanged, Figures
1.1.5-1.1.7. As a result, investment casting has an aura of fascination, still preserving
the artistic and craft aspects of jewellery items.
1.2 THE MODERN PROCESS AND PRODUCT QUALITY

Investment casting is very versatile: both simple and intricate shapes can be
produced in small or large numbers. It is not costly: often, when we take into account
the cost of a good die, pieces that could be cold forged are more economically
produced by casting. However, investment casting is not a simple process. There are
Figure 1.1.5 Modern investment cast
many metallurgical principles we must consider and comply with in the many steps
jewellery object: hinged pendant with clasp
(Pomellato Spa, Italy) of the process, if we are to obtain a good quality product. These steps are made
more complicated by the small size of the castings, which makes process control
somewhat difficult. Quite often, the goldsmith focuses his attention on the melting
and casting stages; these are only the final steps of a multi-stage process but, very
commonly, a defective or unsatisfactory product will be obtained, if all process steps
preceding the final ones have not been carried out correctly.
Some years ago, World Gold Council, with the Santa Fe Symposium, supported
research by the German Institute of Precious Metals into the defects occurring in the
Figure 1.1.6 Hinged bracelet: the single links production of jewellery pieces. This study showed that about 80% of defective
have been investment cast jewellery pieces had been produced by investment casting and that more than 50%
(Pomellato Spa, Italy)
of the defects were due to porosity, a defect typical of the investment casting process.
The most important results of this research were collected together as case
studies in the Handbook on Casting and Other Defects, published by World Gold
Council, where the most common defect types are described, along with an
exhaustive explanation of their origin and useful recommendations for their
prevention. This Handbook is a very useful and essential complement to the present
Handbook, which is focused on the process.
Investment casting is a very ancient process; nevertheless, in its modern form it is
not an easy process to control. We mentioned that the small size of the castings we
want to produce is a problem. In Figure 1.2.1 we see the progress of solidification in
Figure 1.1.7 Investment cast pendants for
young people. Their weight ranges from a ring with a large head. From the first to the last picture, only about 10 seconds have
1 to 3 g (Pomellato Spa, Italy) elapsed. Solidification is completed in less than 1 minute. This experiment to observe

INTRODUCTION
1
the progress of solidification was conceptually very simple: molten metal has been
poured in the mould, and the liquid metal remaining after a pre-established time has
been removed by centrifuging. The shortest time has been about 1 second after
pouring. After centrifuging, the mould was opened and the amount of solidified
metal was evaluated.
These pictures show that the solidification process is very fast and, consequently,
its control is nearly impossible. Therefore, it is clear that the last steps of the overall
casting process should be carried out under the best possible conditions, in addition
to the correct execution of all preceding steps. Figure 1.2.1 Development of solidification in
We would be foolish to believe that a completely automatised latest generation a gold alloy ring: a - about 1 second after
mould filling
melting/casting machine, centrifugal or static, with vacuum and pressure assist, can
compensate for carelessness in the preceding steps of the process. The machine will
help to achieve a consistent quality of the product, but it will never be able to attain
a good quality level, if errors have been made in the preceding steps of the process
or simple metallurgical principles have been ignored.
1.3 CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLES

The modern goldsmith can choose from a wide range of equipment, from the
vulcanisers, wax injectors, investment mixers and burnout furnaces, to
melting/casting machines, which represent the largest capital investment.
b - after 3 seconds
With regard to melting/casting machines, two types of equipment are
commercially available that differ in the origin of the force that pushes the melt in
the mould: centrifugal machines and static machines. There are no special reasons to
prefer one type of machine to the other: both types can produce a high quality
product. The main differences between centrifugal machines and static machines will
be briefly summarized in Chapter 4, devoted to the equipment, but the final choice
should be made by the goldsmith, based on his needs.
This choice will depend on the amount of money he is willing to invest, on the
type and quantity of product to be produced and, particularly importantly, on the
level of technical after-sales service guaranteed by the supplier.
A fundamental consideration: a decision taken to purchase new equipment c - after 7 seconds
because the current product shows too many defects can be a big mistake! Before
considering new equipment, it is absolutely necessary to make a thorough scrutiny of
the present production process. When (and only when) we are sure of obtaining the
best performance from the existing equipment, can we think to make an investment
in new equipment. At this time, when the market offers more and more automatised
equipment, there is the danger of committing the full responsibility for product
quality to the equipment. The results of such an attitude can be disastrous!
Therefore, the most important rule for achieving good results is always to engage
your brain and to scrutinize your current process constantly and accurately.
Investment casting should never be considered as a routine process. No detail of d - after 10 seconds
the process should be neglected, even if, at first sight, it could appear unimportant.
In the course of the production process, the goldsmith uses not only equipment,
but also various consumable materials: the rubber for making the moulds, the wax
for the wax patterns, the investment for filling the flask and, lastly, the alloys.
All these materials are the outcome of careful study: they should be selected
and used correctly, carefully following the recommendations of the producer on
their use.

1 INTRODUCTION
If the results are unsatisfactory, extemporaneous inventions should be avoided.

Please refrain from trying to transform your production workshop in a research
laboratory! There is the risk of a further worsening of the problem and of increasing
mental confusion! Time can be saved and results improved if we involve the
producers of the various materials directly in the problem: generally, the producer is
the first to be concerned about the results obtained by use of his product. Usually,
he will be able to detect possible errors and recommend suitable corrective action,
enabling you to save time and money.
1.4 HEALTH AND SAFETY

We have discussed the complex nature of the investment casting process and the
need to ensure the correct procedures are followed at each stage. There are health
and safety issues that need to be addressed. It is vital that the interests of the
workforce are protected if good quality and productivity are to be ensured. Some of
the materials may be hazardous or toxic. Of particular note is that related to handling
of investment powder and its removal after casting. This material causes silicosis!
Engineered control of investment dust or the use of a respirator, approved for silica
dust protection, is essential. Respirators must be properly fitted to each worker, who
should be trained in its care and use. Other hazards include hot metal handling,
electrical and chemical, etc. Suitable precautions must be taken, including provision
of protective clothing and implementation of rigorous safety procedures. These
issues will be discussed later in more detail.

INTRODUCTION
1

1 INTRODUCTION

THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING
2
2. THE PROCESS OF
INVESTMENT CASTING
Investment casting is a typical example of a multistage process. We can list at least
13 separate steps from the initial design to the finishing of the jewellery:
1 – Design
2 – Making the master model
3 – Making the rubber mould
4 – Production of the wax patterns
5 – Assembling the tree
6 – Investing the mould
7 – Dewaxing the flask
8 – Burnout
9 – Melting
10 – Casting
11 – Cooling
12 – Cutting the cast pieces off the tree
13 – Assembly and finishing of the jewellery.
With the exception of the last two steps, all other steps directly or indirectly involve
metallurgical concepts that should be respected, if a good quality product is to
result.
The process does not tolerate errors: any careless operation, any apparently
innocuous shortcut is a potential source of defects in the finished product. Later, if a
defect is observed in the casting, very seldom is the root cause readily found and the
proper corrective action identified, because of the complexity of the process.
Temperature is an important process parameter in many of the process steps;
often the goldsmith tries to improve a situation by changing the temperature, for
example of the metal and/or the flask. Usually, a simple temperature change does
not solve the problem, but it certainly changes the operating conditions and makes
defect diagnosis more difficult.
When we have to deal with a defect in our castings, we should first consult the
Handbook on Casting and Other Defects to help determine the type and possible
causes. The number of defect types is not infinite and many of them, particularly the
most common ones, are described in the Handbook. In this way, it is usually possible
to identify the defect type and its possible causes correctly. The second step is to
scrutinize the process parameters to narrow the possibilities by elimination. Finally,
we can try to identify the root cause of the problem. Only at this point can we decide
the proper corrective action.
Because of process complexity, a defect does not usually originate from a single,
simple cause, but from a group of causes that are not necessarily located in a single
process step, but over several process steps. Therefore, systematic process data
recording is very useful and we never should take anything for granted. The human
factor is fundamental for achieving good results. I believe it to be not far from the
truth by saying that the contribution of the goldsmith to the achievement of good
quality is not less than 80%. The remaining 20% is represented by the equipment,
which should be well maintained and reliable.

2 THE PROCESS OF INVESTMENT C ASTING
In this chapter we will discuss each step of the process, with particular attention
to the rules or guidelines to follow and to the most common problems that can arise.
Later, in separate chapters, we will describe the characteristics of the most commonly
used casting alloys and of the different equipment types. We will also give some basic
guidelines for making a correct choice.
2.1 DESIGN
Design represents the moment of creation, the birth of the idea for a new jewellery
Figure 2.1.1 a Design of a ring in 3 parts by product. Although we can cast very complex shapes, thanks to modern technology, the
means of CAD technique. (Courtesy of designer should always have a good knowledge of the casting process, so that he/she can
Pomellato Spa.)
design pieces that are easily cast. In the design phase, it is also important that the designer
be in regular contact with the caster on the shopfloor who will produce the casting.
Today, the design operation can be facilitated by the use of Computer Aided Design
(CAD) systems, which enable a dimensioned drawing to be obtained, used for making the
master model, Figure 2.1.1 (a – e). Such CAD software is not easy to use by inexperienced
persons. Specialised knowledge is required. Small workshops can seldom afford such
facilities, but it is possible to access CAD service through a reliable CAD service centre.
Considerable advantages can be obtained with the use of CAD systems, e.g. the ready
availability of a dimensioned drawing is a great help to the work of the model maker.
Moreover, if we use a CAD system, we can also use a Computer Aided Manufacturing
b
(CAM) system and/or one of the many available Rapid Prototyping (RP) methods, Figures
2.1.2 – 2.1.4, for making a first master model, typically in wax or plastic or even metal.
With regard to the creative design phase, we should remember that many
production problems originate from lack of communication between the designer
and the caster. This insular approach is no longer acceptable in a modern jewellery
company. A good ‘rule’ says that the relevant production staff should be involved
when a new jewellery design is discussed, to scrutinise for potential problems that
could arise in the production process. This should be done before the new jewellery
design is launched on the market. Good quality starts right from the very beginning!
c At the Santa Fe Symposium of 1995, in a discussion on the way to shorten the time
between the idea and the realization of the product, J. Orrico, Director of Jewellery
Manufacturing at Tiffany & Co., said: “Sure a CAD machine will be great. But realize,
even though it is an extremely powerful tool, it can only facilitate the process. A
round table can do the same thing. If you can justify a CAD machine, great. If not,
everyone has a table. The process needs to cut across organisational boundaries to
be truly effective. Get started today!” This very simple, easily implemented
recommendation should be always present in our mind if we want to achieve a high
quality level: it is fundamental to establish a symbiotic relationship among the
d different departments in the company.

2
2.2 MAKING THE MASTER MODEL

The quality of the master model is of fundamental importance for the achievement
of good quality product: it should be perfect, with a perfect finish. It should not show
the slightest defect, because any surface defect will be replicated in the rubber
mould and, in turn, on the wax pattern, on the refractory mould and finally on the
castings. In most instances, a defect can be removed in the jewellery finishing stage,
to obtain the desired quality level, but it requires time and money. However, such a
defect limits the use of mechanized finishing. Such finishing is done by hand, with a
resulting waste of time and an increased production cost. Figure 2.1.2 Heads of a rapid prototyping
machine: the red head builds the supporting
structure, which will be removed later, while
2.2.1 Alloy of manufacture the green head builds the actual model
The use of an alloy with suitable high hardness is recommended for manufacturing
the master model: finishing of the model will be easier, with a better wear resistance.
We should remember that, if the jewellery design is a commercial success, the master
model will be used for making many rubber moulds. Therefore, good wear and
corrosion resistance are important characteristics for a master model.
The use of nickel silver (nickel 50%, copper 30%, zinc 20%) is recommended.
Many goldsmiths use sterling silver (silver 92.5%) to make the models, because they
are accustomed to cast and work this alloy. The only drawbacks to the use of sterling
silver are its low hardness and reactivity with the rubber during vulcanising.
No matter what alloy is used, rhodium plating of the finished model is strongly Figure 2.1.3 Operating diagram of the rapid
prototyping machine shown in Figure 2.1.2
recommended. For silver models, it is essential. Rhodium plating is bright and hard, Vista laterale = Side view
enabling better finishing, increased wear resistance and making it corrosion and Passo della goccia = Spacing of the drops
Diametro della goccia = Drop diameter
oxidation resistant, particularly in the vulcanisation stage, if conventional rubber is
Direzione del movimento dei jets =
used, Figure 2.2.1. Advancement direction of the jets
Up to now, we have discussed metal models. With the modern techniques of rapid Direzione del deposito dei jets = Deposition
direction of the jets
prototyping, it is now possible, with the aid of CAD-CAM systems, to manufacture Altezza di un layer = Thickness of a layer
models in special plastics that can be used directly for making rubber moulds or for Altezza della parete = Thickness of the whole
deposit
casting a metal master model, in the place of a wax pattern, Figures 2.1.2, 2.1.3 and
2.1.4. Some jewellers use their wax or plastic model produced by Rapid Prototyping
to cast the master model in carat gold.
2.2.2 Feed sprue

Usually the feed sprue is considered as an integral part of the model. It links the
pattern to be cast with the central sprue into which the molten metal is poured.
Function of the feed sprue
The feed sprue is a very important component of investment casting. It should
Figure 2.1.4 Some models manufactured with
guarantee perfect filling of the pattern cavities in the mould. Even more important, the rapid prototyping machine
it should act as a liquid metal reservoir to compensate for the unavoidable volume
contraction of the gold during solidification of the cast items. If the feed sprue
cannot perform this second function, a defect will form - shrinkage porosity, with its
typical dendritic appearance, Figures 2.2.2, 2.2.3 and 2.2.4. This defect can be
entirely contained inside the casting and, if this is the case, there are no aesthetic
problems. However, as is more often the case, if it appears on the surface of the cast
piece, it must be repaired or the item scrapped. Repairing is a delicate operation that
can be difficult or sometimes impossible, Figure 2.2.5.
The criticality of the feed system changes in accordance with the type of casting Figure 2.2.1 Master model of a ring made
equipment. Feed sprue design is more critical with the traditional equipment for from nickel silver, rhodium plated

static casting and a little less critical with vacuum assisted static casting. The difficulty
of feed sprue design decreases further with pressure and vacuum assisted casting,
the more recent evolution of static casting machine technology, and is minimum
with centrifugal casting. When we speak of criticality, we usually refer to form filling
in metal casting, because the feed system is never critical for wax injection.
Therefore, feed sprues should be carefully designed, Figure 2.2.6, as a function of
size and shape of the object to be cast. Given that solidification shrinkage, as a
physical characteristic, is unavoidable, the feed sprues, in addition to allowing complete
Figure 2.2.2 Shrinkage porosity in a cross
form filling, should be able to “drive” shrinkage porosity out of the cast object.
section: the dendritic shape is evident
Design of the feed sprue
Basically, a feed sprue system is a tube or a set of tubes, wherein the metal should
flow as smoothly as possible. Turbulence should be reduced as much as possible: so
abrupt changes of cross-section, sharp angles, etc. should be avoided. Turbulence in
the flowing liquid metal can cause gas entrapment and gas porosity results from
entrapped gas in the casting. In all cases, turbulence causes a pressure drop, thus
hampering form filling. Therefore, it is always important to think in terms of fluid
mechanics and try to imagine the behaviour of liquid metal as it flows towards the
cavity to be filled.
Figure 2.2.3 Shrinkage porosity in a Patterns with complex geometry or with abrupt changes of cross-sectional area
metallographic microsection, observed under often benefit from multiple feed sprues. However, the best results are not always
the optical microscope
obtained with a multiple feed sprue on the master model because, although
multiple sprueing can be beneficial during casting, it sometimes does not enable
high quality wax patterns to be obtained, in contrast to those obtained with a
simpler feed sprue.
In these instances, many workshops use models with a single feed sprue for wax
injection. Later, the single feed sprue is cut off and the wax pattern is fitted with a
multiple feed sprue. A set of rubber moulds of multiple feed sprues of different size and
shape can be used for this purpose. These multiple wax sprues can be fitted to the wax
patterns as required, in accordance with the type of casting to produce, Figure 2.2.7.
Figure 2.2.4 Dendrites in a shrinkage cavity,
The “Y” feed sprue design is the simplest and, from the point of view of fluid
observed under the scanning electron mechanics, the best type of multiple feed sprue. When the liquid metal gets to the
microscope junction, where it splits into two streams, the metal will not favour one side or the other,
unless some other force is involved. Therefore a “Y” is a balanced fluid system. The stem
of the “Y” becomes the primary feed sprue and must have enough cross-sectional area
to supply ample metal to fill the two secondary feed sprues into which it splits.
Figure 2.2.5 Shrinkage defects in a ring with a large head in a vertical section cut through the ring
half-way across the band width. Two defective zones are seen: a diffused one in the head and
another one in the opposite part of the shank, near the junction with the feed sprue. After pouring,
the side parts of the shank solidify first, because they are thinner. Thus, when the thicker head
solidifies, feeding of more liquid metal is no longer possible. The defect on the opposite side is
known as a “hot spot”, because the sprue junction is heated by the flowing metal, causing a delay
in solidification. This zone solidifies after the feed sprue and both sides of the shank are already
solid. So it is not possible to feed liquid metal to compensate for the shrinkage.

2
If there is the danger of investment erosion at the point of splitting of the

secondary feed sprues, or if the shape of the wax pattern requires a large
temperature difference between the liquid metal and the investment, the excessive
cooling expected where the metal splits off into the two secondary feed sprues of a
“Y” can be relieved by using a “V” design. The wax pattern can be produced with a
“Y” sprue, with the stem cut off to form a “V”; this junction is attached directly to the
main sprue. With all other parameters constant, the “V” feed sprue will deliver molten
metal to the pattern with less temperature drop than the “Y”, because the metal
Figure 2.2.6 Examples of split feed sprues
path is shorter and less tortuous.
(coloured in red) for correct feeding of liquid
Size of the feed sprue metal in a ring. They should be connected to
Another important point, also based on the principles of fluid mechanics, relates to the thicker part of the ring with a heavier
head; also, to the model with an inclined
the constant cross-sectional area in primary and secondary feed sprues. If, for angle, to reduce turbulence
example, the cross-sectional area of the primary sprue is 8mm2, then the cross-
sectional area of each of the two secondary sprues into which it splits should be
4mm2 and not 8mm2. The total cross-sectional area remains constant. In this way we
can reduce turbulence.
There are no formulae to calculate the optimum size of a feed sprue for a given
casting. As a practical rule, we can say that the cross-sectional area of the feed sprue
should range from 50% to 70% of the cross-sectional area of the pattern it will feed.
2.3 MAKING THE RUBBER MOULD

The correct design of the rubber mould is another important step in achieving a
Figure 2.2.7 a Moulds for making complex
good quality product. We can say that there are nearly no limits to the shape of feed sprues
jewellery pieces that can be produced by investment casting with the presently
available materials. The only limit is the imagination and the creative power of the
person who should design and make the mould.
‘Mould engineering’ is an indispensable skill that should be cultivated inside the
jewellery company. By mould engineering, we refer to designing the mould, choosing
the correct material, deciding how many parts will form the mould and if metal inserts
will be necessary, deciding how the mould will be cut to facilitate the extraction of the
wax pattern, with minimum interference with the surface of the pattern itself.
In a Handbook such as this, we cannot teach mould-making technology, we can
only illustrate it through some examples. Mould-making should be learnt with
Figure 2.2.7 b
practice and prolonged, assiduous exercise. We recommend practitioners to attend
training courses on this particular subject, for example, those given by the producers
of mould rubber. In recent years, there has been a steady improvement in the
materials, as has occurred also for wax and investment powder. Therefore, regular
updating courses meet the need of understanding the new materials and refining the
basic technology.

2.3.1 Types of mould rubber

Many different rubber types are commercially available, both natural and synthetic
and also including the silicone rubbers. Each type of rubber has a different balance
of properties and should be chosen for use in specific situations, consistent with the
objects to be cast. Usually, natural rubber is stronger and more wear resistant.
Silicone rubber is less strong, but enables a better replication of fine detail to be
obtained. Two component systems, that are not vulcanisable rubber, have been the
most recent to become commercially available. Apparently, they are simpler to use,
but they show significantly lower wear resistance compared with other rubber types.
The advantages and disadvantages offered by the most common rubber types are
listed in Table 1.
All types of rubber should be used with care and the recommendations of the
supplier should be followed accurately. In particular, vulcanisable rubbers have a
finite shelf life. Some of their characteristics can gradually deteriorate when this time
has elapsed.
The producers recommend storage of the rubber (before vulcanisation) away
from heat and light sources, at a temperature not higher than 20°C (68°F).
If these simple rules are followed, the rubber will keep its favourable properties
unchanged for one year at least. This is what producers guarantee. In practice, if
correctly stored, a rubber can last much longer, still giving very good results. All
batches of vulcanisable rubber are marked with a code number. In the case of
Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of different rubber types for mould making
Type Advantages Disadvantages

Natural rubber Excellent tear resistance More difficult to cut
(requires vulcanisation) Ideal for intricate models Requires more time for filling the frame
Requires only few release cuts It is relatively soft
Very limited shrinkage Gives a matt surface
Requires the use of spray or talcum
Tarnishing of silver models
Silicone rubber The frame is filled easily Requires more release cuts
(requires vulcanisation) Easy to cut Shrinkage slightly higher than natural rubber
Different hardness levels available Good tear resistance but lower than
Doesn’t require spray or talcum powder natural rubber
Gives a polished finishing
Room temperature silicone Very fine surface finishing Suitable only for simple wax or metal models,
rubber (two components) Short time for preparation without undercuts
Negligible shrinkage Moderate tear resistance
Doesn’t require spray or talcum powder Difficult to burn (to enlarge feed sprue)
Liquid silicone rubber Very fine surface finishing Difficult to burn (to enlarge feed sprue)
(two components) Doesn’t require spray or talcum powder Moderate tear resistance
Very easy to prepare High cost
Can be used with wax models
Negligible shrinkage
Transparent, vulcanisable Good surface finishing Shrinkage not negligible
silicone rubber Transparent Costly
Soft and flexible
Easily vulcanised
“No shrink” pink Very low shrinkage Vulcanising temperature (143°C +–1°C) must
Very good surface finishing be strictly complied with

2
complaints, the producer can trace the production date. Therefore, keeping a record
of the code number is important. Above all, we should not store large quantities of
rubber and we should use the older batches first (‘first purchased, first used’).
2.3.2. Making the mould

Before making the mould, the master model should be carefully cleaned with a
degreasing solution in ultrasonic cleaning equipment. In the case of vulcanisable
rubber, the mould should be prepared by carefully packing the rubber layers inside a Figure 2.3.1 Steps for making a rubber mould
suitable metal frame (preferably forged aluminium). The model is placed in the a – The model is positioned in the centre of
the mould
centre of the rubber layers and is then covered with an equal number of rubber
layers, Figure 2.3.1 (a and b). The vulcanising press should have temperature-
controlled platens, preferably with independent thermostatic control. The calibration
of the temperature controller should be checked periodically with a reference
thermocouple or some other suitable device.
Two types of test should be done: with the first one, we verify that both heated
platens are at the same temperature. The test can be carried out by putting a small
wood block, the same size of the mould and with grooves on the upper and lower
surface, between the platens of the vulcaniser. The reference thermocouple is then
inserted in the grooves and temperature is measured at different points of the upper
b – The mould is completed with other rubber
and lower surface. The temperature readings should be the same in all positions. layers
The second test aims to verify the correct calibration of the temperature
controller. In this case we can use a small aluminium block, of the same thickness as
the mould, with a mid height hole for inserting the reference thermocouple. Then we
turn the vulcaniser on and we verify that the pilot light of the thermostat turns on
and off at the desired temperature of 152-154°C (about 305-309°F). If the light
turns on and off at a different temperature, we should adjust the temperature setting
knob until the correct temperature is obtained.
An incorrect vulcanising temperature is the most common cause of poor quality
moulds or of excessive shrinkage. The recommended temperature for vulcanising
natural rubber moulds is typically 152-154°C (about 305-309°F). For the silicone
rubber moulds, this rises up to 165-177°C (about 329-351°F). Vulcanising time varies
with the thickness of the mould: usually a time of 7.5 minutes per rubber layer is
recommended (a rubber layer is about 3.2mm/1/8 in. thick). Therefore, a mould
19mm (about 3/4 in.) thick will require vulcanising for about 45 minutes.
With particularly complex master models, if good results are not obtained under
the conditions cited above, we could lower the vulcanising temperature by about
Figure 2.3.2 Protective glove made from
10°C (18°F) and double the time. In this way the rubber will remain in a putty-like stainless steel reinforced fibre for mould cutting
state for a longer time and will have more time to conform to the model perfectly. a – The glove fits either hand
b – Cutting with a protected hand

2.3.3 Cutting the mould

To cut the moulds after vulcanising (or curing/setting, for non-vulcanising rubbers),
we use blades that should be sharpened or replaced frequently, because the cuts
must be sharp and perfect, otherwise we will have moulds that will produce defective
wax patterns. To make cutting easier, the blade should be wetted frequently with an
aqueous solution of surface-active agents.
Two important safety recommendations: the blades are very sharp and so we
work with the blade moving away from the hand holding the mould. A second
recommendation is to protect the hand holding the mould with a cut-resistant glove,
knitted with steel wire, Figure 2.3.2 (a and b).
As we proceed with cutting, the cut surfaces should be kept well open, by pulling
the rubber strongly apart: this is difficult to do with only one hand. For this purpose,
it is very helpful to use a simple, but effective device, called a “Third hand”: it will
Figure 2.3.3 Bench fixture to facilitate mould facilitate your work significantly, Figure 2.3.3. The mould should be cut in different
cutting (third hand) ways, depending on the type of injector used for making the wax patterns. This is to
a – The “third hand”
b – The third hand in use
avoid the presence of air bubbles in the wax patterns, which will unavoidably lead to
the formation of defects. Presently, injectors are frequently used which exhaust the
air from the mould before injecting the wax. In this case, the moulds should be
vacuum tight. However, traditional injectors are still used in many workshops that do
not use the vacuum technique. In this case, the moulds should have suitable vents
cut, enabling the air in the mould to escape at the moment of wax injection.
In workshops where both vacuum and traditional injectors are used, problems can
arise if the moulds are interchanged between the two types, with unfavourable
consequences on the quality of the wax patterns.
Figure 2.3.4 Convex ring, with a pronounced Teaching how to build a perfect mould is quite difficult in a Handbook, but a few
internal undercut
examples are given to show what can be obtained from taking the ‘mould-
engineering’ approach. The importance of having a good mould maker in the factory
is clearly evident from the following example: the model, Figure 2.3.4, is apparently
very simple: a ring with a smooth surface, which has a marked undercut on its inner
side. At the insistence of the production department, the initial solution has been to
produce the wax pattern in two halves, Figure 2.3.5 (a and b). So there was a single
mould for each half of the ring. To produce an entire ring, either two wax patterns
are joined together or two half rings are cast in carat gold and soldered together. As
we can see from the figure, the mould had locating pegs for connecting the two
Figure 2.3.5 halves, which were removed after soldering. Both solutions showed considerable
a – A single rubber mould is used to produce disadvantages and required a long finishing operation to obtain an acceptable – but
half of the ring shown in Figure 2.3.4
never perfect – quality level.
A better solution was found later, thanks to a skilled mould maker, and is shown in
Figure 2.3.5
b – Two halves must be joined to make the
entire ring

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a b c
Figure 2.3.6 Mould designed

to produce the wax pattern of
the ring in Figure 2.3.4 as a
single piece
d e
the Figure 2.3.6. It is a complex mould, formed in several parts, where the part
corresponding to the undercut has been cut in such a way as to be easily removed
without damaging the wax pattern. The wax pattern is obtained as a single piece, the
quality of the product is perfect and finishing labour has been reduced to a
minimum. We emphasize an important detail that should always be kept in our mind
when cutting a mould. The cut between the two halves of the mould has been done
to coincide with an edge of the ring: in this way there are no traces of separation lines
on the main surfaces of the wax ring and finishing operations of the casting are
simplified. So a significant improvement of product quality and a reduction in
manufacturing cost have been achieved.
Another example, similar to the one described above, is shown in Figure 2.3.7.
In this case, a metal insert has been used to prevent mould deformation during wax
a b c
d e f
g h
Figure 2.3.7 Mould made of two types of room temperature-curing silicone rubber with a metal
insert, to produce a ring similar to the ring of Figure 2.3.4
a – The metal master model
b to h – The mould. The metal insert prevents mould deformation during wax injection

injection, because two types of two component silicone rubber have been used for
making the mould, instead of natural rubber: one type for the inner part of the ring
and another one for the actual mould.
If we do not have a skilled mould maker in our factory, we can resort to a solution that
should never be considered as optimum, i.e. to use self-parting moulds. In this case, the
vulcanised mould will be opened with the simple action of the fingers. Before
vulcanising, the mould is assembled in the usual way, by packing the rubber layers in the
Figure 2.3.8 a Preparation of a self-parting
frame. When nearly half of the layers have been packed, we put small cubes of
mould, first half.
vulcanised rubber or metal pegs at the outer edge of the mould. These rubber cubes or
metal inserts act as locating pegs for the two halves of the mould. Then the free surface
is dusted with talcum powder, Figure 2.3.8 (a & b), or is sprayed with a suitable silicone
product, or is covered with a thin plastic film. Then a further rubber layer is added, on
which the master model is positioned, Figure 2.3.9 (a & b). The previous operation of
dusting with talcum or silicone spraying or covering with plastic film is repeated.
Then we also repeat all other operations in an inverted order for the second half
of the mould, Figure 2.3.9c. The mould is then vulcanised. After vulcanising, the
mould will open by the simple pressure of the fingers and will comprise four parts.
Figure 2.3.8 b – The red hatched zones
should be dusted with talcum or protected Two outer parts - the mould shell - and two thin inner parts, formed by the two inner
with other means, because they should not layers, which are the true mould. These two parts will easily separate from the wax
bond during vulcanising
pattern, without damaging it, Figure 2.3.10. In this mould type, the separation line is
in the centre and will always leave a ‘witness mark’, which must be removed later.
Moreover, this mould type is not suitable for vacuum injectors.
2.3.4 Storing and using the mould

After making, the mould should be numbered, referenced and stored in a closed
container - a drawer or a cupboard - away from sunlight and dust. The mould should
always be carefully cleaned after use. It is recommended that a register of the moulds
Figure 2.3.9 Preparation of a self-parting is maintained, where all parameters for the production of wax patterns are recorded
mould. a – The model
for each mould (wax type, wax temperature, injector temperature, vacuum, pressure,
cooling time). With some latest generation injectors, it is possible to record these
parameters on an electronic chip that is inserted in the mould and is “read” by the
injector at the moment of wax injection.
When a new mould is made, manufacturing parameters should be recorded with
care. If necessary, specific tests should be carried out to obtain a perfect mould. With
an optimised manufacturing process, mould shrinkage can be minimized.
Recently, some vulcanisable rubber types have become available on the market that
are claimed to be “no shrink”. The shrinkage of these rubbers can really be zero or nearly
Figure 2.3.9 b – Positioning of the model in
the mould zero, but to achieve this, the recommended vulcanising temperature should be
accurately adhered to. If the vulcaniser is not equipped with a very accurate temperature
control system, “no shrink” rubber can show some degree of shrinkage, maybe even
more conspicuously than with conventional rubber types. This can occur if the
temperature is only a few degrees higher or lower than the optimum temperature.
Figure 2.3.9 c – Covering the model

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Table 2 Common problems in the production of rubber moulds
Problem Causes Remedies

Mould is soft and sticky Too low temperature or too short time for Check with a suitable instrument the real
vulcanising temperature of the vulcaniser
Comply with temperature and time
recommended by the producer
The mould is hard and Pressure is too high, too long vulcanising Use lower pressure
distorted time and/or too high temperature Verify the temperature displayed by the
vulcaniser
Comply with time and temperature
The different layers of Pollution of the surface of the rubber layers Reject the defective mould and improve
the mould tend to during mould making (dirty hands, grease, cleanliness
separate talcum, etc.)
Bubbles or depressed Insufficient filling of the frame Improve filling of the frame
areas on the larger
surfaces of the mould
White dust on the Normal occurrence Do not mind it
rubber surface before Do not try to remove it
vulcanising
The rubber is hard and The rubber is already partially or completely Reject the rubber batch and verify that the
doesn’t vulcanise vulcanised because of an accidental rubber is stored correctly
exposure to heat or because of aging
Rubber is hard and stiff The rubber is “frozen” after a prolonged Heat very slowly the rubber up to about
storage at a too low temperature 38°C (100°F)
Excessive shrinkage Too high vulcanising temperature Check with a suitable instrument the real
temperature of the vulcaniser
Comply with temperature and time
Alternatively, lower vulcanising temperature
to 143°C (289°F) and double vulcanising
time
The rubber doesn’t fill all The frame has not been correctly packed Insert small pieces of rubber in cavities and
cavities and undercuts Rubber is too old undercuts
Check the temperature displayed by the
vulcaniser

Some of the most common problems we can meet when making a mould are listed Figure 2.3.10 Details of the self-parting
in Table 2, along with their causes and some simple remedies. mould of the previous figures, after
vulcanisation
2.4 PRODUCTION OF THE WAX PATTERNS

2.4.1 Types of wax
The use of a wax with a narrow melting range is recommended. A range of waxes
is available to the goldsmith: the wax type should be selected on the basis of the
object to be produced. Therefore, it is very important to know the physical
characteristics of the different types of wax as thoroughly as possible. Usually, the wax
producers give only one quantitative datum: the recommended injection
temperature. All other information given is purely qualitative. But this information
exists and should be available to the goldsmith if he is to make a correct selection of
the wax grade.

Table 3 Characteristics of some commercial wax types
Viscosity
Ring & Ball Hardness
Wax Softening Density -penetration Fluidity test 77°C 71°C 66°C Volume expansion Injection
type point g/cm3 (100g load) mm 170°F 160°F 150°F From 24°C (75.2°F) temperature
°C CPS RPM CPS RPM CPS RPM 48°C 60°C 72°C °C
(°F) 118°F 140°F 162°F (°F)
A 70±3 .954 5,8 >50% 50°C 252 100 311 100 550 50 4% 9,1% 11,6% 68-71
(158±5) (154-160)
B 70±3 .960 8,2 >50% 52°C 204 100 282 100 348 100 3,5% 10,0% 11,6% 71-74
(158±5) (160-165)
C 72±3 .940 6,4 >50% 54°C 622 100 759 100 998 100 3,0% 7,3% 10,3% 71-74
(162±5) (160-165)
D 68±3 .950 8,4 >50% 54°C 764 50 952 20 – – 3,3% 8,6% 12,8% 73-76
(154±5) (163-169)
E 74±3 .955 9,6 >50% 54°C 217 100 267 100 400 100 3,5% 9,2% 11,6% 71-74
(165±5) (160-165)
F 68±3 .960 7,6 >50% 52°C 248 100 307 100 413 100 4,6% 10,6% 11,8% 68±3
(154±5) (154±5)
Cps = Centipoises Rpm = Revs. per min.
Information on hardness, density, ash content, viscosity, linear and volume thermal
expansion is important for making the correct choice.
For example, thermal expansion can be used for evaluating the cooling shrinkage
of the wax patterns and calculating the real dimensions of the cast pieces. Viscosity
will give information on the ability of the wax to fill the mould completely and the
density can be used for calculating the precise amount of precious alloy required for
casting. The values of some physical parameters for different wax types are shown in
Table 3. The values of these parameters should be available from all serious suppliers.
We can see that the values of some parameters can change by more than 20% from
one wax type to another. Therefore, the usual qualitative information offered, like
“high”, “low”, etc., should not be considered sufficient.
We should also note that wax grades are often differentiated by wax colour;
however, different suppliers use different colours for similar grades. Thus, a blue
grade from one will be different from the blue grade from another!
2.4.2 Wax injection

Temperature is also a fundamental parameter for the production of wax patterns.
Not only wax temperature, but also the injector nozzle temperature and mould
temperature are important. Injectors fitted with devices to monitor and control
nozzle temperature as well as wax temperature can be most effective in attaining
good quality wax patterns. While too low a wax temperature can cause incomplete
filling of the mould, too high a wax temperature can give rise to bubbles and
excessive pattern shrinkage.
It is recommended that the wax patterns of a given type produced throughout
the day are weighed systematically, to verify the operation of the wax department.
Too large a weight variability of wax patterns says that something is not running as
expected. The first thing to consider is the use of mould clamping devices for

2
Table 4 Common problems in the production of wax patterns
Problem Causes Remedies

Bubbles Insufficient wax quantity in the injector Add wax in the wax pot
Wax is too hot or too cold Calibrate wax temperature
Poor fitting between mould and nozzle Set the mould correctly or adjust the mould mouth
Too high injection pressure Use lower pressure
Using vented moulds on vacuum injector Don’t use vacuum
Incomplete filling of the mould Injection pressure is too low Increase injection pressure
Wax temperature is too low Increase wax temperature
Cold mould Heat the mould with repeated use
The feed sprue is too thin Use a wider feed sprue
Insufficient vents (no vacuum injectors) Increase vents in the mould
Vents are obstructed or dirty (no vacuum injectors) Clean the vents and keep them open with talcum
Obstructed injector Clean injector and nozzle
Excessive filling of the mould Pressure is too high Decrease pressure
Incorrect clamping pressure on the mould Use correct clamping pressure
Make a new mould and cut it with improved tools
Wax is too hot Lower wax temperature
Too long injection time Shorten injection time
Sticky wax pattern that is easily bent The mould has been opened too early Longer cooling time
Mould too hot Increase cooling time of mould before re-use
Excessive shrinkage Wax is too hot Lower wax temperature
Insufficient pressure Increase injection pressure
Injection time too short Longer injection time
Feed sprue too thin Use wider feed sprue
The mould is too cold Heat the mould with repeated use
Wax with excessive shrinkage Turn to low shrinkage wax
Sinks (depressions in large patterns) Incorrect selection of wax type Turn to a depression resistant wax type
Injection time too short Longer injection time
Insufficient injection pressure Increase injection pressure
Feed sprue too thin Enlarge the feed sprue
Poor surface finishing (also wrinkling) The mould is too cold Heat the mould with repeated use
Wax is too cold Increase wax temperature
Poor surface finishing (rough surface, cavities are present) Too low injection pressure Increase injection pressure
Too much spray for releasing the patterns Clean mould and reduce spray quantity
Too much talcum Clean mould and reduce talcum quantity (add a
layer of cloth to the linen bag)
Spray and talcum have been used at the same time Clean mould and use spray only
Fins Too high injection pressure Lower injection pressure
Mould imperfectly cut Make a new mould and improve cutting
Insufficient clamping pressure Increase clamping pressure
Vents are insufficient or obstructed Clean the mould and the vents accurately
Cut additional vents
Wax patterns tend to break Not enough spray for releasing Use more spray
The mould has been incorrectly open or the pattern has been removed badly Improve mould opening and pattern
removal methods
The mould has not been cut properly to facilitate pattern removal Make a new mould and improve cutting
Cooling time too long Shorten cooling time
A brittle wax has been used Prefer a more flexible wax

controlling mould pressure during wax injection, to avoid the variability that occurs
when the mould is held by hand, Figure 2.4.1. Weight variation can exceed ±10% for
different operators or even for the same operator at different moments during the day.
An initial quality control should be done on the wax patterns, Figure 2.4.2. The
patterns should not be dirty (talcum powder, for example) and should not show
bubbles. When investing the flasks, bubbles can break open and fill up with
investment. So they can give rise to more serious defects in the castings. The
presence of bubbles can readily be detected by looking at the patterns against a light
source. Defective wax patterns should be immediately rejected and should never be
Figure 2.4.1 Mould clamp, allowing clamping
pressure control during wax injection
used for production. They will unavoidably give rise to defective castings, with
considerable loss of time and money.
The removal of fins and witness marks of the mould separation line, when very
evident, are the only repair operations acceptable for a wax pattern. We should record
the number of rejected wax patterns for each model type. High figures suggest that
the mould is badly made or has deteriorated. Otherwise, the injection parameters are
incorrect and should be modified, or the wrong wax type has been used.
Recycling of used wax and defective waxes should be totally avoided. It is a useless
and harmful ‘economy’ that will invariably lead to poor products. We should also
avoid using too much talcum powder to facilitate removal of the wax patterns from
Figure 2.4.2 Quality control of wax patterns. the mould. The aim should be to use as little as possible. During the dewaxing
Generally different colours denote different
physical characteristics of the wax process, it is difficult to remove all the powder remaining on the surface of the
patterns or embedded in the wax. Certainly, talcum powder will not disappear during
burnout (talc is an inorganic silicate): it will lead to a poor surface or defects! It will
also accumulate in the rubber mould. To facilitate easy removal of the wax from the
mould, the use of a fine starch powder or a silicone spray is preferred. Excess starch
powder will burn in the burnout furnace, leaving no residues.
The main parameters involved in wax injection are temperature and pressure. For
vacuum injectors, a third one, vacuum, should be included. We can start by
discussing the last parameter, vacuum. To get a good effect from vacuuming, the
a b
mouth of the mould must be perfectly matched with the nozzle of the injector,
Figure 2.4.3 Perfect seal between injector
nozzle and mould mouth is very important Figures 2.4.3 and 2.4.4. If there is a gap between the mould mouth and the nozzle,
a – Correct geometry not only will we not exhaust the mould sufficiently, but in the subsequent step of wax
b – Incorrect geometry that can favour
injection some air can be entrained by the wax and enter the mould. This air will be
entrainment of air with the wax and does not
ensure a satisfactory vacuum in the mould added to the air already present in the mould cavity, with a considerable danger of
before wax injection producing air bubbles in the wax pattern. We should keep in our mind that moulds
for vacuum injectors don’t have vents, so the air will find it rather difficult to escape
from the mould cavity during wax injection and will never be completely removed.
As far as temperature is concerned, usually we should work at the temperature
recommended by the supplier of the wax. A higher temperature can lead to wax
patterns with air bubbles, while at lower temperatures wax fluidity can be insufficient
and the model could be inaccurately replicated, with loss of fine surface detail. Lastly,
pressure is the only parameter requiring a real adjustment for each single model.
When we have found the correct pressure level, allowing the replication of the model
accurately, we should not change it. Changes of injection pressure can cause very
significant variation of the weight of the wax patterns and, consequently, of the
Figure 2.4.4 Mould frame with screwed-in
sprue former ensuring correct geometry of weight of the gold alloy castings.
mould mouth

2
Each mould and each wax type are different and require a specific pressure level, a
specific temperature and an appropriate time for cooling. The best compromise among
these different parameters can be achieved only with experience and experimentation
on that specific mould with a specific wax type. Moreover, the characteristics of the
mould change as we continue with the injection of hot wax. Maybe the combination of Figure 2.5.1 Two traditional rubber base
parameters giving good results initially (when the mould is cold) will no longer work well types: with conical or hemispherical sprue
button
when the mould has been heated by a prolonged use. Therefore, we should take into
account the time of cooling between subsequent injections.
Lastly, we should note that waxes should be stored on flat trays in a cool place and
covered to prevent dust settling on the surface by electrostatic attraction. They
should not be piled in heaps, as they are liable to distort or to surface damage.

Some common problems that can occur in the production of wax patterns are listed Figure 2.5.2 Possible problems with a
in Table 4, along with the possible remedies. hemispherical sprue button
2.5 ASSEMBLING THE TREE

2.5.1 Bases and sprues
The rubber base for the tree is the starting point for building the wax tree. It should
be selected with care. Usually, the rubber base includes the part that becomes the
sprue button of the cast tree.
We should check carefully that the base is clean and free from residues of used Figure 2.5.3 Rubber base to reject: the
conical sprue button shows wear on the tip
investment. Residues of used investment can appreciably change the setting time of
the new investment, thus impacting on mould quality. Bases with a cone-shaped
sprue button are preferable to those rubber bases with a hemispherical sprue button,
Figure 2.5.1. A hemispherical sprue button can cause pressure losses and induce
turbulence during casting, Figure 2.5.2, with the consequent possibility of gas
entrapment in the liquid metal. These problems are more evident when we cast with
centrifugal machines rather than with static machines.
We should always check that the selected base does not show signs of wear on
the tip of the cone of the sprue button, where the main wax sprue is inserted, Figures
2.5.3 and 2.5.4. As before, the presence of a step between the rubber base and the
wax sprue can cause turbulence and pressure loss during casting. Each rubber base
should be identifiable with a code number and weighed.
It is considered better to use main sprues made from a wax with lower melting
range than the wax of the patterns. In this way, when dewaxing, the main sprue will
melt first and stress generation inside the invested flask will be avoided, when the wax Figure 2.5.4 A worn out rubber base (see
Figure 2.5.3) forms an undesirable step in the
patterns begin to melt.
sprue button
Slightly tapered main sprues are preferred to standard cylindrical ones. Tapering
gives a better heat balance: the solidification will progress from the top of the tree
(smaller diameter) to the bottom, favouring a directional solidification, Figure 2.5.5.
The danger of shrinkage porosity formation in the cast items is reduced.
Figure 2.5.5 Variation in temperature

distribution in the tree resulting from the use
of a cylindrical or tapered main sprue

A few years ago, a new patented system was developed, comprising an innovative
rubber base, onto which the tapered main sprue is screwed through a special device,
Figure 2.5.6. The main wax sprue includes a narrower conical sprue button that is
designed to facilitate mould filling with minimum turbulence, Figure 2.5.7. In this
way, the rubber base can be removed without stress or torque being applied to the
tree and the patterns, Figure 2.5.8, and any danger of cracks in the investment near
the sprue button and the main sprue is avoided. Such cracks can cause defects in the
castings.
In the author’s opinion, this system, tradenamed NeuSprue™, is one of the most
interesting new products to appear on the market in recent years, Figure 2.5.9. At
first sight, it is a very simple fixture, but its development was based on a rigorous
study, using finite element analysis. An optimised dimensioning of the main sprue has
Figure 2.5.6 Assembling
system for the NeuSprue™ been achieved, which enables a reduction in the weight of alloy required for each
sprue and base cast and allows control of the progression of solidification.
In all cases, the cross-sectional area of the main sprue should be decided with
care, because it depends on the size of the tree and on the items we want to cast
(shape, size etc.). Some goldsmiths use a tubular main sprue. It is a tube, with a
diameter much larger than a conventional sprue, but it is hollow and its weight is
lower. This particular kind of main sprue is used for two reasons: it permits many
more pieces to be placed on the tree, because a larger surface area is available on
the main sprue, and a smaller amount of precious metal is required for casting,
because the main sprue is hollow. Therefore, a higher yield per flask can be obtained
and the amount of precious metal reduced. In the author’s opinion, even if the
reasons for choosing a hollow sprue are accepted, a hollow central sprue does not
allow directional solidification to be obtained in the best way, because of the
different distribution of heat release. Therefore, it may be better to stick to the more
traditional practice: a solid, slightly tapered, main sprue.
Figure 2.5.7 The NeuSprue™
sprue with its rubber base
Figure 2.5.8 Release system of the rubber base of the Figure 2.5.9 a Preparation of a tree with Figure 2.5.9 b The sprue holder can be
NeuSprue™ (right) eliminates stress caused by removal of old the sprue shown in Figure 2.5.7. tilted to facilitate attaching the wax patterns
style sprue base (left) to the main sprue

2
2.5.2 Tree design

As far as possible, we should put wax patterns of similar shape, size and weight
together on the same tree. Thin patterns and thick patterns should not be cast on
the same tree. When the temperature is high enough to cast the thin patterns
beautifully, then the temperature will be too high to get good castings from the thick
patterns, if they are tree’d together.
In general, where different patterns are included on the same tree, thin or lighter
patterns should be put at the top of a tree, because pressure is higher there than
near the sprue button. If thin patterns will not fill at the bottom of the tree, then the Figure 2.5.12 Optimum angle between the
main sprue and the feed sprue. A 90o angle is
feed sprue may not be large enough nor attached to the main sprue in the best way now preferred (see text)
(presence of constrictions) or the temperature of the metal and/or of the flask may
be too low. Patterns that cast well at the same flask and metal temperature can be
mixed on the same tree with more challenging patterns at the top and easy to fill
patterns at the bottom.
The joints between the main sprue and the feed sprues must be smooth and well
filleted. Constrictions at the junction point should be carefully avoided, Figure 2.5.10.
When casting, the investment will protrude at this junction and can be eroded or
broken off by the flow of liquid metal. Such investment fragments could obstruct the
feed sprue and/or form non-metallic inclusions in the castings, Figure 2.5.11.
Traditionally, the angle between the feed sprue and the main sprue has been
recommended at about 45° – 60°. More recently, a larger angle of 70° – 80° has been
recommended for static vacuum casting Figure 2.5.12. Recent research has shown that
the best results are obtained when the wax patterns are welded perpendicularly to the
main sprue. So we obtain a double advantage: solidification takes place more
directionally - and the probability of formation of shrinkage porosity in the casting is
lower - and the escape of the gas from the mould cavity is easier, because there is a
thinner investment layer to go through to reach the outer surface of the flask. In this
way the probability of formation of gas porosity from trapped gas is reduced. Figure 2.5.13 Homogeneous tree
with thin patterns
Figure 2.5.10 Joint constriction between the Figure 2.5.11 Possible problems when
main sprue and the feed sprue: to be avoided! constrictions are present (see Figure 2.5.10).
During pouring, particles can break off from
the investment, resulting in non-metallic
inclusions in the cast piece

The length of the feed sprues should be such that the furthest part of the patterns
is no more than 10mm (0.4 in) from the wall of the flask, Figures 2.5.13 and 2.5.14.
Figure 2.5.15 shows the drawing of a tree, with the names we use for its different
parts.
Finally, assembled trees should be weighed to determine the weight of wax
(subtract the weight of the rubber base), as this allows the amount of carat gold for
casting to be calculated. Prior to investing, the trees can be washed in water
containing surfactant to remove any electrostatically attracted dust.
2.6 INVESTING THE MOULD

2.6.1 Flasks
Steel cylinders or ‘flasks’ are used to contain the investment mould. Stainless steel is
preferred. Before use, the flasks should be cleaned with a wire brush to remove all
traces of old investment, because residues of used investment can reduce the work
Figure 2.5.14 Wax tree with heavy
patterns time of the new investment, thus influencing mould quality. The flask is placed
around the wax tree and sealed at its base.
Before filling, the perforated flasks, used in modern static casting machines,
should be wrapped or in suitable sleeves, made from rubber or special paper or
plastic, to seal the holes until the investment is fully set. In the case of solid flasks,
used mainly in centrifugal casting machines, the use of a wax net is recommended,
to assist in gas evacuation during casting. The wax net should be positioned near the
flask wall, Figure 2.6.1, and will be removed during dewaxing, leaving escape
channels for the gases present in mould cavities.
2.6.2 Investment powders

Two basic types of investment are used for jewellery production. These differ in the
type of bonding material used, while the true refractory material is always the same:
a mixture of quartz and a-cristobalite. The bonding material can be calcium sulphate
(gypsum) or a mixture of one or more phosphate-containing materials. Calcium
Figure 2.5.15 The tree and its different parts sulphate-bonded (also known as gypsum-bonded) investment is used for casting gold
and silver alloys, while phosphate-bonded investment is used for alloys melting at
higher temperature, such as palladium white gold and, in particular, platinum alloys.
The investment powders contain also a small percentage of proprietary additives
to control the rate of setting and the properties of the set investment. There are also
special grades with additives that allow for casting with gemstones in place.
Alternatively, a standard grade of investment can be used for this purpose which is
mixed with water containing about 3.3 grammes (maximum 4 grammes) of boric
acid per 100 ml of water. Dissolve the boric acid in the water at 82°C (180°F) and
then cool it down before using. These investments must be dry dewaxed only, as will
be discussed later.
Of the 2 types, the goldsmith prefers calcium sulphate-bonded investment for two
main reasons:
(1) It is less costly.
Figure 2.6.1 Wax webs to facilitate gas (2) It is easier to remove. After solidification of the castings, it is sufficient to
evacuation from a solid flask
quench the hot flask in water, which breaks the investment mould and allows
recovery of the cast tree.

2
The most common investment type consists of a mixture of 25-30% bonding

material (Plaster of Paris (or gypsum), i.e. calcium sulphate hemihydrate:
CaSO4.1/2H2O) and 70-75% silica, the true refractory material, in the form of quartz
and a-cristobalite. The ratio between quartz and a-cristobalite varies with grade and
from producer to producer, Figure 2.6.2.
There are several grades of investment powders on the market, Table 5. The
quality of an investment powder depends on many factors, such as particle size and
purity of minerals. Cheaper grades often contain coarser, less pure powders. These, Figure 2.6.2 Investment structure. The larger
together with the proprietary additives, affect the performance of an investment. In prismatic crystals are calcium sulphate (the
binder) and the smaller crystals are silica (the
recent years, research work has led to an improvement of quality and reliability of the true refractory material)
product. Investment is now stronger and more reliable and has a wider field of
application.
Table 5 Typical grades of powders for investment casting
Ransom & KerrLab Hoben SRS,

Randolph USA International UK
USA UK
Standard Ultravest Satin Cast 20 Gold Star Ultima Classic
grades for (Advantage) Kerrcast 2000 Gold Star XL (18 carat+)
gold Supervest 20 Gold Star 21 Eurovest
Satin Cast regular Gold Star Plus (up to 14 carat)
Investite
White Platinum Platinite PT Platincast
gold/platinum Astrovest
Stone-in-place Solitaire Satin Cast 20 Gemset Stonecast
casting
Nevertheless, making the investment mould is always the most critical step in the
investment casting process. It consists of a sequence of operations, requiring
adherence to some strict but simple rules. Unfortunately, these are often neglected,
maybe because of their simplicity, with adverse effects on product quality.
In the author’s view, there is no argument about using good investment powders,
produced by well respected companies, and on the necessity of accurately following
the procedure recommended by the producer.
2.6.3 Safety and storage of investment powders

Two aspects must be highlighted before discussing the investment process. Firstly:
Safety! Fine silica dust, as used for the investment powder, is very dangerous.
When inhaled, it remains in pulmonary alveoli and can cause silicosis, a progressive,
irreversible lung injury. Silicosis is a serious disease that can result in
premature death and the warning labels, which are now a standard part of
investment containers, should be taken very seriously. The Materials Safety Data
Sheets, supplied by the investment manufacturers should be obtained and heeded.
Therefore, it is recommended that investment powder is handled in a separate area,
fitted with good exhaust ventilation and regularly cleaned to keep dust to a minimum.
When handling investment powder, the operator should always wear special
approved dust masks, rated for use with investment. Normal dust masks don’t stop

the fine silica particles, which are the most dangerous! Protective clothing, including
hats, should be worn and regularly laundered. Two operations are the most hazardous:
(1) Opening the container of investment powder and taking out the powder.
When the container of the investment powder is opened and investment
powder is scooped out, the finest particles become suspended and float in
the air
(2) Quenching the flask. When the flask is quenched after casting, the escaping
water vapour (steam) entrains fine silica dust into the surrounding
environment.
The second point refers to the method of investment storage. We should keep in
mind that Plaster of Paris (gypsum) used as the bonding material, is hygroscopic.
The Plaster of Paris absorbs moisture when it comes in contact with a humid
atmosphere, and becomes unable to play its function. Therefore, investment
powder must always be kept in dry conditions. The containers should be closed and
sealed after use. Where possible, the containers of the investment should be kept in
a room with controlled humidity and temperature, because investment temperature
is also an important parameter. Bulk investment powder is a bad heat conductor: if
stored in a cold or hot area, it can take a long time to reach the correct process
temperature, required for mixing. So the temperature of the investment should also
be checked. This can be done with a digital thermometer, now available cheaply.
If a room with controlled humidity and temperature is not available, the containers
should be preferably kept in a sheltered area, preferably on pallets, not resting on the
floor, rather than in open air. Air circulation will prevent the condensation of harmful
humidity.
Investment powder is the most perishable material used in the process of
investment casting. It has a typical shelf life of one year, when correctly stored.
Therefore, it is recommended not to store large quantities of investment powder in
the factory. The date of manufacturing is normally printed on the containers plainly
or in some easily readable code by the manufacturer and should always be checked.
In overseas locations, delivery of investment to the local wholesaler or agent by ship
can result in investment already well into its storage life.
2.6.4 Checking the condition of the investment:

the ‘gloss-off’ test
Before using a new batch of investment for production, it is advisable to test it, by
measuring the ‘gloss-off’ time. This is a very simple test, requiring no special
instrument. Only a plastic coffee cup and a stop watch are required.
We weigh a small quantity of investment (30-50 g) and a quantity of water at
room temperature (20°C/68°F) in the ratio recommended by the producer. We add
the investment powder to the water in the plastic cup and start the stopwatch. We
mix with a glass rod for the recommended time and then observe the surface of the slurry.
The moment when the mixture starts setting is denoted by a change in appearance
of the surface from a bright gloss or shine to a dull matt. This is the gloss-off point.
With a good quality investment, with water at 20°C (68°F), the gloss point is reached

2
after 9-10 minutes (all commercial investment types fall in the range 7-10 min.). If a Temperature Effect
considerably longer time is required to reach the gloss-off point, the investment is Pour Time Set Time
22
not behaving properly (probably due to the hydration of calcium sulphate) and has 20
18
deteriorated.
Time (min)
16
14
The ‘working time’ of an investment is the gloss-off time less 1 minute. The ‘gloss- 12
10
off’ test is useful for checking the condition of a batch of investment, if problems 8
60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Temperature (F)
(defects) occur in casting, attributable to a poor mould. It is a way of checking if the
problem is due to the investment or to the burn-out cycle. Figure 2.6.3 Effect of temperature on pour
time and set time
2.6.5 Mixing the investment

The setting time is very important, because it is the basis for performing all the
operations involved in creating the invested flask (mould). If we do not respect the Water Quality
required time, weak or poor moulds will result, leading to various defects such as Pour Time Set Time
8
7
watermarks, sandy surfaces and fin formation.
Delta Time (min)

6
5
4
Setting of the investment slurry is due to hydration of calcium sulphate 3
2
1
hemihydrate; this is a chemical reaction, so it is strongly influenced by the 0
-1
-2
temperature of both water and investment powder, Figure 2.6.3. Therefore, it is very -3
-4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Water Source Number
important to use water at the recommended temperature, typically about
20°C/68°F, to ensure a consistent behaviour of the investment. Investment made Figure 2.6.4 Effect of water quality on pour
time and set time
with water that is too hot will set faster. Water that is too cold will slow down the
setting time and lead to weak moulds and defects such as watermarks.
Recent work shows some tap waters can substantially extend the setting time,
Figure 2.6.4. As for water quality, it is preferable to use deionised water, because the
setting time can be appreciably changed (lengthened) by the substances dissolved in
tap water. The ‘gloss-off’ test will demonstrate this difference if batches of
investment are made with both deionised and tap water. Clearly, we can assume that
for most locations, the tap water composition will be nearly constant, but we cannot
be certain. In some locations, it can change significantly with the seasons. The use of
deionised water will remove such uncertainty and variability and thus contribute to
the most profitable use of investment powder in quality terms.
We should note that the producers of investment powder develop their powders
for use with deionised water and their advice on its use is based on deionised water
at 20°C/68°F. Should it be difficult to obtain deionised water, the measurement of
“gloss-off time” is even more important, because it is the base for determining the
time available for all investing operations.
The sequence of steps for investing the flask is as follows:
1. Weighing investment powder and water
– This must be done accurately. A measuring cylinder should be used for
the water, scales for the powder
2. Mixing the powder in the water
– Always add the powder to the water to ensure good mixing without
‘lumps’
3. Vacuuming the mixture
– This removes entrapped air

4. Filling the flask

– To fill the flask around the wax tree
5. Vibrating the flask under vacuum
– To remove any remaining air bubbles that may stick to the wax surface
and ensure good surface replication
6. The flask is left to stand for investment setting
– The investment is weak at the setting point and it strengthens over time.
Any movement at this stage risks cracking the investment.
Figure 2.6.5 Watermarks on a cast item as
seen under the scanning electron microscope Time is a critical parameter: the first five operations must be carried out before the
slurry starts setting. This is known as the ‘working time’. A good rule is to vibrate the
flask until 1 minute before the slurry starts setting (hence the importance of
measuring the “gloss-off time”!). We should keep in our mind that we deal with a
liquid-solid mixture, not a solution. If we don’t mix enough or if we let the slurry rest
for too long a time between vibrating and final setting, the water will tend to
separate at the interface between wax and investment, forming watermarks, Figures
a 2.6.5 and 2.6.6, a kind of veining that accurately replicates the tiny water streams
creeping between the wax surface and the investment. The watermarks will be
faithfully reproduced on the castings and will be superimposed on the surface details
of the cast item, which will be ruined.
The slurry can be prepared by hand, Figure 2.6.7, with very simple equipment, like
kitchen mixers, Figure 2.6.8, bell jars for vacuuming the slurry, or rotary vacuum
pumps, etc. But, if we want to obtain a consistently good quality, it is advisable to use
b investment mixing and pouring units, where the whole process, up to filling, vibrating
Figure 2.6.6 Watermarks on a ring, as cast and vacuuming the flask is carried out in an automatic and programmed way.
It is important that the recommendations of the invesment manufacturer on
powder/water ratio, mixing times, temperatures, etc. are followed. Just as an
indication, the data for an investment powder with about 9 min. gloss-off time are:
1. powder to water ratio: 100:38
2. mixing time: about 3 min.
3. vacuuming: about 1.5 min.
4. pouring the slurry in the flask: about 1.5 min.
5. vacuuming and vibrating the flask: 2 min.
total working time: 8 min.
According to most recent theory, after vacuuming we should let the flasks sit
Figure 2.6.7 Hand mixing in air
undisturbed from a minimum of 1 hour to a maximum of 2 hours, before dewaxing.
The flasks should never become thoroughly dry: if this happens, they should be
abundantly sprayed with water before dewaxing.
It is not advised to prepare batches of filled flasks and use them in subsequent
days. If the flasks become completely dry, there is a high risk of crack formation,
rupture or even major blowouts during casting, Figure 2.6.9. The preferred practice
is to prepare the flasks, to let them set and to send them directly to dewaxing and
burnout. The programmed burnout cycle will be carried out overnight and, on the
following day, when equilibrated at the casting temperature, the flasks will be cast.
Figure 2.6.8 Machine mixing in air

2
2.7 DEWAXING THE FLASK

Recent research carried out by the producers of investment powder suggests that
after complete setting of the investment, i.e. 1 to 2 hours after flask filling, the wax
of the patterns should be removed, to empty the mould cavities where the liquid
metal will be poured.
Dewaxing can be carried out in two ways: dry - it is the older method - or by steam.
Dry dewaxing is often done in the burnout oven as part of the burnout cycle, but can
be done in a separate dewaxing oven, prior to the main burnout cycle. Originally, steam
dewaxing was introduced for ecological reasons, to avoid air pollution from the smoke
generated by large scale burning of wax, particularly in places where many jewellery
factories were operating in close proximity. Later it has been realized that steam
dewaxing can lead to better product quality, with reduced gas porosity in the castings. Figure 2.6.9 Burst flask, arising from process
Research performed on this subject, particularly by the German Research Institute errors
for Precious Metals (FEM) of Schwäbisch Gmünd, has shown that there are two types
of gas porosity: from trapped gas and from reaction gas. The first type comes from
the gas present in mould cavity, in combination with metal turbulence during
casting. The second type comes from the decomposition of calcium sulphate
(investment binder), which produces gaseous sulphur dioxide, which largely remains
in the metal filling the form. Under normal conditions, this decomposition reaction
begins around 1140°C (2084°F), Figure 2.7.1, but it is accelerated by silica and, even
more, by reducing substances like carbonaceous residues from wax, Figure 2.7.2. In
this case, the decomposition temperature of calcium sulphate is lowered to values Figure 2.7.1 Thermal decomposition curve of
calcium sulphate
near to the investment temperature at the moment of casting.
The studies have also shown that, with dry dewaxing, the wax impregnates
investment surface pores, Figure 2.7.3, and is difficult to remove completely. So,
during burnout, carbonaceous residues are formed that favour calcium sulphate
decomposition both during burnout, with reduction of investment strength, and
during casting, with formation of gas porosity, Figures 2.7.4 (a & b), 2.7.5 and 2.7.6.
On the contrary, with steam dewaxing, humidity saturates the porosity of investment
and inhibits wax absorption. So the probability of calcium sulphate decomposition is
reduced. For this reason steam dewaxing has been preferred or, at least,
recommended for some time. Figure 2.7.2 Thermal decomposition curve of
calcium sulphate when reducing substances
are present
400µm
Figure 2.7.4 Gas porosity observed under the

optical microscope. a – Surface
Figure 2.7.4 b – Cross section. It can be seen Figure 2.7.3 Evidence of wax penetration into
that porosity affects not only the surface but investment porosity during dry dewaxing (paler
also the inner part of the object halos)

More recent research has introduced some doubt: steam dewaxing could modify
the morphology of the components of the investment, reducing investment
permeability, important in removing air from the mould. Research on this subject is
still under way, so at present we cannot clearly recommend one method over the
other unless gas porosity is a significant problem.
Irrespective of the preferred dewaxing method, the flask should not be allowed to
cool down between dewaxing and burnout. The investment will suffer thermal stress
and its strength will be decreased.
Figure 2.7.5 Usually, the sprue button shows a
bulge in the centre when calcium sulphate We should note that steam dewaxing should not be used when casting with
decomposition occurs gemstones. The investment used for this special purpose contains boric acid to
protect the stones. Boric acid is dissolved and removed by steam and no longer
available to protect the stones.
A warning about steam dewaxing! It is important that the steam be vented
out, preferably upwards, before removing the flasks from the chamber. Steam burns
are nasty and should be avoided!
2.8 BURNOUT
Burnout, as the name implies, is carried out to burn out the last traces of wax and to
give the investment mould the refractoriness and characteristics required for casting.
The final characteristics of the mould will depend strongly on the burnout cycle
Figure 2.7.6 In some cases, the sprue button selected and particularly on the heating rate and temperature homogenisation in the
shows a single inner cavity, produced by strong holding periods. Therefore, it is important to accurately follow the burnout cycle
reaction gas evolution (see also Figure 2.7.5)
recommended by the producer of the investment. The ratio between quartz and
a-cristobalite varies with investment grade and manufacturer and, consequently, the
optimum burnout cycle may change.
2.8.1 The burnout cycle

There are two critical points in the heating cycle. The first one is at about 100-120°C
(212-248°F), when absorbed water and part of the gypsum crystallisation water
evaporate. This is a slow process, taking place with volume contraction. Therefore,
the temperature should be increased slowly, to avoid the creation of stresses that
Figure 2.8.1 Fins on cast rings, caused by could cause cracks in the mould, with consequent formation of fins on the cast items,
cracks in the investment
Figure 2.8.1.
The second critical point is around 250°C (482°F), when a-cristobalite transforms
to b-cristobalite. This transformation takes place with a volume increase. In this case
temperature should be held constant for sufficient time to ensure that the
transformation occurs uniformly in the whole mould.
Lastly, with gypsum-bonded investment, we should not exceed the maximum
temperature of 750°C (1382°F). Above 750°C (1382°F), because of the presence of
silica, calcium sulphate decomposition can start, with consequent degradation of
investment strength. This can result in the formation of a sandy surface on the
castings, Figure 2.8.2.

2
On the other hand, to guarantee complete combustion of carbonaceous residues

left by the wax, we should exceed 690°C (1274°F). A nearly universally accepted
compromise gives 730°C (1346°F) as maximum burnout temperature. The critical
role of temperature comes out clearly from what has been said. Therefore, it is very
important to check the temperature control equipment of the burnout oven
periodically with a calibrated thermocouple, Figure 2.8.3.
The following is a typical burnout cycle. After dewaxing, ramp slowly to 250°C
Figure 2.8.2 Sandy surface on a cast item,
(482°F) in 1 hour, hold at 250°C (482°F) for 2 hours, ramp to 450°C (842°F) in 1 caused by investment crumbling during
hour, hold at 450°C (842°F) for 2 hours, ramp to 730°C (1346°F) in 11/2 hours, hold casting
at 730°C (1346°F) for 3 hours, then slow cooling to the selected flask casting
temperature and equilibrate at the casting temperature for at least 11/2 hours. The
casting temperature of the mould is chosen as a function of the pattern being cast
and the alloy used. The timing given for the cycle will vary, depending on the size of
the flask. Larger flasks require longer cycle times, Table 6.
Table 6 Flask size and typical burnout cycle time
Flask size Total cycle time Times to & at step temperatures* (hrs)
2.5 x 2.5 in. (63 x 63 mm) 5 hours 1 + 1 + 2 +1
3.5 x 4 in. (89 x 100 mm) 8 hours 2+2+3+1
4 x 8 in. (100 x 200 mm) 12 hours 2+2+2+4+1
*300°F/150°C; 700°F/370°C; (900°F/480°C); 1350°F/730°C; Casting temperature

Source: KerrLab Figure 2.8.3 Reference thermocouple
It is very important to keep the flask at the holding temperature long enough to
equilibrate temperature in the whole volume of the mould. We should remember
that investment is a poor conductor of heat. Temperature measurements carried out
800
by inserting thermocouples in different points of the moulds have shown that,
independently from temperature level, at least 11/2 hours are required for the centre
600
Temperature (°C)
of the mould to reach oven temperature. The same holds for the heating and the
cooling part of the burnout cycle. Flasks should not be allowed to cool down to room
400
temperature during the burnout cycle and then be reheated. They will crack and be
of poor quality. If the burnout oven fails or there is a power failure and the
200
temperature of the flask falls below about 250°C (482°F), throw the flasks away!
The oven atmosphere must be strongly oxidising, to guarantee complete burning
0
of carbonaceous residues. For the same reason, overfilling the oven with flasks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
touching each other should be avoided. Sufficient space should be left for air Hours
circulation among the flasks. Figure 2.8.4 Example of a burnout cycle for
As with investing, the investment manufacturer’s recommended burnout cycle stones-in-place casting. (Courtesy SRS Ltd.)
should be followed.
Where stones-in-place casting is being done, the burnout cycle must be modified
to prevent damage to the stones. Maximum temperature is only 630°C (1166°F) but
times may be longer to ensure wax burnout. Follow the recommendation of the
investment manufacturer. An example is shown in Figure 2.8.4.

2.8.2 Behaviour of calcium sulphate-bonded investment during

burnout
After dewaxing, when the temperature of the flask rises above 100°C (212°F), free
water evaporates and gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) begins to lose its water of hydration, but
the complete transformation of gypsum into the anhydrous form of calcium sulphate
(anhydrite) occurs over a wide temperature range, through complex transformations
Figure 2.8.5 Thermal expansion curve of a
typical calcium sulphate bonded investment of the crystal lattice.
for jewellery casting From the point of view of the goldsmith, it is important to note that these
transformations take place with a considerable volume contraction, which is particularly
severe at 300-450°C (572-842°F). If gypsum alone were used to produce investment
for lost wax casting, the moulds would crack in service and would also produce castings
a great deal smaller than the original patterns. Silica is used to compensate for this
gypsum shrinkage and to regulate the thermal expansion of the mould.
Silica exists in several crystalline forms, and two of them are used in the production
of investment powders. Quartz is the most readily available form and its conversion
from a to b crystal forms is accompanied by an increase in volume at around 570°C
(1058°F). Cristobalite is the other major constituent of investment powder and
this form of silica also undergoes a significant increase in volume as it transforms
from its a to b crystal structure at around 270°C (518°F). Thus, these
two allotropic forms of silica are used to override the shrinkage effect of the
gypsum binder.
A typical thermal expansion curve of a jewellery investment powder, Figure 2.8.5,
shows how the cristobalite provides the expansion between 250 and 300°C (482-
572°F). Then, there is a temperature band up to about 570°C (1058°F) where the
gypsum shrinkage dominates. Above 570°C, we see the contribution of quartz
transformation.
It is important to remember that, when the investment mould cools, it will pass
through the silica transformations which, being reversible, will contract an equal
amount to the original silica expansion. But the contraction of the plaster is
permanent, so there is no more volume compensation. This cooling curve can be
used to understand the final casting size and explains why the flasks cannot be
cooled too much between burnout and casting. After casting and on cooling
the plaster becomes very weak and, coupled with the disruption caused by the
cooling contraction of silica, enables the cast investment to be readily removed
during quenching.

2
2.9 MELTING
Not all jewellery workshops buy ready-made carat gold alloys from precious metal
alloy producers, so very often melting coincides with the formation of the alloy for
casting. Generally fine gold is added to a suitable master alloy. This is generally
preferable than producing carat gold alloys in situ, starting from pure metals. The use
of reliable master alloys, produced by reputable companies and correctly utilized,
can help to avoid many problems and guarantee a consistently good quality of the
end product.
The alloy to be melted should preferably be used in the form of grains of similar
size. This gives an advantage in temperature control. When the alloy is in small
pieces, melting is easier and faster and the risk of overheating can be avoided. Many
goldsmiths prefer to make the carat gold alloy in a preliminary melt, casting it into
water to make grain. Graining is carried out by pouring the molten metal from
suitable crucibles, preferably with bottom pouring, into stirred water.
Basically, there are three methods for melting: the gas torch, the electric
resistance furnace and induction heating. The torch is the most ancient method and
finds little use for melting in modern jewellery factories. Propane or natural gas is
preferred for heating, supposedly because they give a cleaner flame than acetylene.
The flame for melting should be reducing: a reducing flame has an irregular contour,
is bright blue and makes little noise. A reducing flame has a low oxygen content, so
it captures oxygen from the surrounding atmosphere and shields the melt from
oxidation. Nearly all alloy types can be melted with a torch.
Electrical resistance heating has been largely used for melting until the more
recent introduction of induction heating. Resistance heating allows working in a
closed environment, where atmosphere control is possible. Melting can be
performed in inert gas (nitrogen or argon) or in slightly reducing atmosphere
(forming gas). With resistance heating, it is difficult to obtain the high temperature
required for melting some white golds. In all cases melting is rather slow.
Induction heating is the most modern method and is used in nearly all latest
generation casting machines. Induction melting is very fast and induces stirring of
the molten metal, with rapid thermal and chemical homogenisation. The stirring
effect is greater, the lower the frequency of the induction heating.
Melting is probably the step of investment casting with the highest “metallurgical”
content. Therefore, it is very important to follow some basic rules or guidelines.
1. Before melting, the required amount of precious metal alloy should be
calculated: the weight of the wax tree multiplied by the density of the alloy
gives the minimum weight of alloy required for melting. A further amount
of alloy will be added to allow for the sprue button.
2. The amount of recycled scrap in the melt charge should be kept to a
mininum but never more than 50% scrap metal should be used for the
charge.
3. Any scrap metal to be remelted must be perfectly clean and free from
oxides and investment residues.

4. For preference, grained alloys should be used. When scrap from preceding
operations is used, it is recommended to remelt and grain it prior to use for
casting.
5. The melt should be stirred after melting, to ensure complete
homogenisation. In modern induction heated casting machines, stirring is
induced by electromagnetic interaction. In open furnaces, torch or electric
resistance heated, stirring should be done manually with a suitable
refractory rod, to avoid pollution of the melt.
6. The metal should be kept in the molten state for the shortest possible time,
Figure 2.10.1 Patterns with different shape to limit oxidation and the loss of alloying elements by evaporation.
factor 7. Before casting, the molten metal should be heated to a temperature higher
than the melting temperature of the alloy (superheat). The required
amount of superheat depends on the alloy, on the type of items to cast and
also on the casting equipment. In all cases, the degree of superheat should
be kept as low as possible: it could range from about 50°C (122°F) with a
bottom pouring crucible in a modern casting machine to typically 75-
100°C (167- 212°F) in an open top pouring crucible.
2.10 CASTING
In modern melting/casting machines, pouring of the molten metal into the mould is
carried out automatically. Melting and casting are controlled by the machine through
dedicated software. For most current static machines, pouring takes place through the
Figure 2.10.2 Experimental patterns with
different shape factor bottom of the crucible, so metal temperature loss is reduced to a minimum. If the
machine has a tilting crucible, an additional temperature loss up to 80-100°C (144-
180°F) should be considered when determining the casting temperature of the molten
alloy (i.e. amount of superheat). The liquid metal and flask temperatures should be kept
as low as possible to minimise the formation of defects, in particular gas porosity.
Therefore, before starting the production of new items, a set of tests should be
performed to find the optimum system temperature. The term ‘system temperature’ is
used to indicate the set formed by the molten metal and flask temperatures.
Solidification starts immediately after the liquid metal has filled the cavity of the
mould. The temperature difference between the liquid metal and the flask is always
considerable (about 400°C/720°F or higher). Therefore, the liquid metal filling the
mould cavity will start freezing from the investment mould surface, Figure 1.8 (a - d),
and solidification will progress rapidly to the inner part of the pattern. If the tree has
Table 7 Pattern size and relative surface area
Pattern Size Total Heat Increase Percent Increased Surface

in mm Surface Area, Over 1mm Area increase
mm2 thick pattern (over 1 mm Pattern)
15 x 15 x 1 510 0 0%
15 x 15 x 2 570 2x 11 %
15 x 15 x 4 690 4x 27 %

2
been assembled correctly, possibly with the patterns making a 90° angle to the main
sprue, if the feed sprues have been properly designed and if a main sprue of the right
diameter has been used to perform correctly, without exceeding its duty as a heat
reservoir, solidification will take place directionally towards the sprue and shrinkage
porosity will collect in the main sprue and in the sprue button.
If, on the other hand, shrinkage or gas porosity is present in the cast items, the
process parameters should be modified in a rational way, after due consideration of
the situation.
To find the optimum temperature combination for the liquid metal and the flask,
it is necessary to clarify some concepts concerning the shape of the items to be cast
and, specifically, the shape factor (surface to volume ratio).
If we cast three patterns that are 15 x 15 mm x 1, 2 and 4 mm thick respectively,
Figure 2.10.1, on the same tree, we could say that the casting conditions were the
same for all three patterns because the investment and the metal were at the same
temperature when the metal was cast. The surface area on the top and bottom of
all the patterns is constant; the only increase in surface area on the larger patterns is
on the sides; thus, the volume increases much faster than the surface area, Table 7.
All the heat lost to the investment from the metal must go through the mould-
metal interface. Investment is a poor conductor of heat and measurements show
that after the metal is cast, only 1 to 1.5mm thickness of investment material next to
the metal will experience any temperature change; naturally, as the metal cools, the
adjacent investment heats.
The temperature of the metal may have been the same when it was cast, but
each pattern holds a different amount of metal and, therefore, a corresponding
amount of heat energy. The 4mm thick pattern will discharge 4 times the heat to the
investment relative to the 1mm pattern. This means the temperature rise of the
investment will be much greater around the 4mm pattern than around the 1mm
pattern and the 2mm pattern should lie in-between.
If the metal temperature and the flask temperature are correct for the 1mm
pattern (this is the hardest to fill and requires higher temperature), then the
temperature will be too high for the larger patterns and gas porosity is likely.
Casters have a practice of classifying their patterns for flask temperature in terms
of heavy, medium and light. Most casters would classify two of the patterns on the
tree in Figure 2.10.2 as heavy and one each as medium and light. Therefore, the
concept of system temperature is also useful for taking into account the effect that
surface area and volume (surface area to volume ratio) have on the cooling of the
metal and the subsequent increase in the temperature of the investment at the
metal interface for a specific pattern, flask and metal temperature and alloy. The
pattern with the grooved surface has less volume of metal as the other 4mm thick
pattern and the surface area is somewhat larger. Because of that, it might cast better
at the ‘medium flask’ temperature. It can be concluded from this that:
a) System temperature is pattern specific. When considering which patterns can
be on the same tree, the surface to volume ratio should be noted, not just the
cross-sectional thickness.

b) When the pattern has high surface area and low volume (thin patterns), the
flask temperature influence is greater than that of the metal temperature. As
volume increases in ratio to surface area (thick patterns), the flask temperature
influence on the system temperature decreases.
c) Flask temperature is controlled by the hardest to fill pattern on the tree.
d) When thin and thick patterns are on the same tree, the flask temperature has
to be high enough to fill the thin patterns, and would be too high to cast the
thick patterns at their best system temperature.
e) System temperature is alloy specific. The casting temperature for a metal has to
be above the liquidus temperature and since various alloys melt at different
temperatures, the casting temperatures will vary as well. For a particular alloy, the
casting temperature will generally be lower for thick section patterns and higher
for thin section patterns, but in every case the casting temperature of the metal
is strongly influenced by size, shape and attachment point of the feed sprue.
Better-designed feed sprues will allow casting at a lower system temperature.
2.10.1 Test for system temperature

Figure 2.10.3 Experimental tree for system A simple experiment can be used to quickly find the best system temperature for a
temperature selection range of patterns cast with a specific alloy. Build five trees alike with five or six
different patterns on each tree, as seen in Figure 2.10.3. The selection of patterns
should represent the variety of patterns you cast, for example thin, medium, thick,
large and small. Inspect all the wax patterns before using them and attach them the
same side up. The patterns are attached in a vertical row at the top, centre and
bottom of the main sprue. Do not expect all the different patterns to cast well on any
one tree; rather, the purpose is to find out how each pattern casts at a temperature
combination. If there are five patterns on the tree, one cast will give a good idea how
each of these different patterns will cast at a given temperature set and, therefore,
five experiments are performed in one cast. This is called a designed experiment,
whereby the normal methodical testing process is shortcut.
A set of test trees, as described above, are cast using a grid of flask and metal
temperatures. The grid should note the alloy and the patterns being cast. Put the
presumed temperature ‘sweet spot’ in the centre of the grid as shown, Table 8.
Table 8 System Temperature Test Grid
Date:
Alloy: 18KY
Patterns Tested: A, B, C, D, E
Flask Temperature, °C (°F)
Metal Temperature, °C (°F) 500 550 600
(932) (1022) (1112)
960 (1760)
980 (1796) Flask 2
1000 (1832) Flask 1 Flask 3 Flask 5
1020 (1868) Flask 4
1040 (1904)

2
In this case, the flask temperature is 550°C (1022°F) and metal 1000°C (1832°F).
Cast one flask at each temperature combination on the grid above, below and at
each side of the sweet spot. Make sure all the flasks are well soaked at the casting
temperature before casting. Holding the flask for three or four hours at casting
temperature is considered prudent to get good experimental results.
After casting, inspect the castings in the as-cast condition, record the results and
send any promising casting through finishing and normal quality inspection. A simple
inspection criterion can be used to grade the castings for evaluating test results.
2.10.2 Inspection criteria

All inspected castings are rated as a 1, 2 or 3 where
1 = any casting that can be finished and would pass internal quality control
2 = any casting that can be repaired, finished and would pass internal quality
control
3 = any casting that is rejected, not economic to repair
In most cases, the castings graded #3 will be sorted out in the as cast condition.
Some #2 castings may be identified in the as cast condition, or subsurface defects
may show up later. Wax patterns must be free of any powder. By careful inspection
of wax patterns before casting, defects attributed to the mould and wax pattern can
be eliminated. Care should be given to identify any defect that can be attributed to
investment or burnout. Fins from cracked investment, or voids caused by investment
inclusions, for example, are not temperature related casting defects and should be
excluded from this test grading. A short list of defects that should be attributed to
wrong system temperature are incomplete filling, gas porosity, shrinkage porosity,
rough surface (where the wax was smooth), and cracks.
After the castings are graded, the score (1, 2 or 3) for each pattern number is
recorded on a test results chart, Table 9.
The test data are easy to understand in this form and trends can quickly be seen.
The example in Table 9 clearly shows the best flask and metal temperature for
casting pattern A in alloy 18KY (18 carat yellow).
Table 9 System Temperature Test Results Chart
Date:
Alloy: 18KY
Pattern A
(932) (1022) (1112)
980 (1796) 1/1/1
1000 (1832) 2/3/3 1/2/2 3/3/3
1020 (1868) 2/2/2
Top / Centre / Bottom

Table 10 System Temperature Test Results Chart
Date:
Alloy: 18KY
Pattern B
(932) (1022) (1112)
980 (1796) 3/3/3
1000 (1832) 3/3/3 2/2/2 1/1/2
1020 (1868) 1/2/2
Top / Centre / Bottom
Pattern A was picked to represent a larger selection of patterns that were judged
to have similar surface-to-volume ratios and, therefore, would be expected to cast well
at similar flask and metal temperature. So all patterns that are represented by pattern
a A in the test should be cast at metal 980°C (1796°F) and flask 550°C (1022°F).
The goal is to get all grade one castings and it is possible that that is not achieved
for a pattern in the temperature grid that was picked for the test. In Table 10, pattern
B is used to show how the chart can identify trends.
Metal 1000°C (1832°F) and flask 600°C (1112°F) is the best combination, but not
good enough. Since metal 1020°C (1868°F) and flask 550°C (1022°F) is much
better than metal 980°C (1796°F) and flask 550°C (1022°F), the trend to improve
would be to increase metal temperature to 1020°C (1868°F). This could be done as
a single cast test, or a new grid could be formed with a new presumed sweet spot.
2.10.3 Test for best feed sprue design

After the system temperature is found and applied to the range of pattern styles
b
produced, it may become evident that not all the patterns are casting with the desired
Figure 2.10.4 Selection of best feed sprue quality at the system temperature chosen for it. This leaves two options: find a new
design
temperature set for that pattern, or experiment with the feed sprue. If the casting
surface is rough and such things as powder in the wax, or a rough wax coming from the
mould are eliminated, then the temperature may be too high for that pattern and a
lower temperature can be explored. If the surface is very fine but details such as prongs
are not filling, the feed sprue may be to blame. Another designed experiment can be
Figure 2.10.5 Often it is necessary to consider

the model as an integral part of the feed
system, to position feed sprues correctly
a b c
Figure 2.10.6 Examples of cast trees

2
used to find the feed sprue design that works best for any pattern. This time, only one
pattern design will be used on the tree, but it will be attached with five different feed
sprue configurations. Using wax wire (or wax feed sprues made in a rubber mould, Figure
2.2.7), attach feed sprues to the patterns in different locations. Build a tree in the same
manner as the system temperature and test with three patterns on the tree with each
of the five or six feed sprue configurations, Figure 2.10.4. One flask may be all that is
required to solve the defect, but if the results are not satisfactory, then make and cast
additional flasks on a new temperature grid. In some cases also the pattern should be
considered as part of the feed system, Figure 2.10.5. Some examples of successfully cast
trees are shown in Figure 2.10.6.
2.10.4 Casting with stones in place

The technique of producing jewellery by investment casting with stones in place
(stones are set in the wax pattern) is no longer a novelty, but its use has increased
considerably in the last 10 years. At the beginning, this technique has been used for
large scale industrial setting of synthetic stones, mainly cubic zirconia, where the cost
of manual setting was not justifiable, but later its use has rapidly been extended to
natural stones, like diamond, ruby, sapphire, etc., Figure 2.10.7.
The same steps of the conventional investment casting process are used for
stone-in-place casting, but some modifications are required. The master model
should be suitably designed for positioning the stones correctly and the stones
should have a small groove, just below the girdle, to favour firm clamping by the
metal. Wax patterns must be flexible and springy and the stones are set in the wax.
This operation is much simpler and faster than setting in the metal. The use of a
special vacuum tweezer is advised to facilitate handling of the stones.
Invisible setting is the most suitable technique for stone-in-place casting. The use of
the special investment grades or classic gypsum-bonded investment, but with a very fine Figure 2.10.7 Example of a cast tree with
grain, is recommended. In the latter case, boric acid should be added to the investment stones in place
slurry, to protect the stones during burnout and casting, as described earlier. Dewaxing
should be performed dry, to avoid dissolution of the boric acid by steam.
The maximum temperature in the burnout cycle should be lower than usual, to
avoid spoiling the stones. Consequently, holding time at maximum temperature will
be longer than usual, to remove carbonaceous residues left from wax completely.
Maximum burnout temperature and recommended holding time should be
approximately:
• for diamond and emerald: 630°C (1166°F)/6 hours – flask casting temperature
480-530°C (896-986°F),
• for zircon, ruby, sapphire and synthetic stones 680°C (1256°F)/5 hours – flask
casting temperature 550-600°C (1022-1112°F).

The cast flasks must not be water quenched immediately, to avoid cracking of the
stones by thermal shock. The flasks set with diamonds can be water quenched after
at least 20 min. from casting. Flasks with other types of set stones can be quenched
after 60-120 minutes.
2.11 COOLING AND RECOVERY OF THE CAST ITEMS

The flasks cast with simple yellow or red gold should be water quenched about
3 minutes after casting but this time will depend on other factors, such as the flask
temperature on casting and specific alloy composition. With a longer cooling time,
cast items in 18 or lower yellow and red carat gold can harden, because of the
precipitation of intermetallic gold-copper phases in the gold matrix. If we want to
have the alloy in the condition of maximum softness (e.g. if heavy cold working is
required) it is necessary to heat to a high temperature (600-700°C (1112-1292°F))
and then water quench the castings. Flasks cast in low carat golds containing silicon
must be cooled longer to avoid quench cracking, preferably to 400°C (750°F) before
quenching. Flasks cast with nickel white gold should cool for slightly longer time
(5-6 minutes) before water quenching. Nickel white gold can crack if cooled too fast,
because of strong internal stresses.
The higher is the quenching temperature of the cast flask, the easier is the recovery
of the cast tree. The investment crumbles into pieces because of the thermal shock.
Safety note: As said earlier, quenching of the flask must be done in a well
ventilated area and the operator should wear special protective masks, approved for
protection from silica dust. Inhalation of fine silica dust is dangerous and must be
avoided. The steam produced by quenching hot flasks entrains very fine silica
particles that remain airborne and can be inhaled by an unprotected operator or
passer by!
The recovered tree should be thoroughly cleaned of investment residues adhering to
its surface. Cleaning is performed with high pressure water guns or by wet grit-blasting.
The above mentioned process refers only to calcium sulphate-bonded investment.
In the case of phosphate-bonded investment, the separation of the cast tree from
the investment can be realised only by mechanical means.
Subsequently, if the surface of the tree is oxidised (a frequent occurrence), it
should be pickled carefully in an acid bath. The most frequently used pickling solution
is 20% sulphuric acid in water at a temperature of 50°C (122°F). The cast tree is
dipped in the solution for about 2 minutes. Some workshops use “safety pickle” as an
alternative to storing and mixing sulphuric acid. This is sodium hydrogen sulphate
that, when dissolved in water at a concentration of 220 g/litre, gives what is
essentially a dilute solution of sulphuric acid.
If phosphate-bonded investment has been used, good results are obtained with a
50% water solution of hydrofluoric acid at 50°C (122°F). The cast tree is dipped in
the solution for about 5 minutes.
Safety note: Acids can be dangerous: they are strongly corrosive and can
cause serious problems, if they come into contact with the skin or the eyes.

2
Hydrofluoric acid is more dangerous than sulphuric acid and must be handled
with considerable care under an exhaust system and avoiding contact with the skin.
Glass containers or beakers cannot be used; it should be contained in
plastic containers and bottles.
When diluting a concentrated acid to make a pickle, the acid must be added
slowly to water, while stirring, and not the other way round. The exothermic reaction
that occurs when adding water to concentrated sulphuric acid produces intense heat
and may cause instantaneous boiling and spillage. The operator should always wear
protective clothing when handling acids and, most important, suitable eye
protection! In the case of contact of an acid with the skin or the eyes, wash
immediately with abundant water, then see a doctor.
Acids and spent pickle solutions can be polluting and should not be discharged
into the drainage system without treatment: all requirements for safety, health and Figure 2.11.1 Bench sprue cutter
environmental protection should be complied with.

After pickling, the cast tree is washed with water and dipped in a sodium
carbonate solution, to neutralize acid residues. Then it is carefully washed, to remove
all traces of pickle solution, and dried, preferably with a pressure jet of steam.
After drying, the cast tree is subjected to visual inspection. Possible defects, like
incomplete filling, shrinkage or gas porosity, etc. should be accurately described and
the position of the defective castings on the tree should be recorded. The more
information collected on the defects, the higher will be the probability of being able
to explain what happened and to take corrective action.
The subsequent step is cutting the castings off the main sprue. This can be done Figure 2.11.2 Hand held sprue cutter
with hand cutters or pneumatic sprue cutters that largely eliminate physical strain,
Figures 2.11.1 and 2.11.2.
After a second and deeper quality inspection, the cast items are sent for assembly
and finishing. The recommended finishing procedures are described in the Finishing
Handbook, published by World Gold Council in 1999.
2.12 SUMMARY OF THE BASIC RULES FOR THE DIFFERENT

STEPS OF INVESTMENT CASTING
In this section, a summary is given of the basic rules and guidelines to be followed in
the different steps of investment casting, necessary to obtain good quality cast
product. These rules have been distilled from what has been discussed in the
preceding sections.
Design (2.1):
• A good knowledge of the whole process is required.
• The designer should be in continual contact with the production staff.
• “Castable” objects should be designed.
• Sharp changes of cross-section (e.g. thick-thin-thick) should be avoided.
Otherwise adequate feed sprues should be provided.
• Possible production problems should be discussed before launching a new model.
Master model (2.2):
• Prefer alloys with suitable hardness.

• Finishing must be perfect.

• Rhodium plating is recommended.
• Also rapid prototyping techniques should be considered.
• The design of the feed system must take into account size and complexity of the
model.
• In the feed system, bottlenecks (thick-thin-thick patterns) and abrupt changes of
direction should be avoided. The principles of fluid mechanics should always be
considered.
Rubber mould (2.3)
• You should cultivate the skill of an expert mould maker.
• Knowledge of the characteristics of materials (natural rubber, silicone rubber, etc.)
should be the basis for selection of the correct material.
• Store the products for mould making as recommended by the producer.
• The geometry of the mouth of the mould should be accurately designed (it must
fit exactly on the nozzle of the injector).
• Vulcanisers with a reliable temperature monitoring and control system should be
used.
• The temperature in the vulcaniser should be frequently checked with a calibrated
instrument.
• The moulds should be kept perfectly clean and stored away from heat and light.
They should be numbered for identification.
Wax patterns (2.4)
• Prefer wax types with a narrow melting range.
• Understand the properties of different wax types to allow correct selection.
• Prefer injectors that apply vacuum in the mould prior to injection.
• Use a mould clamp with controlled clamping pressure.
• Record production parameters for each model.
• Weigh the wax patterns to evaluate weight variability for a single model.
• Verify wax quality accurately before use. Reject faulty wax batches.
• Don’t use too much talcum powder to facilitate pattern extraction from the
mould.
• Don’t use recycled wax.
Assembling the tree (2.5)
• Prefer a main sprue designed for optimum performance.
• In any case, prefer a rubber base with a conical sprue button (not hemispherical!).
• The rubber base should not show signs of wear.
• The rubber base should not contain residues of investment from preceding flasks.
If necessary, clean the base thoroughly!
• The welds between the main sprue and the feed sprues should be well filleted.
Avoid constrictions!
• Prefer a 90° angle between main sprue and feed sprue.
• The outer end of the wax patterns should be at about 10 mm distance from the
flask wall.

2
Investing the flask (2.6)

• Use investment powders produced by reputable companies.
• Store the investment in a well-sealed container and in a dry place.
• Check the production date of each new batch.
• Before use, clean the flask with a wire brush, to remove all traces of used
investment.
• Use powder and water at the recommended temperature.
• Mix the powder with the water in the ratio recommended by the producer.
• Prefer deionised water.
• Check the gloss-off time of each new batch of investment.
• Let the flasks set for at least 1 hour and no more than 2 hours before dewaxing.
Dewaxing (2.7)
• There is not clear understanding if dry or steam dewaxing should be preferred.
The most important thing is to start the burnout cycle immediately after
dewaxing, without letting the flask cool.
Burnout (2.8)
• In the case of electric resistance heating, prefer ovens with forced ventilation.
• Verify that temperature is uniform throughout the oven also during heating.
• Avoid loading too many flasks in the oven. Enough space should be left for air
circulation.
• Follow the burnout cycle recommended by the producer.
• Observe the holding times in the heating ramp.
• Don’t exceed 750°C (1382°F) maximum temperature (for gypsum bonded
investment).
• Temperature should be allowed to homogenize in the whole flask before casting.
• Preferably, the oven should be equipped with a double control system, with a
thermocouple in the work chamber and another one near the heating elements.
Melting (2.9)
• Calculate the weight of alloy required for casting (from the weight of the wax
tree).
• Use grained alloy or alloy cut in small pieces.
• Use clean metal.
• Don’t make a charge with more than 50% scrap metal.
• Don’t remelt the alloy more than three times.
• Avoid unnecessary overheating.
• Stir the molten metal for perfect homogenisation.
Casting (2.10)
• Keep the alloy molten for the shortest possible time.
• Use the minimum degree of superheat consistent with good casting.
• Cast in the shortest possible time.
Cooling (2.11)
• Water quench 3 minutes after casting (yellow and red gold castings) or 6 minutes
after casting (nickel white gold).
• After recovering the tree, clean it accurately and make a visual inspection. Type
and position of defects should be recorded.

2.13 SCHEMATIC LIST OF POSSIBLE DEFECTS

As mentioned in the introduction, this Handbook will not deal with defects in detail.
The analysis of most common defects, along with a description of their causes and
possible remedies to avoid their occurrence, has been dealt with in the Handbook on
Casting and Other Defects in gold jewellery manufacture, published by World Gold
Council in 1997. The reader should refer to this Handbook.
Here it is emphasized that, in most cases, defects don’t have a single cause.
Frequently, there are many causes acting together to cause a specific defect.
Consequently, corrective action will require compromises, in order to minimize
defect formation and improve end product quality.
A schematic list of most frequently observed defects is given below, along with
most common causes. These causes can act separately or in combination.
Shrinkage porosity
• Pattern is improperly sprued. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in
the proper location.
• Not enough liquid metal reservoir after filling mould cavity.
Gas porosity: it can consist of trapped or reaction gas. Distinguishing the two causes
is very difficult:
• Too much turbulence during pouring.
• Incorrect assembling of the patterns on the tree.
• Too much distance between the extremity of the patterns and the outer surface
of the flask.
• Too high metal and/or flask temperature.
• Metal is contaminated with gas.
• Too much moisture in the flux, if used.
• Too much recycled scrap has been used. Always use at least 50% new metal.
• Poor mould burnout.
Incomplete filling
• Insufficient feeding system.
• Too low metal and/or flask temperature.
• Pattern was improperly sprued, creating turbulence when casting in a centrifugal
casting machine.
• Centrifugal casting machine had too high revolution per minute.
Fins on the edges
• The investment has absorbed humidity before the preparation of the slurry.
• Flask was disturbed while investment was setting.
• Rubber base was removed too soon.
• The flask has been allowed to partially dry before dewaxing.
• Too high burnout temperature.
• The flask has been allowed to cool between dewaxing and burnout.
• Flask was improperly handled or dropped.
• Speed was set too high on centrifugal casting machine.
• Flask was placed too close to heat source in burnout oven.
• Flasks were not held at low burnout temperature long enough.

Bubbles or nodules on the surface of the cast items
• Air bubbles in the wax patterns because:
– Vacuum pump is leaking air.
– Vacuum pump has water in the oil.
– Vacuum pump is low on oil.
– Investment not mixed properly or long enough.
– Invested flasks were not vibrated during vacuum cycle.
– Vacuum extended past investment working time.
Depressions in the surface of the cast items
• The defect was already present in the wax patterns (see Table 4).
Watermarks
• The correct water to investment powder ratio has not been observed.
• The flask has been vibrated for too short a time (too long time between end of
vibration and investment setting).
Inclusions (Foreign particles: oxides, investment, graphite) in castings
• Patterns were improperly sprued to wax base or tree or not filleted, causing
investment to break at sharp corners during casting.
• Flask was not sufficiently cured before placing in the burnout oven.
• Improper dewaxing cycle was used.
• Flask was not cleaned from prior cast.
• Loose investment in sprue hole.
• Molten metal contains excess flux or foreign oxides.
• Crucible disintegrating or poorly fluxed.
• Improperly dried graphite crucible.
• Investment was not mixed properly or long enough.
• Flask was not held at low burnout temperature long enough.
• Contaminants in wax patterns.
Rough surface
• Too much talcum powder has been used to facilitate the extraction of the wax
patterns.
• Talcum powder and spray have been used at the same time.
Sandy surface: often associated with investment particles enclosed in the surface of
the metal:
• Too high burnout temperature.
• The investment has absorbed humidity before the preparation of the slurry.
• Flask was not sufficiently cured before placing into burnout oven.
• Flask was held in steam dewaxer too long.
• Metal, flask or both were too hot.
• Patterns were improperly sprued.
Shiny castings
• Carbonaceous residues have been left in the mould, creating a reducing condition
on the mould surface.

Temper
600
500
400
A L L O Y S F O R I N V E S T M300E N T C A S T I N G
200
???
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
??? 3
Ag Cu
Atomic per cent copper
3 ALLOYS FOR INVESTMENT 1000

Y
Liquid L
D
1083°
CASTING
960° A
Temperature °C
L+b
800 B L+a E 779°C C
8.8 28.1 92.0 b
Solid
a a+b
The result of the casting process depends strongly on the properties of the alloys 600
used. The alloy composition should be selected to suit the casting process. That
means that alloys tailored for casting should be used. In the past, mainly ‘general 400
purpose’ alloys have been used. This was (and still is, in part) possible for yellow carat
F G
200
gold based on gold-silver-copper due to the beneficial working properties. However, 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ag X Cu
the situation is different for white gold alloys. Composition weight, percent copper
The steadily increasing requirements for quality and economy have led to the
Figure 3.1.2 Silver-copper phase diagram
development of alloys modified for casting in recent decades. Such development is
difficult because the modifications have to be achieved without any change in
fineness and colour. Because of this, the modifications have been restricted to
relatively small alloying additions. The development of white gold alloys suitable for
casting has been somewhat different. General information on jewellery alloys is
Y
available in the literature.
1000
3.1 YELLOW AND RED GOLD ALLOYS 960° A Liquid L
3.1.1 Metallurgy and its effect on physical properties L+b

B L+a E 779°C C
800
The properties of the ternary alloy, gold-silver-copper, are strongly influenced by the8.8 28.1 92.0
Temperature °C
binary systems, especially gold-copper and silver-copper, Figures 3.1.1 and 3.1.2.a The
600 (and
low melting eutectic in the silver-copper phase diagram influences the melting Solid
casting) behaviour of yellow gold. A relatively small variation in the silver/copper ratio a+b
changes the melting range of the alloy considerably. In addition, a separation 400 into
two phases, a silver-rich and a copper-rich phase, will occur (especially in 14 carat
alloys, see later).
200 F
Age hardening can occur below approximately 410°C (770°F) due to the ordering
process originating from the gold-copper system.
Weight percent copper 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100 Ag X Composition weight, per cent copper
1100
1064.43°C 1084.87°C
1000
L
910°C
900 44
800
700
Temperature °C
(Au, Cu)
600
500
410°C
400 AuCuII AuCu3II390°C
64
300 385
AuCu3I
240 AuCuI 285
200 38.6
Au3Cu
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Au Cu
Atomic percent copper
Figure 3.1.1 Gold-copper phase diagram

3 A L LOYS F O R I N V E S T M E N T C A S T I NG
Au
It is not within the scope of this chapter to discuss the ternary alloy system in detail
1050°
10 90 (this is more fully discussed in the literature – see Further Reading at the end of this
20 80 Handbook).
We
70
er
30
°
00
silv
As an example, Figure 3.1.3 shows the influence of the composition on the liquidus
10
igh
40 60
ent
tp
temperature. There is a deep ‘valley’ in the liquidus temperature, starting from the
er c
er c
50 50
tp
ent
60 40
eutectic composition on the silver-copper side and continuing in the direction of the
igh
go
0°
We
30
90
70
ld
900°
80 20 gold-copper side (for more practical diagrams see Figures 3.1.7 and 3.1.8).
0°
1000°
950°
0°
95
85
1050°
90 Figure 3.1.4 shows the phase distribution at a temperature of about 300°C
0°
80
Ag Cu (572°F). The formation of a heterogeneous, two phase field and the formation of age
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Weight per cent copper hardening intermetallic compounds can be recognised. The diagram gives the
situation for an ideal equilibrium state, which is never fully attained under the
Figure 3.1.3 Liquidus surface of gold-copper-
silver system practical conditions of investment casting. However, it conveys an idea what might
happen in yellow gold, with consequences for mechanical properties and tarnishing
behaviour. The separation into two phases decreases the tarnishing resistance; the
formation of so-called ordered intermetallic compounds increases hardness and
Au strength but reduces the ductility (increases tendency to embrittlement).
α
Table 11 give some examples of the compositions of yellow gold alloys at various
20 80
finenesses (caratages). Data for melting range, density and standard colour are
40 α1/AuCu 60 included as far as available. The data for the melting range are not very reliable in
α1/AuCu3
some cases and have to be used with care.
60 40
Table 11 Examples of yellow gold alloys used in the jewellery industry
α1 + α2
80 20 Solidus Liquidus
Gold Silver Copper Zinc temperature temperature Density
100 Carat ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ °C °C g/cm3 Colour*
Ag 0 20 40 60 80 100
Cu 14 585 90 320 5 860 890 13,1 5N
14 585 100 277 38 835 865 13,1 3N
Figure 3.1.4 Two phase region in gold- 14 585 140 270 5 835 865 13,25 4N
copper-silver alloys 14 585 200 200 15 825 835 13,5 2N
14 585 260 140 15 830 845 13,7 1N
18 750 20 220 10 897 917 15,45
18 750 45 205 0 890 895 15,15 5N
18 750 90 160 0 880 885 15,3 4N
18 750 90 155 5 880 895 15,3 4N
18 750 125 125 0 885 895 15,45 3N
18 750 140 90 20 865 903 15,36
18 750 155 90 5 870 900 2N
18 750 160 90 0 895 920 15,6 2N
18 750 210 40 0 960 990 15,7 1N
21 875 0 125 0 926 940 16,7 Red
21 875 17,5 107,5 0 928 952 16,8 pink
21 875 45 80 0 940 964 16,8 yellow-pink
22 916,6 21,4 62 0 959 982 17,8
22 916,6 62 21,4 0 1010 1035 18
22 917 32 51 0 964 982 17,8
22 917 55 28 0 995 1020 17,9
* Based on ISO 8654 classifications

A L LOYS F O R I N V E S T M E N T C A S T I NG
3
All the alloys are based on gold-silver-copper. Most of the 14 ct alloys contain an
13.8 Density
addition of zinc. About 50% of the 18 ct alloys also have small additions of zinc. Zinc
13.7
additions are not common in higher carat alloys. The influence of zinc additions on
13.6
Density (g/cm3)
properties are considered separately in section 3.3. Low carat alloys (10, 9 and 8 ct) 13.5
are, with few exceptions, based on copper- gold-(silver)-zinc (in this order). Zinc can 13.4
be considered as a main alloying element in this case. 13.3
In addition to these ‘traditional’ alloying elements, in recent times small additions 13.3
13.2
of other elements are in use, e.g. for grain refining (iridium) and ‘deoxidation’ (silicon,
13.1
boron). The influence of these additions is also discussed separately in section 3.3.
60 100 140 180 220 260 300
Recently, to improve the mechanical properties of high carat alloys (20 ct up to
Silver (‰)
micro-alloyed ‘pure’ gold) special alloy systems have been developed. They are not in
Figure 3.1.5 Density of 14 carat yellow gold
frequent use and shall be mentioned only briefly. as a function of silver content
The density of 14 and 18 ct yellow gold is strongly influenced by the silver/copper
15.7
ratio (at constant gold content), Figures 3.1.5 and 3.1.6. Small additions of zinc have 18 ct YG
Density as a function of
a small influence on density, especially with 14 ct alloys where zinc is added more 15.6 silver content
frequently (Note: Figure 3.1.5 also contains alloys with small additions of zinc).
Density (g/cm3)
15.5 Density
The densities of 21 ct alloys (875‰ gold) lie in the range of 16.7-16.8 g/cm3; for
15.4
22 ct (917‰ gold), the values lie between 17.8 and 17.9 g/cm3. Variations in the
15.3
silver/copper ratio are very limited and have no significant influence on density.
The solidification range of a yellow gold alloy depends on the composition in a 15.2
rather complicated way. In principle, it can be read from the ternary phase diagram. 15.1
However, for practical purposes, diagrams which demonstrate the melting range for 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
the most important 14 and 18 ct alloys as a function of silver content are more useful, Silver (‰)
Figures 3.1.7 and 3.1.8. Figure 3.1.6 Density of 18 carat yellow gold
For the 18 ct alloys, an increasing silver content mainly influences the liquidus as a function of silver content
temperature, which also increases, but has less influence on the solidus temperature. 960
Influence of silver content on the
For the 14 ct alloys, the liquidus temperature is increased at higher silver 940 solidification
80 120 range 160 of 200
14 ct yellow
240 gold
280
concentrations to a limited extent, but the solidus temperature is significantly 920
decreased. Therefore, the solidification range itself is increased for both 14 ct and for 900
Temperature
18 ct alloys at higher silver contents. The consequence of a larger solidification range 880
860
is increased (micro-) segregation and a more pronounced dendritic structure.
840 SOLIDUS
The solidification behaviour of an alloy during casting is not only influenced by LIQUIDUS
820
the temperature range of solidification but also by the heat introduced by the melt
800
into the flask. 780
80 90 100 110 260 280 300 320 340 360
Table 10 shows some examples for the heat of solidification and the specific heat
Silver (‰)
of jewellery alloys and the pure alloying metals. The values are based on mass (as it
Figure 3.1.7
is common). Gold has the lowest and copper has the highest heat of solidification
945
940 Solidification range of 18 ct YG
Table 12 Data of thermal analysis for some typical jewellery alloys as a function of silver content 2N
935
930
Gold Silver Copper Heat of solidification Specific Liquidus Solidus Superheat
Temperature (°C)
925
Heat Temp. Temp. 100 K (°C) SOLIDUS
920 LIQUIDUS
% % % J/g J/cm3 J/(g*K) °C °C J/g 915
910
91.7 6.2 2.1 60 1002 0.174 1032.8 1009 17
905
75.0 16.0 9.0 72 1123 0.212 933.3 902.8 21 900 5N 3N
58.5 30.0 11.5 76 1048 0.242 891.4 850.9 24 895
90 10 111 0.320 901.6 779.8 890 4N
100 65* 0.157* 885
100 107* 0.310* 880
100 205* 0.494* 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Silver (‰)
* Source: Edelmetall Taschenbuch
Figure 3.1.8

Table 13 Table 14 Influence of atmosphere on interfacial tension (14 ct yellow gold)

Shrinkage at solidification, examples
Casting atmosphere Contact angle (deg) Interfacial tension (N/mm2)
Metal Shrinkage at Solidification, Vacuum 0.1mbar 144 1210
volume,% Forming gas (N2+H2) 148 1330
Gold 4.8 Argon – 660
Silver 7.3 Air <50 (low value) investment wetted by melt
Copper 5.4
18ct yellow gold 6.0 with silver lying in between. Therefore, alloys with more silver and copper deliver
more heat at solidification related to the mass. For practical purposes, it is more
important to know values related to the volume. The difference between different
jewellery alloys are now equalised to some extent. The table also shows that the heat
introduced by a melt superheat (casting temperature above liquidus temperature) of,
for example, 100°C (180°F) adds approximately a third of the solidification heat to
the total amount of heat introduced in the flask.
The sudden decrease of volume at solidification is responsible for the occurrence
of shrinkage porosity in jewellery castings
Table 13 presents some estimates for solidification shrinkage of some pure metals
and a typical jewellery alloy.
The overall porosity in a complete casting will be smaller than these values
because the shrinkage can be compensated to some degree by supplying additional
melt through the sprue and the gating system. However, in certain critical areas of
the casting, the porosity can be concentrated and exceed the mean value.
The interfacial tension between the melt and the investment is a critical factor
influencing the degree of form filling, the reproduction of fine surface details and the
surface roughness.
Yellow gold, based on gold-silver-copper, has a relatively high interfacial tension if
the formation of oxides is avoided (i.e. if casting is performed in oxygen-free
surroundings, e.g. in vacuum or a reducing atmosphere). However, the formation of
copper oxide reduces the interfacial tension considerably. Some values of interfacial
tension for 14 ct yellow gold are given in Table 14.
The relatively low value obtained with argon may indicate that oxygen was not
completely removed before filling the chamber with argon.
A high interfacial tension produces a characteristically rough surface structure,
mainly on thick walled items. This is due to dendritic solidification and shrinkage. The
microstructure is strongly dendritic. At solidification, initially a framework of dendrites
is formed. At final solidification, shrinkage sucks up the interdendritic melt from the
surface, leaving a dendritic relief. If the interfacial tension is low, the wall of the
investment is wetted and its smooth structure is reproduced, as long as no
decomposition of the investment occurs.
As seen in Table 14, the tension can be simply reduced by casting on air. However, no
improvement in surface quality will be achieved. The benefits of low surface (interfacial)
tension are compensated by the detrimental influence of oxidation and scaling. The
more effective approach is through varying the alloy composition (see later).

3
Table 15 Typical hardness (as cast) of gold-silver-copper alloys

280 Hardness of 18 ct yellow gold (as cast)
Composition (‰) Hardness as a function of silver content
260
Carat Gold Silver Copper HV
240
14 585 300 115 130 -147
Hardness HV
18 750 160 90 135 220
18 750 125 125 170 200
21 875 45 80 96 180
22 917 55 28 65
160 HV
Table 15 gives some approximate values of hardness for yellow gold alloys of 140
different fineness in the as cast state. 120
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
The hardness at a given fineness varies strongly with silver/copper ratio and also
Silver (‰)
with the treatment of the flask after casting (cooling conditions). Therefore, the
Figure 3.1.9
hardness may vary over a wide range.
The strong influence of the silver/copper ratio on the hardness of 18 carat alloys
is shown in Figure 3.1.9. Values ranging from hard (and brittle) to relatively soft
(ductile) are possible. The main reason for the increase in hardness with increasing
copper content is the age hardening (ordering) effect, as mentioned earlier. Copper-
rich alloys can form the ordered state very quickly and the hardness will be increased
considerably, with loss of ductility. Silver-rich yellow alloys undergo, firstly, a
separation into copper-rich and silver-rich phases, followed later by age hardening.
However, the amount of hardened phase is smaller. The hardening process is less
pronounced and the cast material remains soft and ductile.
The embrittlement of copper-rich pink and red alloys frequently causes cracks,
especially when the items are subsequently deformed, e.g. for widening or during
Figure 3.1.10 Cracks in red gold ring shank
stamping. Fig. 3.1.10 shows a broken shank of a red gold ring. Theoretically, the
embrittlement can be avoided by quenching from a temperature of about 600-
700°C (1112-1292°F). In practice the flask cannot be quenched fast enough to avoid
the problem with some red/pink gold alloys. The only way to get a ductile material
in this case is by subsequently annealing the cast items at approx. 600°C (1112°F)
and quenching them quickly into water.

3.1.2 High carat golds with enhanced properties

Traditionally, high caratage gold jewellery is in great demand in the Middle and Far
East markets. High carat alloys (21 carat and higher) alloyed only with copper and/or
silver additions are soft, so in recent years, improved strength high caratage gold
alloys have been developed. Obviously, these are yellow gold alloys, because of the
very high gold content. The main challenge has been to find small alloying additions,
which increase the strength. However, many of the new alloys are more difficult to
make and use, needing more sophisticated melting and working facilities, compared
with traditional alloys.
Gold-titanium
The gold – 1% titanium alloy, Au990Ti, has a hardness of approximately HV180 in the
age-hardened state. The hardness is comparable with standard carat alloys. Also the
ductility and wear behaviour are excellent. The disadvantages are:
• The high reactivity of titanium requires a protective atmosphere (argon) for
melting and annealing.
• The high strength is only obtained after age hardening. Subsequent soldering will
weaken the material again.
• Frequently, a pale greyish colour is observed after finishing. Investigations showed
that this effect is not a property of the alloy but caused by non-optimum polishing
conditions.
Gold-gallium
A gold – 1% gallium alloy, Au990Ga, is easy to work with, but the hardening effect in
the as cast state is moderate. It is more pronounced after deformation.
Gold-cobalt-antimony
This patented alloy, 99.5% gold-0.3% antimony-0.2% cobalt, Au995Sb3Co2 (‰),
recently developed by Mintek, can be hardened by cold work plus age hardening up
to HV140. Investment casting is possible.
Micro-alloyed ‘fine gold’
24 carat, fine gold alloys of 99.5% + purity, alloyed with very small amounts of
calcium, rare earth etc., have been developed and patented. In the annealed or as
cast condition, the hardness is slightly increased, but more significant increases can
be attained by working and aging. However, as noted above, these new alloys are
more difficult to make and use, needing more sophisticated melting and working
facilities. The use of these alloys is restricted to special applications.
3.2 WHITE GOLD ALLOYS

White gold alloys have an extremely wide composition range. They are essentially 3 types:
the nickel whites, the palladium whites and the mixed (nickel and palladium containing)
white golds. More recently, another class of nickel-free ‘alternative’ white golds have been
developed, based on use of metals such as manganese and chromium as the primary
whitener. In each class, a large variety of alloys are possible. In general, high concentrations
of nickel or palladium (circa 12%+) are required for a good white colour. Many commercial
alloys are thrifted in nickel (less hard) or palladium (less expensive), often with copper
additions, and are not a good colour, so requiring rhodium plating.

3
In Table 16 and Table 17, some examples of 18 and 14 carat ‘classical’ alloys are Table 18 – Influence of composition on
given. Many other combinations are possible. hardness of 18 ct white gold
Nickel white gold Au+Ag+Pd Cu+Ni+Zn HV
Nickel-containing white gold alloys tend to be hard and less ductile. Table 18 % % soft annealed
illustrates how the hardness of 18 ct gold increases with increasing content of non- 100 0 65
90 10 180
precious metals. These values are for the soft annealed state. 75 25 220
The mechanical properties of investment cast nickel white gold are not Au – gold, Ag – silver, Pd – palladium, Cu – copper,
predictable. At a low cooling rate, a nickel-rich phase segregates, causing Zn – zinc, Ni – nickel
embrittlement. Fast quenching can cause cracking. As it is almost impossible to cool
the tree in a flask under defined conditions, the properties are not fully predictable.
This disadvantage is not only true for mechanical properties, but also for corrosion
resistance and, consequently, for nickel release. The corrosion resistance decreases if
segregation of nickel-rich phases occurs. Alloys with such segregation will release
more nickel than homogeneous alloys.
A relatively high zinc content is necessary to avoid undue brittleness. However,
zinc-containing alloys should not be melted in a vacuum due to excessive
evaporation of zinc. Because of this, frequent re-melting of scraps will cause an
unwanted change in composition, again resulting in increased brittleness.
Table 16 Typical 18 carat white gold alloys

Concentration, ‰ Temperature, °C*
Au Ag Pd Cu Zn Ni Solidus Liquidus
Nickel white gold
750 0 0 55 50 145 895 945
750 0 0 10 75 165 888 902
Palladium white gold
750 100 150 1240 1300
750 150 100 1180 1225
751 118 130 1180 1235
751 80 170 1300 1315
750 40 170 40 1200 1290
750 60 130 58 2 1090 1185
Mixed white gold
750 135 75 20 20 1050 1110
750 110 50 30 60 950 1025
Au – gold, Ag – silver, Pd – palladium, Cu – copper, Zn – zinc, Ni – nickel
* approximate values
Table 17 Typical 14 carat white gold alloys

Concentration, ‰ Temperature, °C*
Au Ag Pd Cu Zn Ni Solidus Liquidus
Nickel white gold
585 270 50,0 95 920 990
585 185 75,0 155 915 1020
585 215 150 50 1080 1165
Mixed white gold
585 180 140 65 10,0 20 1010 1080
585 180 140 45 50 995 1090
Au – gold, Ag – silver, Pd – palladium, Cu – copper, Zn – zinc, Ni – nickel
* approximate values

Whereas melting of clean alloys in graphite crucibles is possible, the use of

gypsum-bonded investment is problematic. An increased reaction with the
investment is likely. This has a detrimental effect on surface quality and can increase
gas porosity. This effect depends strongly on the mass of the cast item and on the
flask and melt temperatures.
A further disadvantage of nickel-containing alloys is the pronounced affinity
of nickel for sulphur, present in the gypsum. Nickel sulphide can be formed which
segregates on grain boundaries and causes embrittlement. For this reason,
re-melting of scraps and pieces is especially critical, due to adhering old (gypsum-
bonded) investment. Sulphate (gypsum) will be reduced to sulphide on melting in a
graphite crucible. Nickel sulphide segregation results.
Additionally, silica (the main component of investment) can form silicide
compounds, with a similar embrittling effect as sulphide, if melting unclean scrap
under reducing conditions.
Nickel white gold can cause allergic skin reactions in nickel-sensitised people.
Therefore, the European Community has promulgated a Directive, EN 1811, to
protect the consumer. This Directive forbids the use of nickel only in the jewellery
used for piercing or in a healing wound. In all other cases where jewellery is in direct
and prolonged contact with the skin, the use of nickel is not forbidden, but a
maximum nickel release rate has been defined. This is determined with a specific
test in an artificial sweat solution. Alloys releasing nickel exceeding the limit
are not allowed.
The most important properties of palladium white gold of relevance to the caster
are:
• High melting temperature, which requires suitable casting equipment.
• High casting temperature, which might exceed the thermal stability of the
investment.
The wide use of induction melting techniques reduces the problem of high melting
temperatures. However, measuring the temperature with nickel/nickel-chromium
thermocouples is not possible; platinum/platinum-rhodium thermocouples are
necessary. The question of the use of graphite crucibles is discussed frequently.
Palladium in pure or low-alloyed form reacts with carbon (solubility of carbon in
palladium). However, the small concentration of palladium in gold alloys does not
give problems if the alloy is melted in graphite crucibles.
The great amount of heat, which is introduced into the mould by the melt, can
decompose gypsum-bonded investment, which leads to surface defects and gas
porosity. The danger of decomposition depends strongly on the mass of items. Thin
walled items may be cast using gypsum-bonded investment without too much
problem. On the other hand, heavy items can produce problems. In this situation, the
only solution is the use of phosphate-bonded investment.
Another disadvantage is the softness of the alloys for many applications. Some
addition of nickel (i.e. ‘mixed alloys’) will improve hardness and strength.

3
Alternative alloys
As mentioned earlier, ‘alternative’ white gold alloys have been developed as a nickel-
free substitute for the expensive palladium white alloys. Additions with a bleaching
effect used in such alloys are manganese and chromium.
Alloys with small additions of manganese have been known for many years. Higher
concentrations of manganese are necessary for a sufficient bleaching effect if nickel
and palladium are to be substituted completely. Such alloys have proved brittle and
susceptible to corrosion.
Chromium-containing alloys with a narrow specified composition show a good
colour and a good workability. However, casting and annealing of such alloys is
difficult due to the high reactivity of chromium. Chromium reacts not only with
oxygen but also with nitrogen and carbon. Investment casting must be performed in
a very clean argon atmosphere and in a special ceramic crucible. Phosphate-bonded
investment should be used. At present, these requirements cannot be fulfilled in
standard casting shops.
3.3 INFLUENCE OF SMALL ALLOYING ADDITIONS

Over recent decades, efforts have been undertaken to improve the casting behaviour
of carat gold alloys and/or the properties of cast jewellery items. Any modification to
alloys has ensured that neither the gold content nor the colour will be influenced.
Therefore, only small additions are appropriate. Depending on the addition, the term
‘small’ ranges from less than 100 ppm to several percent. It is essential that
recommended maximum concentration limits are followed. Also, the processing
conditions may have to be adapted to suit the modified alloys.
3.3.1 Improving properties

In the following, a brief overview is given about the properties where improvement
is desirable:
• The interfacial tension between the melt and the investment is a critical factor
influencing form-filling, the reproduction of fine surface details and surface
roughness.
• Form-filling is strongly influenced by casting conditions; however, some additions
have a beneficial effect (e.g. zinc, silicon).
• Reducing shrinkage porosity is highly desirable. Unfortunately, no addition can
influence this. Gas porosity might be reduced to some limited extent by a suitable
addition of zinc (perhaps also with silicon).
The grain size of investment cast items often tends to be rather coarse (large). The
consequences are:
• Strong segregation and a pronounced dendritic structure, with inferior corrosion
resistance and mechanical properties.
• Increased sensitivity to cracking.
• Formation of a rough surface (‘orange peel’) if the cast items are deformed
subsequently.
• Poor polishing behaviour.
The influence of coarse grains on shrinkage porosity is not unambiguous.

Investigations have shown that a smaller grain size apparently does not reduce all the
Effect of grain size on porosity
14 ct yellow gold porosity, but does reduce the formation of large pores and nests of pores, Figure
18
16 3.3.1. Whilst the maximum amount of porosity in a specific region of a cast item is
Porosity mean value
14 Porosity maximum reduced dramatically with decreasing grain size, the mean value is not influenced
12
Porosity %
10 significantly.
8 Grain refining improves the deformation and polishing behaviour (as mentioned
6
above) and inhibits cracks in critical cases. Zinc at higher concentrations reduces the
4
2 sensitivity to age hardening (makes the alloy ‘softer’, important for wire drawing).
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 Unlike the high carat golds, no special additions are in use to improve the strength
Grainsize (ASTM) or the age hardening properties for 18 or lower carat gold alloys.
In alloys consisting only of gold-silver-copper, copper can be oxidised with
Figure 3.3.1
formation of copper oxide. Casting of such yellow gold usually results in a black
copper oxide layer at the surface, formed while cooling down the flask. This
910 ‘blackening’ can be avoided or, at least, reduced by the addition of zinc or silicon
Influence of zinc on solidification range
900
890
of 14ct alloy (see later).
(copper concentration 115‰)
880 On the other hand, the formation of copper oxide inclusions can be caused by
Temperature (°C)
870
860 SOLIDUS re-melting of dirty scrap material, by use of oxygen-containing copper for alloying or
LIQUIDUS
850 by melting and casting in an oxygen-containing atmosphere. The oxide, on its part,
840
830 can cause gas porosity through a rather complicated reaction.
820
810
However, copper oxide can be reduced easily by melting in a reducing atmosphere
800 or by melting in a graphite crucible in a neutral or reducing atmosphere. Time and a
790
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
sufficiently high temperature are necessary for completion of
Zinc content (‰) this reaction.
No special deoxidising addition is necessary for removing oxides from the melt if
Figure 3.3.2
the melting and casting conditions are correct.
920 Influence of zinc on

3.3.2 Effects of individual additions
the solidification range The effects of the elements most commonly used as small additions to carat gold
910 of 18ct yellow gold
Copper constant 90‰ alloys are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Temperature (°C)
900
890
Zinc
Some quantity of zinc can be alloyed in yellow gold without changing the
880
microstructure. The specific amount of zinc which can be tolerated depends on
870
SOLIDUS fineness (caratage) and the silver to copper ratio. Gold can dissolve approximately 3%
860
LIQUIDUS
zinc (by mass) without any change in microstructure. Higher concentrations cause
850
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
the formation of new phases, including intermetallics; a detrimental influence on
Zinc (‰) properties can be expected.
Figure 3.3.3 In 14 and 18 carat alloys, higher concentrations of zinc are possible due to the
higher solubility of zinc in silver and copper. However, zinc is usually a small addition
in casting alloys with some beneficial effects. The recommended upper limit of
addition is approximately 2% in 14 and 18 carat yellow gold. In low carat golds (8-10
carat) and in nickel white golds, zinc is a standard alloying element and is often
present in higher amounts.

3
The effects of zinc additions in 14 and 18 carat yellow gold are: 80

Influence of zinc
a) Reduction in liquidus and solidus temperatures: 75 on formfilling of a grid
The influence of zinc is shown in Figures 3.3.2 & 3.3.3, whereby silver is 70
14 ct
Formfilling (%)
substituted by zinc and gold and copper are kept constant. Substituting 65 18 ct
copper by zinc might lead to a somewhat different effect; it will certainly 60

55
bleach the colour.
50
b) Increase in form-filling:
45
The influence of zinc additions up to 2% on the form-filling of 14 and 18 ct 40
yellow gold is shown in Figure 3.3.4. All the tests were performed with a test 35
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
grid under constant conditions. The beneficial effect is remarkable.
Zinc content (%)
c) Reduction in surface roughness:
Figure 3.3.4
The surface of cast items is much smoother if the alloy contains up to 2% zinc.
The effect is more pronounced with heavy parts. A roughness reduction to
approximately a third can be achieved. Influence of zinc addition on elongation
35
Both increased form-filling and reduced roughness can be related to the effect
of zinc on reducing the interfacial tension, which, in turn, improves the 30
Elongation (%)
wetting of the investment with the melt and reduces capillary forces. Thus, 25
the melt can more easily fill thin cavities and reproduce the smooth surface of 20
the pattern. This avoids the formation of a dendritic surface structure.
15
d) Reduction of reaction with investment and gas porosity: 14 ct
10 18 ct
Small zinc additions have proven able to reduce the reaction of the melt with
the investment and in this way decrease the incidence of gas porosity. The 5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
reason for this is not quite clear. Probably, the formation of a dense layer of Zinc content (%)
zinc oxide at the surface of the solidifying melt prevents the interaction of Figure 3.3.5
melt with the investment.
Tensile tests on cast samples has shown that a small addition of zinc improves
the elongation (ductility) by reducing the porosity, Figure 3.3.5. There is also
an increase in tensile strength, indicating that the effect is really related to
physical integrity of the samples.
However, it should be recognised that zinc additions higher than the
recommended value (approximately 2-3%) might have an adverse effect, e.g.
increase the reaction with investment and, therefore, increase gas porosity. without Zn 2% Zn
Influence of zinc on surface oxidation (14 ct)
e) Brighten the surface in the as-cast state:
Figure 3.3.6
Zinc has a stronger affinity to oxygen. During the cooling period of a casting,
a thin, relatively dense layer of almost colourless zinc oxide is formed on the
surface, inhibiting the formation of a thick voluminous black scale of copper
oxide, Figure 3.3.6. The pieces have a bright yellow appearance. Pickling
removes the zinc oxide layer easily without de-coloration of the surface.

Zinc has a high vapour pressure; it boils at 907°C (1665°F) at atmospheric pressure.
Thus, adding pure zinc to the melt is difficult. A great deal of zinc evaporates (in air,
with formation of white fumes of zinc oxide). This effect can be reduced by wrapping
the zinc in copper foil and immersing it very fast into the melt.The better way is the
use of brass as a master alloy. Alloyed already with copper, the vapour pressure of zinc
is significantly reduced. Use of brass with 70% copper or higher is recommended.
(Note: Brass with 60% copper and less often contains lead (as an alloying element)
and some other impurities. Lead contamination in gold is undesirable). Once zinc is
alloyed in yellow gold alloy, the alloy is stable. Significant loss by evaporation is
prevented if the level of approximately 2% is not exceeded. Even a moderate vacuum
Figure 3.3.7 Inclusions of zinc oxide
can be applied.
However, melting in air causes formation of zinc oxide and therefore reduces the
zinc concentration in the alloy. The main defects arising are inclusions of zinc oxide
in the alloy. For example, surface defects can be generated, Figure 3.3.7. This defect
is mainly caused by remelting of dirty material, e.g recycled sprues.
Higher zinc concentrations (exceeding the recommended level) increase the
reaction of the melt with the investment. The result is a bad surface and more
gas porosity.
Silicon
Silicon lies on the border between being a beneficial addition and deleterious
impurity. It has several merits: silicon increases the melt fluidity and form-filling. Its
effect is more pronounced than that of zinc. In yellow carat gold alloys, silicon
produces a clean, yellow surface without the dark scale of copper oxide. The reason
for this effect is the same as for zinc. A thin colourless, dense layer of its oxide, silica,
forms at the expense of copper oxide.
The high affinity of silicon for oxygen makes silicon a strong deoxidiser. However,
this use is not essential in yellow gold alloys.
Silicon additions have some disadvantages:
a) Embrittlement
The disadvantage of silicon additions is rooted in its limited solubility,
particularly in high carat jewellery alloys.
Its solubility depends mainly on the copper content of the alloy, as it is
insoluble in gold and silver and forms low melting eutectics (gold-silicon
363°C/685°F, silver-silicon 835°C/1535°F). In copper, silicon is soluble up to
almost 5%.
If the solubility of silicon is exceeded, a low melting eutectic is formed in the
jewellery alloy, causing embrittlement and cracks. Most critical are silver-rich,
high carat alloys.
For an 18 ct alloy of composition gold 75% - silver 4.5% - copper 18% - zinc
2.5%, the critical silicon concentration is 0.05%. Higher silicon additions can
cause embrittlement. 14 carat alloys can tolerate approximately 0.1% and 10
ct alloys ~0.3% silicon.

3
Table 19 Grain refiners in yellow gold alloys

Type Field of appliance Working mechanism Examples
1 Casting
1a High melting temperature, limited iridium, ruthenium,
solubility in the alloy (cobalt)
1b High reactivity with oxygen, low rare earth (yttrium),
solubility, formation of fine dispersed boron, barium, (calcium)
intermetallics or oxides
1c Probably formation of intermetallic e.g. zirconium/boron
compounds cobalt/boron
2 Soft annealing Formation of fine dispersed Cobalt,
segregations at annealing temperature All type 1 additions can
also decrease grain size on
soft annealing
The allowable silicon addition has to be determined for any given alloy
composition. It decreases with increasing (gold + silver) content and should
not be used in high (21/22) carat golds.
b) Grain coarsening effect
Another disadvantage of silicon is its pronounced grain coarsening effect.
It causes an extremely coarse grain, even at a very low concentration. The
main consequence is a tendency to intergranular cracking. The appearance of
the defect is very similar to that in Figure 3.1.10.
Inclusions of silicon dioxide occur in castings, especially where remelting dirty
material such as recycled scrap is done.
Grain refiners
To compensate for the undesirable grain coarsening effect of silicon and to refine the
grain size of jewellery alloys in general, many attempts to apply grain refiners have
been made.
Published work has shown that additions (and combinations) of: iridium,
ruthenium, zirconium, cobalt, boron, yttrium, (zirconium + boron), (cobalt + boron)
and barium were effective as grain refiners. In almost all cases, the additions were in
the range of 0.005 to 0.05% weight. Cobalt was added up to 0.2%. They all act in a
similar way: they form very fine dispersed nuclei as starting points for the formation
of grains at solidification. The mechanism of nucleation can be different. In all cases,
small concentrations are effective.
In Table 19 the grain refiners are classified in terms of application and working
mechanism.
Frequently used grain refiners are the high melting platinum group metals, iridium
and ruthenium, with limited solubility in gold alloys, and also some very reactive
elements. In the latter case, intermetallic compounds or even oxides or nitrides form
the effective nuclei.

Iridium
Iridium is the most frequently used addition for grain refining of gold
alloys. Investigations have mainly been performed with 14 and lower carat alloys.
In high carat alloys, the effect would be expected to be less pronounced, due to
the extremely small solubility of iridium in gold and silver. In contrast, iridium is
miscible in copper, more than 10% (by weight), forming a homogeneous
solid solution.
Discrepancies exist between observations by different investigators. Some have
found a grain refining effect in the range of 50 ppm iridium, whilst others could not
demonstrate such an effect even with concentrations of 0.1% and higher. The grain
Figure 3.3.8 Iridium clusters at surface
refining effect of iridium in silicon-containing alloys is uncertain.
The main causes of these different results are variations in alloying and melting
techniques as well as the basic composition of the alloys studied.
A master alloy has to be used to achieve good results. Preferably, a master alloy
with copper should be used, where the iridium concentration should not be too high
(<2%). Extreme care has to be taken to obtain a homogeneous iridium distribution in
the carat gold alloy. An addition of approximately 0.01% iridium in the alloy is usually
sufficient. A higher concentration has an adverse effect.
Use of iridium can lead to two types of defect:
- insufficient and inhomogeneous grain refining effect.
- segregation and hard spots.
Inhomogeneously distributed grain refiner or a too high concentration leads to
hard inclusions causing polishing problems (‘comet tails’) and, in extreme cases,
cracks, Figure 3.3.8.
Ruthenium
Ruthenium is another addition used for grain refining in carat gold alloys. The effect of
ruthenium as a grain refiner is similar to that of iridium. It shows a remarkable refining
influence in the concentration range of 0.001 to 0.01%. Again, a higher concentration
is detrimental due to the formation of coarse particles. Obtaining a homogeneous
distribution of ruthenium in yellow gold is difficult, and so iridium is preferred.

3


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4 EQUIPMENT
At least six steps of the investment casting process require specific equipment.
That is:
• the vulcaniser (vulcanising press), to make the rubber moulds,
• the wax injector, to make the wax patterns,
• the investment mixer, to make the investment slurry,
• a dry or steam dewaxer,
• the burnout oven,
• a melting/casting machine.
A wet sand or grit blasting machine can be added to this list, to complete the
removal of the investment from the cast tree. Also, other less costly equipment,
which is not strictly required but can simplify some steps of the process, can be
considered.
As remarked in the introduction, we should select qualified producers and
suppliers who have a technical knowledge of the process as well as give good after-
sales service for the supplied equipment. These are essential.
First of all, we should establish our goals (our production requirements) and what
we need to attain them. This decision can be taken only by the goldsmith.
Otherwise, there is always the risk that vital decisions on equipment for our
workshop could depend heavily on the ‘opinions’ of the local vendor. Frequently,
a production line made from poorly matched equipment will be the result
of such policy.
There are many trade fairs around the world, where you can obtain up-to-date
information on production equipment from a range of manufacturers. Examples
include:
• VicenzaOro, each year in January and June, in Italy
• Basel Fair, March/April in Switzerland
• Inhorgenta, February, Munich, Germany
• Hong Kong Trade Fair, September, Hong Kong
• Las Vegas Trade Fair, June, USA
• “Catalog In Motion”. This fair is held in February each year in Tucson, Arizona,
USA.
At such events, we can see and try equipment, compare different manufacturer’s
products and technical production problems and requirements can be discussed
with leading experts in the field.
When you have clarified your ideas and established your objectives, it is useful to
prepare an ‘evaluation chart’ for each type of equipment. In this chart you will
record a description of the different technical features of the equipment, along with
competence and efficiency of the producer or vendor. In this way you will be able
to make a more objective final choice, especially if you also make an evaluation of
costs versus benefits and of the return on investment. So many unpleasant surprises
will be avoided or at least mitigated.

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In addition to these general rules, we recommend that you add the following
guidelines:
• Never buy equipment without seeing it and without discussing every detail. You
should test it and evaluate ease of use, controls, possibility of programming, ease
of servicing.
• Find out if the producer himself has developed and built the equipment or if the
offered equipment is a cheap copy of something developed by someone else.
• Discuss the offered guarantee in depth.
• Find out how many pieces of the offered equipment have been sold and to what
company. Talk to some of their customers about their experiences.
Figure 4.1.1 Vulcanizer with digital • Ensure the producer will offer adequate training of your staff and will commission
temperature control the equipment in your factory so that it operates at the agreed specification
• Never choose equipment on the basis of price only. ‘Cheap’ is rarely good
economy!
Whatever equipment you buy, you should schedule the required servicing, i.e. what
tests should be done and when, and who should do them. All servicing operations
will be recorded on suitable charts. For example, for a melting/casting machine, the
cooling system should be checked daily, the filters of the exhaustion fixture weekly,
the oil of vacuum pumps monthly, etc.
Now we will discuss the specific equipment.
4.1 VULCANISERS
Apparently, a vulcaniser is a very simple item of equipment. It is basically a simple
screw press, with two heated platens and a temperature controller. However, in
practical use even such a simple piece of equipment can give unpleasant surprises. If
the temperature control system is crude and unreliable, it will be hard to obtain good
quality rubber moulds, with all consequent problems.
The characteristics to consider here are:
• the operating temperature range,
• the size of the heating platens,
• the maximum opening between the platens (i.e. the maximum thickness of the
rubber mould).
We should keep in our mind that several modern silicone rubbers don’t tolerate
temperature inaccuracies larger than 1°C (1.8°F). Other factors include uniformity
of temperature across the platens and the control system. An accurate temperature
control, without wide swings of temperature, is fundamental for a good vulcaniser.
It should be possible to check the calibration and the correct operation of the
temperature controller. For this purpose, in many vulcanisers there are proper
holes in the platens, where a calibrated thermocouple or other suitable device
can be inserted to check temperature level and distribution at different points
of the platens.
The approximate cost of a vulcaniser can range from about 350 Euros/US $ for a
very basic model to 650 Euros/US$ for a more sophisticated one with electronic
temperature control, Figure 4.1.1. A multiple vulcaniser, with multiple temperature
control and digital temperature display, can cost up to about 2,200 Euros/US$.

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4.2 WAX INJECTORS

When investment casting was first introduced in jewellery production, the spinning
of wax patterns in a centrifuge was the standard procedure, but it has now been
superseded by wax injection and is no longer used in jewellery workshops. Modern
wax injectors are airtight and the controlled temperature wax pot is placed inside. A
pressurization system allows the injection of the wax into the rubber mould. The
more sophisticated types are equipped with temperature control for both the pot
and the injection nozzle and with a vacuum system, to exhaust the air from the
Figure 4.2.5 Rubber mould for the injector of
mould before injecting the wax, Figure 4.2.1. Figure 4.2.4
With this type of injector, a clamping system for the rubber mould can be used to
keep a constant mould clamping pressure. This avoids the variations in wax pattern
weight caused by clamping pressure variability, that occurs if the mould is held
manually by the operator during wax injection, Figures 4.2.2 and 4.2.3. This
attachment is very useful for ensuring a consistent weight of the wax patterns.
Another type of injector where the mould is filled under suction is also commercially
available. These injectors require specific moulds designed with two openings. One
opening is used for suction, while at the same time the wax enters through the
second opening, Figures 4.2.4, 4.2.5 and 4.2.6. Figure 4.2.6 Wax pattern produced with the
In the field of wax injection, the present trend is towards an increasing automation, mould of Figure 4.2.5
with equipment able to identify the mould through a specific code. After identifying
the mould, the working parameters are automatically set to the required value,
Figures 4.2.7 and 4.2.8. Recently, a completely automated, programmable injector
Figure 4.2.7 Automated injector with

mechanical identification of the different moulds
Figure 4.2.1 Low cost wax injector, equipped Figure 4.2.3 Wax injector more sophisticated
with different fixtures for temperature control than the type shown in Figure 4.2.1
Figure 4.2.8 Moulds for the injector of Figure

4.2.7 and wax patterns produced
Figure 4.2.2 Detail of a wax injector with Figure 4.2.4 Wax injector with suction during
mould clamp injection. The wax is sucked into the mould

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has been put on the market. It uses rubber moulds equipped with a microchip, where
the relevant parameters of the mould (temperature, vacuum, pressure, time and wax
type for that particular model) are recorded, Figures 4.2.9, 4.2.10 and 4.2.11. With
this injector, wax patterns with the same weight can be obtained consistently. It is
particularly useful for mass production.
The cost of wax injectors varies widely and depends on the level of specification.
The cost can range from about 200 Euros/US$ for the more basic, completely
Figure 4.2.9 Automated injector able to manual, types up to about 15,000 Euros/US$ for the completely automated injector
identify the mould from a microchip inserted
in the mould just described.
4.3 INVESTING MIXING MACHINES

The investment slurry is obtained by adding investment powder to the water in the
weight ratio recommended by the manufacturer. Mixing can be done manually with
a suitable stirrer or with an electric mixer, and, after vacuuming, the slurry is poured
in the flask. The invested flask will be vacuumed again under a bell jar for removing
air bubbles from the slurry. Then the flask is put on a vibrating plate and is vibrated
until about 1 minute before the gloss-off point. This method is still used today in
many small workshops and good results can be obtained, if care is taken, but it is
Figure 4.2.10 Control panel of the injector of
Figure 4.2.9 difficult to ensure consistency.
Investment powders are becoming more sophisticated and specialized, and it has
been recognised that investment mixing, handling and filling of the flask are steps in
the investment casting process that critically affect performance of the mould. These
steps must be done correctly and accurately to obtain consistent results. Therefore,
most jewellery producers prefer investment mixing and pouring units that perform
the whole cycle in a regular, consistent manner and can fill one or more flasks in the
same operation, Figure 4.3.1. Many are automated and programmable.
Such equipment is available in many sizes to fit specific needs. Equipment with
Figure 4.2.11 Detail of the clamp of the stainless steel tanks and stirrers should be preferred, Figure 4.3.2. Certainly, it is more
injector of Figure 4.2.9 expensive, but it is more robust and easier to clean. Cleanliness is very important,
because residues of old slurry can modify the setting behaviour of the new
investment appreciably.
a b
Figure 4.3.1 Automated investment mixing Figure 4.3.2 Vacuum investment mixers
and pouring unit that can fill six flasks in a
single pour

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Fully manual equipment can cost about 800 Euros/US$. A programmable, fully
automated mixing and pouring unit with vacuum and vibration can cost from 1500
up to 8,000 Euros/US$, depending on the materials of construction, and even more
for large equipment for mass production.
4.4 DEWAXERS
As discussed in chapter 2.7, dewaxing can be carried out dry or by steam. Often, dry
dewaxing is done in the burnout oven, but can be done in a separate dewaxing oven
prior to the burnout cycle. Such ovens need to be fitted with fume extraction and a
gas scrubbing facility to comply with health, safety and environmental pollution Figure 4.4.1 Steam dewaxer
regulations.
Steam dewaxers are simple in concept; they are basically a stainless steel cabinet
containing a grid, on which the flasks are placed to dewax, above a layer of boiling
water, Figure 4.4.1. The water is heated with thermostatically controlled electric
resistance heaters, to avoid violent boiling. The cost depends on the size and ranges
from about 350 Euros/US$ for a dewaxer containing up to 6 flasks to about 1,000
Euros/US$ for a dewaxer containing up to 24 large flasks.
4.5 BURNOUT OVENS

To many, the burnout oven seems to be quite a simple piece of equipment.
Consequently, the goldsmith often cannot understand why the cost of a burnout
oven should vary over such a large range. Many burnout ovens are available on the Figure 4.5.1 Good quality traditional burnout
market that are suitable for treating 10 flasks, but their price can range from about oven
2,000 Euros/US$ up to about 25,000 Euros/US$!

A major problem with many burnout ovens is their poor temperature control and
lack of uniformity of temperature within the oven. Temperature within an oven can
vary, typically, by 50-75°C/122-167°F. Thus, flasks in different positions receive
different thermal cycles and, because of the position of the control thermocouple,
may not reach the set temperatures. Thus, casting quality can vary from flask to flask
and from one side of a flask to the other. Overfilling the oven with too many flasks
can exacerbate this problem.
Temperatures should be monitored regularly with a calibration thermocouple and
the temperature distribution within the oven measured with the oven containing its
normal load of flasks.
Many specialized companies can supply ovens with good technical characteristics,
Figures 4.5.1 and 4.5.2. A good oven should have the following characteristics:
Figure 4.5.2 Burnout oven equipped with air
• good thermal insulation. Apart from energy saving, usually the oven runs in a circulation in the first phase of heating. Note
confined space: it should not act as a radiator and must not burn when the presence of two control thermocouples
accidentally touched. The temperature of the outer surface of the oven should
not exceed 37-40°C (98-104°F).

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• if the oven is heated by electrical power, the heating elements should be shielded,
to avoid direct radiation on the flasks. Therefore, ovens where a shield is inserted
between the heaters and the flasks is preferable. Direct radiation can cause
uneven heating of the flasks, leading to some sides being overheated, causing
deterioration of the investment and consequent formation of defects in the
castings. A rotary table in the oven is not sufficient: the outer flasks will always
show the same side to the heating elements, so this side will heat more rapidly
and to a higher temperature than the rest of the flask.
Figure 4.5.3 Drawing of a forced ventilation
burnout oven • Temperature should be homogeneous in the whole work chamber of the oven
during the holding periods at constant temperature and, if possible, also during
the heating phase.
• In gas-heated kilns, temperature homogeneity is favoured by air circulation caused
by the burner. To ensure temperature homogeneity in all phases of the cycle,
electric ovens should be equipped with a fan to assist air circulation and hence
temperature uniformity throughout the entire burnout cycle, Figures 4.5.3 and
4.5.4. Most electric ovens in service are not equipped with a fan, or the fan runs
only in the cooling phase of the cycle, to shorten the time required to reach the
temperature suitable for starting a new cycle. In other cases, the fan runs only in
the heating phase up to 200-300°C (392-572°F).
• The oven should be equipped with a temperature programmer suitable for the
heating cycle required by the investment within the flasks.
Figure 4.5.4 Detail of the loading door of the As noted for dewaxers, burnout ovens should be fitted with fume extraction and a gas
oven of Figure 4.5.3. It is opened with a foot
lever drive
scrubbing facility to comply with health, safety and environmental pollution regulations.
Table 20 Comparison between centrifugal casting and static casting for gold
Centrifugal casting Static casting

Basic programming Sophisticated programming, up to self-programming
It is possible to have an inert atmosphere, but only in It is easy to have a controlled atmosphere. It is also possible to
a few models have different atmosphere composition in crucible and flask
chambers
Relatively small flasks Larger flasks (h > 200 mm (≈ 8 in))
Max. charge weight ~ 800 g Max. charge weight even > 1500 g
High pouring turbulence Lower pouring turbulence (with a correct feed system)
Risk of investment erosion, because of high metal flow Lower risk of investment erosion
& pressure
Feed system not critical Critical feed system (it should be suitably designed)
Relatively low productivity (8-10 casts/hour) Higher productivity (20 casts/hour in the most sophisticated
machines, using larger flasks too)
Relatively lower cost High cost (for the more sophisticated machines)

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4.6 MELTING/CASTING MACHINES

4.6.1 Comparison between centrifugal and static casting
machines
The purchase of a casting machine is the largest financial investment made by the
goldsmith or caster. Choosing the right machine is no easy decision when there are so
many available on the market. Having decided on his requirements in terms of production,
the first decision is whether to buy a static casting or a centrifugal casting machine.
There are no special reasons to prefer one system or the other. Here the decision
is up to the goldsmith and will depend on his needs, experience and preference. A
centrifugal casting machine is really needed only in the case where investment
casting of platinum is to be done. (Platinum is less fluid than gold and a stronger Figure 4.6.1 Defective surface on centrifuge
push, that only a centrifugal machine can give, is required for filling the mould cavity.) cast rings, caused by investment erosion
For gold and other precious metals, in recent years the preference has shifted strongly
towards static casting machines, which are favoured because of their higher level of
technological evolution. In the more advanced models, they are nearly fully automated.
Automated machines remove, to a large extent, the technical responsibility from
the goldsmith or caster in the casting phase of the process and result in a more
consistent quality product. Human error is minimised. The main differences between
static and centrifugal casting are summarized in Table 20.
Centrifugal casting Figure 4.6.2 Another example of defective
Centrifugal casting has two weak points: more turbulence in the liquid metal during surface caused by investment erosion during
centrifugal casting
‘pouring’ and a higher liquid metal pressure. On the other hand, higher pressure
facilitates form-filling and makes the feed system less critical, particularly with very
thin patterns. As discussed in preceding chapters, high turbulence increases the
probability of having gas porosity from trapped gas. Perforated flasks are not used in
centrifugal machines, so the escape of gas from mould cavity is more difficult, even
with suction from the bottom of the flask.
High casting pressure favours complete filling of the mould, but also increases the
risk of investment erosion (and mould collapse in the extreme case). Eroded
investment particles become entrained in the flowing metal, leading to inclusions in
the castings. Such erosion can also lead to sandy surfaces on the castings. This
occurrence has been demonstrated by recent studies that have shown that surface
defects caused by crumbled investment, formerly ascribed to incorrect burnout,
were instead caused by investment erosion produced by the centrifugal force
pushing the liquid metal in the mould, Figures 4.6.1 and 4.6.2.
Moreover, in centrifugal casting, the pressure exerted on the liquid metal is not
constant over the entire length of the tree, but is highest at the top of the tree and
lowest at the sprue button. Therefore, the patterns near the sprue button can be
incompletely filled, while the patterns near to the treetop can show finning, caused
by investment cracks produced by the high pressure.

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Static casting
In contrast, in static casting, the pressure is due to gravity and is nearly uniform over
the full length of the tree, because the only difference is due to the hydrostatic
pressure of the liquid metal from top to bottom.
With static machines, maintaining a controlled atmosphere in the crucible and
flask chambers is not difficult, whereas only few centrifugal machines can operate in
a controlled atmosphere.
Productivity
Lastly, let us consider productivity. In centrifugal casting machines, the metal high
Figure 4.6.3 Sketch of a variable geometry
centrifugal casting machine pressure also sets a limit to the weight of the charge that can be safely used; it should
not exceed 800 g (1.76lb). Flask height is also limited to 150 mm (6 in). The limit on
flask size is not so onerous in static machines, where the weight of the charge can be
larger than 1.5 kg (3.36lb) and the flasks can be taller than 250 mm (10 in). Higher
charge weight and larger flasks mean better process economy.
With a centrifugal machine, the operator will struggle to make more than 8 casts per
hour, using 130-150 mm (5-6 in) high flasks. With a vacuum assisted (maybe also pressure
assisted) fully automated, latest generation, static casting machine, the operator can carry
out up to 20 casts per hour without difficulty, using 250 mm (10 in) high flasks.
Obviously, these are extreme cases, but they give an idea of the different potential
of these two systems. Even if productivity not always is a critical factor in a workshop
or factory, we should consider that the operator working with a static automatic
machine has more time available for his other work, i.e. it is less labour intensive.
Figure 4.6.4 Trace of the liquid metal on the
crucible wall in a traditional centrifugal casting
machine 4.6.2 Centrifugal machines
Probably, centrifugal machines are the most widely used for casting jewellery. In
recent years, there has been considerable progress in motor technology and
programming systems, but the original basic design remains nearly unchanged. In
comparison with older centrifuge equipment, the most important innovations
include the variable geometry arm, the flask with bottom-applied suction (in some
models), the temperature measurement attachment, induction heating and a
controlled atmosphere chamber (in some models).
Variable geometry
In the variable geometry machines, the angle between the flask axis and the
centrifuge arm is not longer fixed at 0°, but can change from 90° (in its rest position)
to 0° as a function of rotation rate, Figure 4.6.3. In this way, the combination of
Figure 4.6.5 Trace of the liquid metal on the centrifugal and tangential-inertial forces acting on the molten metal flowing out of the
crucible wall in a variable geometry centrifugal crucible and entering the flask, is taken into account. This device helps to improve the
casting machine. Note the symmetry of the
metal flow symmetry of metal flow into the mould, Figures 4.6.4 and 4.6.5, and prevents the
liquid metal from flowing preferentially along the side of the main sprue cavity
opposite to the rotation direction, as occurs in conventional fixed geometry
equipment, where this phenomenon can cause incomplete filling of some patterns on
the cast tree.
Figure 4.6.6 Sketch of a centrifugal casting

machine with suction through the flask bottom

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4
Applied suction
To ease the outflow of the gas contained in the mould cavity, suction systems have
been designed that are connected to the flask bottom, Figures 4.6.6 and 4.6.7.
These systems form a single unit with the rotating centrifuge assembly and facilitate
filling of very thin mould cavities.
Temperature measurement
As for temperature measurement, the best systems make use of a thermocouple
dipping into the molten metal in the melting crucible. The thermocouple is clamped
Figure 4.6.7 Centrifugal casting machine
on the rotating system and the electric signal is transmitted through suitable contacts operating in an inert atmosphere, with suction
on a commutator, that open when rotation starts, Figures 4.6.8 and 4.6.9. through the flask bottom
Temperature measurement is less accurate and reliable when a thermocouple
contacting the outer crucible surface is used. Crucible and thermocouple have
different electrical potential and electric discharges can occur; these oxidise the
thermocouple junction and contribute to errors in temperature readings. Optical
pyrometers also tend to be less accurate and reliable.
Process control
Generally, in centrifugal casting machines, the operating parameters must be
Figure 4.6.8 Detail of the crucible zone,
programmed by the operator and the interaction with the operator is very tight, without the flask
Figure 4.6.10. The operator chooses the rotation rate and, consequently, the level of
the centrifugal force that will push the molten metal into the mould during pouring.
There are no fully automated centrifugal casting machines.
The best machines are equipped with induction heating and, recently, machines
operating under a protective atmosphere have been put on the market. Developing
a centrifugal machine to operate under a protective atmosphere is more complicated
than for a static machine, not least because of the larger volume involved.
Cost
Figure 4.6.9 Detail of the crucible zone, with
The cost of a centrifugal casting machine can range from about 2,000 to about 4,000 the flask and the thermocouple for liquid
Euros/US$ for basic equipment, not programmable, with torch melting. The cost of a metal temperature measurement
machine with some programming and induction heating can reach 10,000 Euros/US$,
while machines with more sophisticated programming, induction heating, controlled
atmosphere, temperature measurement with a dipping thermocouple and suction
from the flask bottom can cost up to 40,000 Euros/US$ or more.
4.6.3 Static machines

All modern, good quality static casting machines are “vacuum assist”, i.e. are
Figure 4.6.10 Detail of the programming
equipped with a suction system, acting through the flask, which facilitates mould system of a high performance centrifugal
filling, Figure 4.6.11. The best machines are equipped with separate crucible and casting machine
flask chambers. In this way, process time can be shortened further.
Nearly all static casting machines operate under an inert atmosphere, usually
nitrogen or argon although some use a hydrogen/nitrogen reducing atmosphere.
Presently, argon is frequently preferred, even if it is more costly than nitrogen. The
machines can also be equipped with a pressure system, acting (after pouring) only in
the flask chamber on the sprue button to facilitate better mould fill and surface
detail. In some very recent machines, pouring is also carried out under pressure.
Figure 4.6.11 Modern basic level static casting

machine

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a b c d
Figure 4.6.12 Computer assisted static casting machine:
a – General view b – Detail of the crucible chamber c – Detail of the control panel d – Display with operation parameters
In many machines, pouring takes place through the crucible bottom; this
minimises heat loss during pouring, allowing a lower degree of superheat and also
reduces the risk of oxide entrapment in the casting, since any oxide on the surface
of the melt will tend to fill the sprue button.
Many casting machines can be equipped with a grain-making accessory, for
making casting grain.
Heating and temperature measurement
Many static machines are induction heated, although more basic small machines can
be electrical resistance heated. In general, the better quality machines have medium
– low frequency induction. Heating depth and hence melting speed as well as
electromagnetic stirring forces increase with decreasing frequency.
Temperature measurement can be by optical pyrometer or, better and preferable,
by a sheathed thermocouple dipped into the melt, often via the central stopper in
bottom pouring crucibles.
e
a b c
Figure 4.6.13 Computer controlled static casting machine:

a – General view
b – Only the essential process parameters are displayed, because the
machine is computer operated
c – Flask temperature measuring attachment equipped with optical
pyrometer
d – Operation scheme of the machine
e – Graining attachment for making alloy grains
f f – Connection with the computer for recording process parameters
g
g – Process evolution can be observed on the computer screen

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4
Trends in process control

For all the leading machine manufacturers, the trend is towards an even more
complete automation of the machines. In some cases, artificial intelligence software
is being utilised. These control systems remove the risk of operator error. He only
feeds the metal charge into the crucible and sets the casting temperature. Then the
control system takes all other technical decisions on the subsequent steps of the
melting and casting process.
There are two trends in the technical development of static machines:
Figure 4.6.14 Operation of a pressure casting
programmable machines or self-programming machines. We could say “computer machine:
assisted” machines, Figure 4.6.12, or “computer controlled” machines, Figure 4.6.13. 1 – Preparation for melting
In the first group, the operating cycle is planned by the operator, who inputs a set of 2 – Crucible and flask chambers are exhausted
(vacuumed)
instructions. Generally, with these machines, data collection must be done by the 3 – Inert gas is introduced in the crucible
operator, who should write down all data recorded by the machine. In contrast, chamber and slowly, also in the flask
chamber; induction heating of the crucible
computer controlled machines are self-programming. They can automatically evaluate is started
the weight of the charged metal and correct the thermocouple temperature readings
in real time. This correction is needed, because thermocouples are always enclosed in
a refractory sheath and temperature readings always lag slightly behind in comparison
with the true metal temperature (they are lower in the heating phase and higher in the
cooling phase). Data collection is carried out automatically: the data are recorded in
the computer and can be retrieved for subsequent processing.
The most recent developments involve the use of pressure assistance in casting,
as shown in, Figures 4.6.14, 4.6.15, 4.6.16 and 4.6.17.
4 – The crucible chamber is filled with inert

atmosphere with controlled pressure
5 – (Optional) the flask chamber can be put
under dynamic vacuum
6 – Pouring is started: the crucible chamber is
pressurized, while the flask chamber is
vacuumed
a b
Figure 4.6.15
a – Detail of the crucible of the machine of Figure 4.6.14. The thermocouple is off-centre to
facilitate crucible filling 7 – Pouring ends. The flask chamber is
b – Detail of the control panel pressurized, to facilitate mould filling and
prevent shrinkage porosity
8 – The cast tree is solidified. The pressure in
the flask chamber is lowered
9 – The crucible chamber is filled with inert
gas, to protect the heating assembly. In
the meanwhile the flask chamber is
opened, to recover the cast flask

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Cost
The price range is even wider than for centrifugal casting machines. Electric
resistance heated, non programmable machines may cost a few thousand Euros/US$,
and resistance heated, programmable machines can cost up 7,000-8,000 Euros/US$.
But induction heated machines with a good level of programming capability can cost
up to 20,000 Euros/US$ and more sophisticated, fully automatic machines that can
be interfaced with a computer for data collecting and processing may cost even
more than 60,000-70,000 Euros/US$. A typical range of machines produced by one
manufacturer is shown in Table 21.
Table 21 Range of static casting machines from a US manufacturer
Model Heating Max. Crucible Flask size, Typical Casting Optional

Temperature capacity*, maximum, mm cycle time rate, features
Grammes (dia. x height) Mins flasks/hour
J-2 Resistance 1204°C 900 102 x 229 6-8 8-10
J-z Induction 1513°C 1440 127 x 229 4 12-15 Yes
J-5 Induction, 5kW 1513°C 1440 152 x 254 4 12-15 Yes
Figure 4.6.16 A machine for static casting J-10 Induction, 10kW 1513°C 1960 152 x 254 <3 20-25 Yes
under pressure (made in U.S.A.) J-15 Induction, 15kW 1513°C 1960 152 x 254 <3 20-25 Yes
* 14 carat gold
Figure 4.6.17 Another machine for static

casting under pressure (made in Germany)

EQUIPMENT
4

4 EQUIPMENT

SOURCES OF EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLES
5
5 SOURCES OF EQUIPMENT
AND CONSUMABLES
It is impossible to give a comprehensive list of manufacturers and suppliers. Good
advice is to visit an International (or your local) Jewellery Trade Fair and visit the
material and equipment stands to see who supplies in your region.
Note: The following lists of suppliers do not imply endorsement of the company,
their products or technical service by the authors or by World Gold Council.
In the list there are companies normally present at two or more international fairs.
The companies are listed in alphabetic order and are subdivided according to the
process steps, starting from general suppliers. The latter are mainly commercial
companies that sell a wide range of machines, consumables and tools, necessary for
the investment casting process.
5.1 GENERAL SUPPLIERS
1 FOV Srl 4 KerrLab (sds Kerr)

Via del Progresso 45 Z.I. 1717 West Collins Avenue
I-36100 Vicenza Orange, CA 92867
Italy USA
Tel: +39 0444 566211 Tel: +1 714 516 7650
Fax: +39 0444 566830 Fax: +1 714 516 7649
E-mail: info@fovsrl.it E-mail: kerrteam@kerrlab.com
Web: www.fovsrl.com Web: www.kerrlab.com
2 Gesswein & Co Inc 5 Lasso Co.

255 Hancock Ave. Letnikovskaya 6A
Bridgeport, CT 06605 Moscow 113114
Tel: +1 203 366 5400 Russia
Fax: +1 203 331 8870 Tel: +7 095 7257741
E-mail: info@gesswein.com Fax: +7 095 9563473
Web: www.gesswein.com E-mail: sales@lasso.ru
Web: www.lasso.ru
3 Gold International Machinery Corp
PO Box 998 6 Luigi Dal Trozzo
Pawtucket, RI 02860 Via Accademia 48
USA 20131 Milano
Tel: +1 401 724 3200 Italy
Fax: +1 401 728 5770 Tel: +39 02 288587.1
E-mail: mail@goldmachinery.com Fax: +39 02 2870812
Web: www.goldmachinery.com E-mail: info@luigidaltrozzo.it

5 SOURCES OF EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLES
7 Mario Di Maio Spa 5.2 MACHINE SUPPLIERS

Via Paolo Da Cannobio 10 Vulcanisers
I-20122 Milano See General Suppliers and other
Italy companies listed
Tel: +39 02 809926
Fax: +39 02 860232 Wax Injectors
E-mail: info@mariodimaio.it 11 DIK-Vacutech
Web: www.mariodimaio.it Adolf-Sautter-Strasse 78
D-75181 Pforzheim-Würm
8 Quimijoy S.A. Germany
C/Gaia 49 Tel: +49 7231 979860
Poligon Industriel Pla D’En Coll Fax: +49 7231 979862
E- 08110 Montcada I Reixac-Barcelona E-mail: DIK-Vacutech@t-online.de
Spain
Tel: +34 93 565 0990 12 HISPANA de Maquinaria, S.A.
Fax: +34 93 575 1556 Calle Pallars, 85-91
E-08018 Barcelona
9 Rio Grande Spain
7500 Bluewater Road NW Tel: +34 93 3091707
Albuquerque, NM 87121-1962 Fax: +34 93 3090702
USA E-mail: hispana@hispanaspain.com
Tel: +1 505 839 3011 Web: www.hispanaspain.com
Fax: +1 505 839 3016
E-mail: info@riogrande.com 13 Maxmatic
Web: www.riogrande.com 53 Avenue de la Republique
also: www.cataloginmotion.com F-33450 Saint Loubes
France
10 Romanoff International Supply Tel: +33 5620 4344
Corporation Fax: +33 5668 6003
9 Desforest Street E-mail: maxmaticfrance@hotmail.com
Amityville, NY 11701
USA 14 MPI Inc
Tel: +1 631 842 2400 165 Smith Street
Fax: +1 631 842 0028 Ploughkeepsie, NY 12601
E-mail: romanoff1@aol.com USA
Web: www.romanoff.com Tel: +1 845 471 7630
Fax: +1 845 471 2485
E-mail: sales@mpisystems.com
Web: www.mpi-systems.com
15 M.Yasui & Co Ltd.

Yasui Building, 3-7-4 Ikejiri, Setagaya-ku
Tokyo 154-0001
Japan
Tel: +81 3 5430 7211
Fax: +81 3 5430 5813
E-mail: cast@yasui.co.jp
Web: www.yasui.co.jp

5
16 SH. Benbassat Int. 22 H. Seltsam u. Sohn GmbH

5 Simtat Hashach St. See opposite
66079 Tel-Aviv
Israel 23 Italimpianti Orafi Spa
Tel: +972 3 6830216 Via Provinciale di Civitella 8
Fax: +972 3 6822862 I-2041 Badia Al Pino (Arezzo)
E-mail: sh_benba@netvision.net.il Italy
Web: www.benbassat.com Tel: +39 0575 4491
Fax: +39 0575 449300
17 Tanabe Kenden Co Ltd E-mail: info@italimpianti.it
1-9-14 Fukasawa, Setagaya-Ku, Web: www.italimpianti.it
Tokyo 158-0081
Japan 24 KWS Kachele GmbH
Tel: +81 3 3704 3044 Parkstrasse 18
Fax: +81 3 3702 3044 D-75175 Pforzheim
E-mail: honsin@tanabekenden.co.jp Germany
Web: www.tanabekenden.co.jp Tel: +49 7231 33408
Fax: +49 7231 106548
18 H. Seltsam u. Sohn GmbH E-mail: info@kws-kachele.de
Bleichstrasse 56-58
D-75173 Pforzheim Steam Dewaxers
Germany See General Suppliers and other
Tel: +49 7231 259 22/23 companies
Fax: +49 7231 265 32
E-mail: seltsam@s-direktnet.de Burnout Ovens
25 Allmet Maschinen GmbH
19 Yoshida Cast Zeppelinstrasse 6
3-17-24 Bessho, Urawa D-75446 Wiernsheim
Saltama 336-0021 Germany
Japan Tel: +49 7044 96190
Tel: +81 48 862 5621 Fax: +49 7044 961919
Fax: +81 48 862 5627
26 HISPANA de Maquinaria
Vacuum Investment Mixers See page 90
20 HISPANA de Maquinaria
See page 90 27 Maule srl
Via N. Copernico 13/15
21 Hoben International Ltd I-6057 Arcugnano (Vicenza)
Spencroft Road Italy
Newcastle-under-Lyme Tel: +39 0444 289202
Staffordshire ST5 9JE Fax: +39 0444 289209
England E-mail: maulesrl@goldnet.it or
Tel: +44 1782 622285 info@maulesrl.it
Fax: +44 1782 636982 Web: www.maulesrl.it
E-mail: invest@hoben.co.uk
Web: www.hoben.co.uk

28 Promec 33 M. Yasui & Co Ltd.

(Burnout Ovens, tailor-made) See page 90
Via Stelvio 2
I-27010 Siziano (Pavia) 34 Flli Manfredi Spa
Italy Via Valpellice 72
Tel: +39 0382 617945 I-10060 San Secondo Di Pinerolo
Fax: +39 0382 679504 Italy
Tel: +39 0121 501561
29 Ruf Maschinenbau Fax: +39 0121 500456
Brauereistrasse 1a E-mail: manfredi@piw.it
D-75181 Pforzheim Web: www.manfredi-saed.it
Germany
Tel: +49 7231 562287 35 Indutherm GmbH
Fax: +49 7231 562628 Bahnhofstrasse 16
E-mail: ruf-industrieofen@t-online.de D-75045 Walzbachtal – Jöhlingen
Web: www.ruf-industrieofen.de Germany
Tel: +49 7203 9218-0
30 Schultheiss GmbH Fax: +49 7203 9218-70
Pforzheimer Strasse 82 E-mail: info@indutherm.de
D-71292 Friolzheim Web: www.indutherm.de
Germany
Tel: +49 7044 94540 36 Inresa GmbH
Fax: +49 7044 945440 Am Hasenbiel 7
E-mail: Info@Schultheiss-GmbH.de D-76297 Stutensee (near Karlsruhe)
Web: www.Schultheiss-GmbH.de Germany
Tel: +49 7244 94411
31 Neutec USA Fax: +49 7244 96181
7500 Bluewater Road NW
Albuquerque, 37 L. Buysschaert & Co bvba
New Mexico 87121-1962 [Buko machines]
USA Engelse Wandeling 5
Tel: +1 505 839 3550 B-8500 Kortrijk
Fax: +1 505 839 3525 Belgium
E-mail: neutecusa@tbg.riogrande.com Tel: +32 5622 0549
Web: www.neutec.com Fax: +32 5622 9021
Investment Casting Machines 38 Linn High Therm GmbH

32 Aseg Galloni spa Heinrich-Hertz-platz 1
Via Caravaggio 16 D-92275 Escheenfelden
I-20078 San Colombano (Milano) Germany
Italy Tel: +49 9665 91400
Tel: +39 0371 200233 Fax: +49 9665 1720
Fax: +39 0371 898705 E-mail: info@linn.de
E-mail: info@galloni-aseg.com Web: www.linn.de
Web: www.galloni-aseg.com

5
39 McFerrin Engineering & 44 Vetter Technik GmbH

Manufacturing Co. / Memco Benzstrasse 1
International Fsc Inc D-75203 Königsbach-Stein
4849 Olsen Drive Germany
Dallas Tel: +49 7232 2548
Texas 75227 Fax: +49 7232 2272
USA E-mail: info@vetter-technik.de
Tel: +1 214 388 5656 Web: www.vetter-technik.de
Fax: +1 214 388 8479
5.3 CONSUMABLES
40 Neutec USA See also General Suppliers
See page 92
Mould Rubber
41 Opticom 45 Castaldo
Via Spin 96 120 Constitution Blvd.
I-36060 Romano d’Ezzelino (VI) Franklin, MA 02038-2697
Italy USA
Tel: +39 0424 513210 Tel: +1 508 5201666
Fax: +39 0424 513211 Fax: +1 508 5202402
E-mail: opticom@tin.it E-mail: info@castaldo.com
Web: www.opticom-sas.com Web: www.castaldo.com
42 Oy Diacast Finland Ltd 46 KerrLab

c/o Sirokoru Ltd See page 89
Karhunkatu 2
FIN-20760 Pilspanristi Wax
Finland 47 Castaldo
Tel: +358 2 242 4600 See above
Fax: +358 2 242 4050
48 Ferris Division,
43 Seit Elettronica Kindt-Collins Co
Zona Industriale – Localita Zecchei 12651 Elmwood Avenue
I-31409 Valdobbiadene (TV) Cleveland, Ohio
Italy USA
Tel: +39 0423 975767 Tel: +1 216 2524122
Fax: +39 0423975785 Fax: +1 216 2525639
E-mail: info@seitel.it E-mail: info@kindt-collins.com
Web: www.seitel.it Web: www.kindt-collins.com
49 KerrLab
See page 89

Investment Powder Alloys & Master Alloys

50 Hoben International Ltd 56 Allgemeine
See page 91 Kanzlerstrasse 17
D-75175 Pforzheim
51 KerrLab Germany
See page 89 Tel: +49 7231 9600
Fax: +49 7231 68740
52 Ransom & Randolph E-mail: info@allgemeine-gold.de
3535 Brianfield Boulevard Web: www.allgemeine-gold.de
Maumee, OH 43537
USA 57 Alpha Guss Metal & Legierungen
Tel: +1 419 8659497 GmbH
Fax: +1 419 8659997 Bleichstrasse 92
E-mail: info@ransom-randolph.com D-75173 Pforzheim
Web: www.ransom-randolph.com Germany
Tel: +49 7231 927166
53 WestCast Fax: +49 7231 927168
121 Dale Street SE E-mail: info@agsmagic.de
Albuquerque, NM87105
USA 58 Argen (Pty) Ltd
Tel: +1 505 839 3581 PO Box 509
Fax: +1 505 839 3525 Edenvale 1610
Web: www.WestCast.com South Africa
Tel: +27 11 609 8640
54 S.R.S. Ltd Fax: +27 11 452 3918
Amber Business Centre
Riddings 59 Argex Ltd
Derbyshire DE55 4BR Silver House
England 130 Hockley Hill
Tel: +44 1773 608969 Birmingham B18 5AX
Fax: +44 1773 540195 U.K.
E-mail: sales@srs-ltd.co.uk Tel: +44 121 523 4344
Web: www.srs-ltd.co.uk Fax: +44 121 523 4354
55 UCPI 60 Argor-Heraeus SA
3, Avenue d’Amiens Via Moree 14
F-93380 Pierrefitte CH-6850 Mendrisio
France Switzerland
Tel: +33 1 49711444 Tel: +41 91 646 0191
Fax: +33 1 48230608 Fax: +41 91 646 8082
E-mail: ucpi@worldnet.fr
Web: www.ucpi.fr 61 C. Hafner GmbH & Co
Bleichstrasse 13-17
D-75173 Pforzheim
Tel: +49 7231 9200
Fax: +49 7231 920207
E-mail: c.hafner@s-direkt.net.de
Web: www.c-hafner.de

5
62 Cookson Precious Metals Ltd 67 Hilary Stern (Pty) Ltd

59-83 Vittoria Street PO Box 2149
Birmingham B1 3NZ Bramley 2018
U.K. South Africa
Tel: +44 121 200 2120 Tel: +27 12 316 3562
Fax: +44 121 200 3222 Fax: + 27 12 316 3574
Web: www.cooksongold.com
68 Imperial Smelting & Refining Co
63 O.M. Group of Canada Ltd
(formerly Degussa AG/DMC2) 451 Denison Street
See Allgemeine Markham
Precious Metals Division Ontario L3R 1B7
Rodenbacher Chaussee 4 Canada
PO Box 1345 Tel: + 1 905 475 9566
D- 63403 Hanau – Wolfgang Fax: +1 905 475 0703
Germany Web: www.imperialproducts.com
Tel: +49 6181 590
Fax: +49 6181 593030 69 John C. Nordt Co Inc
1420 Coulter Drive NW
64 Engelhard-CLAL Roanoke, VA 24012
Platexis SA USA
49 Rue de Paris Tel: +1 540 362 9717
F-93136 Noisy-Le-Lac Fax: +1 540 362 2160
France Web: www.jcnordt.com
Tel: +33 1 48505050
Fax: +33 1 48505151 70 Leach & Garner
57 John L. Dietsch Square
65 Engelhard Corp. N. Attelboro, MA 02761
700 Blair Road USA
Carteret, NJ 07008 Tel: +1 508 695 7800
USA Fax: +1 508 699 4031
Tel: +1 732 205 7900 Web: www.leach-garner.com
Fax: +1 732 205 7453
Web: www.engelhard.com 71 Leg.Or Srl
Via San Benedetto 14/34 Z.I.
66 Heraeus Edelmetall Halbzeug I-36050 Bressanvido (Vicenza)
GmbH Tel: +39 0444 467911
Lameystrasse 17 Fax: +39 0444 660677
D-75173 Pforzheim E-mail: info@legor.com
Germany Web: www.legor.com
Tel: +49 7231 200961
Fax: +49 7231 200957
Web: www.heraeus.com

72 Melt Italiana Sas 77 Stern-Leach

Via Martiri della Resistenza 3 49 Pearl Street
I-20090 Fizzonasco di Pieve Attelboro, MA 02703
Emanuele (MI) USA
Italy Tel: +1 508 222 7400
Tel: +39 02 90781900 Fax: +1 508 699 4030
Fax: +39 02 90722892 Web: www.stern-leach.com
E-mail: info@melt.it
Web: www.melt.it 78 Stuller Inc.
PO Box 8777
73 Metaux Precieux SA Metalor 302 Rue Louis XIV
Avenue Du Vignoble Lafayette, LA 70598-7777
CH-2009 Neuchatel USA
Switzerland Tel: +1 800 877 7777 or
Tel : +41 32 720611 337 262 7700
Fax : +41 32 7206609 Fax: +1 800-444-4741
E-mail: info@metalor.ch E-mail: info@stuller.com
Web: www.metalor.ch Web: www.stuller.com
74 Pandora Snc 79 United Precious Metal Refining Inc

Via Massarenti 15 23120 West Lyons Avenue, #5-491
I-20148 Milano Newhall, CA91321
Italy USA
Tel: +39 02 4075886 Tel: +1 805 254 0523
Fax +39 02 48706026 Fax: +1 805 254 0525
E-mail: info@pandoralloys.com E-mail: sales@unitedpmr.com
Web: www.pandoralloys.com Web: www.unitedpmr.com
75 Precious Metals West/ 80 Valcambi SA

Fine Gold Inc Via Passeggiata
608 Hill Street, #407 CH-6828 Balerna
Los Angeles, CA 90014 Switzerland
USA Tel: +41 91 695 5311
Tel: +1 213 689 4872 Fax: +41 91 695 5353
Fax: +1 213 689 1654
E-mail: daniel@westworld.com 81 Wieland Edelmetalle GmbH
Web: www.pmwest.us Schwenninger Strasse 13
D-75179 Pforzheim
76 Pro-Gold Srl Germany
Via Molinetto 40 Tel: +49 7231 37050
I-36075 Montecchio Maggiore Fax: +49 7231 357959
(Vicenza)
Italy
Tel: +39 0444 492493
Fax: +39 0444 498336
E-mail: progold@tin.it
Web: www.progold.com

FURTHER READING
6
6 FURTHER READING
Literature references are subdivided by subject and are listed in chronological order.
Where possible, the same order of subjects has been followed as in the Handbook.
Many references are quoted from the Proceedings of the Santa Fe Symposium
on Jewelry Manufacturing Technology, which has been held every year since 1987.
For the sake of brevity, in the references only ‘Proc. SFS’ has been written, followed
by the year instead of the full quotation. The Proceedings of SFS for each year can
be purchased directly from Rio Grande in Albuquerque, NM, USA, either via the web
site: www.riogrande.com or directly (address in list of suppliers).
Articles in Gold Bulletin and Gold Technology can be obtained from World Gold
Council or via the archives on its website, www.gold.org
Many relevant articles can also be found in jewellery magazines, such as AJM
magazine published by MJSA (www.ajm-magazine.com)
HISTORY OF THE PROCESS

1. T.G. Jungersen, British Pat. 449,062 & 503,537 & U.S. Pat. 2,354,026 &
2,362,136. 1935
2. L.B.Hunt, “The long history of lost wax casting”, Gold Bulletin, 13 (2), 1980, 63-79
3. D. Schneller, “The cave of treasures – Lost wax castings from 3500 B.C.”, Proc.
SFS 1987, p. 1
4. P.E. Gainsbury, “Jewellery investment casting”, in ‘Investment Casting’, Edited
by P.R. Beeley & R.F. Smart, published by The Institute of Materials, London,
1995, p. 409
THE INVESTMENT CASTING PROCESS

5. J.P. Nielsen, “Advanced technology for the jewelry caster”, Proc. SFS 1987, p. 77
6. J.C. McCloskey, “The application of commercial investment casting principle to
jewelry casting”, Proc. SFS 1987, p. 203
7. D. Ott, “Metallurgical and chemical considerations in jewelry casting”, Proc.
SFS 1987, p. 223
8. D. Ott, “Methods for investment casting in the jewelry industry – Principles,
advantages, disadvantages”, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 203
9. L. Diamond, “Casting as a total system”, Proc. SFS 1989, p. 235
10. M.F. Grimwade, “Basic metallurgy for goldsmith – Melting, alloying and
casting”, Gold Technology, No 3, 1990, p. 3
11. A.M. Schaler, “Recent developments in casting techniques”, Gold Technology,
No 11, 1993, p. 28
12. C. Walton, “Modern commercial workshop practice in gold jewellery
investment casting”, Gold Technology, No 11, 1993, p. 28
13. A.M. Schaler, “Use of computers in gold jewellery casting”, Gold Technology,
No 14, 1994, p. 18
14. T. Santala, “An overview of casting technologies currently used in industry and
emerging technologies”, Proc. SFS 1995, p. 213
15. S.M. Howard, A. Manou, “Computer simulation of investment casting process
using Rapidcast software”, Proc. SFS 1995, p. 229
16. A.M. Schaler, “Cutting casting costs”, Proc. SFS 1995, p. 247
17. A.M. Schaler, “Take no shortcuts”, Proc. SFS 1996, p. 187

6 FURTHER READING
18. V. Faccenda, “Advances in investment casting machines technology”,

Gold Technology, No 20, 1996, p. 3
19. A.M. Schaler, “Design and casting: the tale of a symbiotic relationship”, Proc.
SFS 1997, p. 357
20. T.L. Donohue, H. Frye, “Process control: power, value and advancement for the
jewelry industry”, Proc. SFS 1998, p. 179
21. K. Wiesner, “Bi-metal casting techniques for jewelry applications”, Proc. SFS
1998, p. 271
22. J. Maerz, “Casting gold to platinum”, Proc. SFS 1998, p. 321
23. D. Ott, “Physical, metallurgical and chemical processes in jewelry casting”,
Proc. SFS 1998, p. 457
24. V. Faccenda, “Investment casting: centrifugal or static vacuum assisted?”,
25. S. Grice, “The effect of quench temperature on silicon-containing low carat
investment casting alloys”, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 205
26. D. Ott, “Properties of melt and thermal processes during solidification in
jewelry casting”, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 487
27. S. Grice, “The effect of Si-content versus quench temperature on low carat
casting alloys”, Gold Technology, No 28, 2000, p. 18
28. D. Ott, “Metallurgical and chemical factors influencing working conditions”,
Proc. SFS 2000, p. 227
29. C.W. Corti, “Investment casting: choice of equipment” – Paper presented at
World Gold Council Technical Seminars, India, 2000
30. C.W. Corti, “Back to basics: Investment casting – Part 1”, Gold Technology,
No 28, 2000, p. 27
31. V. Faccenda, “Investment casting: an integrated process”, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 97
32. S. Bezzone, D. Zito, “Is it possible to recast scraps? This is what jewellers ask”,
Proc. SFS 2002, p. 61
33. J.T. Teague, “Finding hidden money in your manufacturing system”, Proc. SFS
2002, p. 511
MODEL AND SPRUING

34. L. Diamond, “Casting defects from model to finished product”, Proc. SFS 1987,
p. 149
35. A.M. Schaler, “Gating and spruing”, Proc. SFS 1991, p. 191
36. H. Solidum, “Hollow tree casting technology”, Proc. SFS 1996, p. 535
37. K. Wiesner, “Metal flow optimising – An important step to successful casting”,
Proc. SFS 1999, p. 1
38. J. Matthews, “ Making master models from thermoformed plastic”, Proc. SFS
2000, p. 169
39. E. Bell, “Sprues, feed sprues and gates”, Gold Technology, No 36, 2002, p. 2
MOULD AND WAX

40. D. Schneller, “Wax degassing“, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 293
41. L. Sanchez, “Molding methods and shrinkage factors”, Proc. SFS 1990, p. 105
42. L. Sanchez, “Effects of injection pressures on different mold compounds”,
Proc. SFS 1991, p. 135
43. A.M. Schaler, “Pressed soft metal moulds”, Proc. SFS 1998, p. 33

FURTHER READING
6
INVESTMENT
44. C.H. Schwartz, “Chemical and physical properties of investment”, Proc. SFS
1987, p. 99
45. D. Ott, “Properties and testing of investment”, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 47
46. P. Pryor, “Silica hazards and safety procedures in the handling of investment”,
Proc. SFS 1988, p. 131
47. E. Bell, “Heating and cooling characteristics of investment molds”, Proc. SFS
1988, p. 259
48. L. Diamond, “A semiquantitative method for flask temperature determination”,
Proc. SFS 1988, p. 309
49. P. Pryor, “Silica hazards in the handling of investment – Part II”, Proc. SFS 1989,
p. 257
50. D. Schneller, “Appendix – Santa Fe Silica project”, Proc. SFS 1989, p. 279
51. E. Bell, “Heating and cooling characteristics of investment molds – Research
update”, Proc. SFS 1989, p. 357
52. D. Ott, “Reactions of molten metal with investment”, Proc. SFS 1990, p. 165
53. G. Normandeau, “The effect of investment and metal casting temperatures
on the quality of castings”, Proc. SFS 1990, p. 209
54. E. Bell, “Wax elimination, burnout and the mold’s effect on porosity in
castings”, Gold Technology, No 11, 1993, p. 21
55. G. Normandeau, R. Roeternik, “Metal/mold reaction with white golds”, Proc.
SFS 1997, p. 245
56. C.J. Cart, “Evaluating investment powders”, Proc. SFS 1997, p. 369
57. C.J. Cart, “Advances in investment casting materials”, Gold Technology, No 23,
1998, p. 18
58. G.M. Ingo et al., “CaSO4 bonded investment for casting of gold based alloys:
study of the thermal decomposition”, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 163
59. R. Loewen, “The effect of additives on the high temperature chemistry of
investment materials”, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 181
60. J.C. McCloskey, “An evaluation of permeability of a jewelry casting
investment”, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 431
61. P.J. Horton, “Investment powders and investment casting”, Gold Technology,
No 28, 2000, p. 17
62. R. Carter, “Effects of water quality and temperature on investment casting
powders”, Proc. SFS 2000, p. 1; also: Gold Technology, No. 32, 2001, p7
63. H. Frye et al., “Basic ceramic considerations for the lost wax processing of high
melting alloys”, Proc. SFS 2000, p. 101
64. G.M. Ingo et al., “Thermochemical and microstrutural study of CaSO4 bonded
investment as a function of the burnout process parameters”, Proc. SFS 2000,
p. 147
65. C.W. Corti, “Investment casting: Producing a refractory mould”, Paper
presented at World Gold Council Technical Seminars, India, 2000
66. V. Faccenda, G.M. Ingo, “Advances in investment and burnout furnace design”,
67. R. Carter, “Effects of changing the water-to-powder ratio on jewelry
investments”, Proc SFS 2001, p. 31
68. P.J. Horton, “Investment powder technology – The present and the future
technology”, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 213

6 FURTHER READING
69. G.M. Ingo et al., “Thermochemical and microstructural study of modified

CaSO4 bonded investment with inorganic and organic additives”, Proc. SFS
2001, p. 241
70. I. McKeer, “A comparison of burnout cycles using an electric furnace”, Proc.
SFS 2001, p. 279
71. S. Aithal et al., “Evaluation of mold burnout by temperature measurement and
weight loss technique”, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 1
72. P. Du Bois et al., “Temperature measurements in mold cavities during vacuum-
assisted, static pouring of 14 ct yellow gold”, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 131
73. A. Eccles, R. Loewen, “Rapid wax elimination and reaction chemistry of sulfate-
bonded investment”, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 157
74. J.C. McCloskey, “Temperature measurements in 14 ct yellow gold during
counter-gravity pouring of investment casting molds”, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 353
75. R. Carter, “Getting optimum performance from your investment powder”,
Gold Technology, No. 34, 2002, p. 22,
CASTING
76. C.J. Raub, “Casting: introduction and problem areas”, Gold Technology, No 7,
1992, p. 8
77. D. Ott, C.J. Raub, “Casting: gas pressure effects”, Gold Technology, No 7, 1992,
p. 10
78. A. Menon, “Casting gemstones in place”, Proc. SFS 1996, p. 69
79. H. Schuster, “Stone casting process with invisible setting”, Proc. SFS 1999,
p. 369
80. H. Schuster, “Problems, causes and their solutions on stone-in-place casting
process: latest developments”, Proc. SFS 2000, p. 315
SOLIDIFICATION
81. J.P. Nielsen, “Solidification modes of jewelry in temperature-gradient molds”,
Proc. SFS 1987, p. 337
82. L. Diamond, “Temperature gradient casting – A practical approach”, Proc. SFS
1991, p. 225
DEFECTS AND QUALITY

83. D. Ott, “Examples of defects in jewelry making”, Proc. SFS 1989, p. 297
84. D. Ott, “Defects in jewelry – A new version of an old problem”, Proc. SFS 1991,
p. 171
85. D. Ott et al., “Casting: porosity causes and prevention”, Gold Technology,
No 7, 1992, p. 18
86. D. Ott, C.J. Raub, “Casting: surface properties”, Gold Technology, No 7, 1992,
p. 28
87. D. Ott, “Porosity in investment casting”, Gold Technology, No 11, 1993, p. 15
88. D. Ott, “Analysis of common casting defects”, Gold Technology, No 13, 1994, p. 2
89. D. Ott, “Shrinkage porosity in investment casting – A consideration of the
factors affecting its formation”, Gold Technology, No 13, 1994, p. 16
90. D. Ott, “Control of defects in casting”, Gold Technology, No 17, 1995, p. 26
91. D. Ott, “Chaos in casting: an approach to shrinkage porosity”, Proc. SFS 1996,
p. 383

FURTHER READING
6
92. D. Ott, “Handbook on casting and other defects”, publ. World Gold Council,
London, 1997
93. V. Faccenda, P. Oriani, “Quality level improvement in investment casting: are
last generation casting machines the only solution?”, Proc. SFS 1999, p. 271
94. T.L. Donohue, H.F, Frye, “Characterization and correction of casting defects”,
Proc. SFS 1999, p. 413
95. E. Bell, “Know the disease before trying the cure. Quality casting: identify the
defects”, Gold Technology, No 31, 2001, p. 2
96. D. Ott, “Relationship between casting conditions and gas porosity”, Proc. SFS
2001, p. 353
97. K. Wiesner, “Cracks in cast parts – What can we do?”, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 439
INVESTMENT CASTING ALLOYS

98. W.S. Rapson, T. Groenewald, “Gold usage”, publ. Academic Press, London,
1978
99. G.P. O’Connor, “Improvement of 18-carat white gold alloys”, Gold Bulletin,
11 (2), 1978, p. 35
100. G.P. O’Connor, Investigation of alloying additions for 18-carat white gold
jewellery alloys”, Metals Technology, 6, 1979, p. 261
101. L. Gal-Or, M. Riabkina-Fishman, “Grain refining in 14 K gold alloys”, Proc. SFS
1987, p. 125
102. R.V. Carrano, J. De Rohner, “The effect of common additives on the cast
properties of 14 K alloys”, Proc. SFS 1988, p. 11
103. D. Ott, C.J. Raub, “Gold casting alloys 14 and 18 K”, Gold Technology, No 7,
1992, p. 2
104. G. Normandeau et al., “White golds: a review of commercial alloys
characteristics and alloy design alternatives”, Gold Bulletin, 25 (3), 1992, p. 94
105. Degussa AG – “Edelmetall taschenbuch” – publ. Heuthig-Verlag Heidelberg,
1995
106. G. Normandeau, R. Roeterink, “The optimisation of silicon alloying additions in
carat gold casting alloys”, Gold Technology, No 15, 1995, p. 4
107. G. Normandeau, “The effect of various additives on the performance of an
18 karat yellow gold investment casting alloy”, Proc. SFS 1996, p. 83
108. D. Ott, “Effect of small additions and impurities on properties of carat golds”,
109. J.C. McCloskey et al., “The effect of silicon deoxidation and grain refinement
on the production performance of a 14 karat yellow gold casting alloy”,
110. J.C. McCloskey et al., “Silicon microsegregation in 14 K yellow gold jewelry
alloys”, Gold Bulletin, 34 (1), 2001, p. 3
111. J. Fischer-Buehner, D. Ott, “Development of new nickel-free chromium-based
white gold alloys – Results of a research project”, Proc. SFS 2001, p. 131
112. M. Poliero, “White gold alloys for investment casting”, Gold Technology,
No 31, 2001, p. 10
113. D. Zito, “Coloured carat golds for investment casting”, Gold Technology,
No 31, 2001, p. 35
114. A. Basso, M. Poliero, “14-18 Kt yellow gold alloys for investment casting: a new
approach”, Proc. SFS 2002, p. 39

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors thank many companies who have supplied information on different
aspects of the investment casting process. In particular, we thank Pomellato S.p.a.,
Italy for the permission to publish photographs of its products, Aseg Galloni S.p.A.,
Italy, Neutec USA, Rio Grande, Castaldo and Ransom & Randolph in the USA, Hoben
and SRS in the UK and Schultheiss GmbH and Indutherm GmbH of Germany, who
have made available their technical material and knowledge for the preparation of
this Handbook.
The Authors also thank the editor, Dr Christopher W. Corti and World Gold Council
for their support and advice and Professor Giovanni Baralis, Torino, for the
translation of the manuscript into English and for his precious comments.

WORLD GOLD COUNCIL
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS
Prices are current for 2003
1. Technical Manual for Gold Jewellery – A practical guide to gold jewellery
manufacturing technology. Published 1997. Reprinted 2001.
Cost £45 sterling (US$70; Euro 74), including postage.
2. Investment Casting – A technical advisory manual for goldsmiths.
Published 1995.
Cost £10 sterling (US$16; Euro 16) including postage
3. The Assaying and Refining of Gold – a guide for the gold jewellery
producer. Published 1997. 2nd Edition published 2001
Cost £5 (US$8; Euro 8) including postage
4. Handbook on Casting and Other Defects in Gold Jewellery
Manufacture. Published March 1998. Reprinted 2001. Italian edition
published 2002.
5. Finishing Handbook. Published March 1999. (English & Italian editions available)
6. Handbook on Soldering and Other Joining Techniques. Published 2002
(English and Italian).
Cost: £16 sterling (US$26; Euro 26), including postage.
7. Handbook on Investment Casting. Published May 2003 (English & Italian).
Cost: £16 sterling (US$26; Euro 26), including postage.
Note: Some publications may be available in other languages – contact your local WGC office.
TECHNICAL JOURNALS
Gold Bulletin – published quarterly, a journal on the science, technology and
applications of gold. Recent issues available on the World Gold Council web site:
www.gold.org
Gold Technology – a journal on gold jewellery materials and production
technology and best practice (in English and Italian); ceased publication end 2002.
Some Arabic and Turkish editions available from local WGC offices). Available also
on the WGC web page: www.gold.org. Copies of back issues available (English, also
some Italian & German).
•Complete set of 36 back issues: Cost £30 ($50, €50) for postage and packing.
All publications are available from:
International Technology (Publications)
World Gold Council, 45 Pall Mall, London SW1Y 5JG, England
Tel. + 44 20 7930 5171 Fax. + 44 20 7839 6561 E-mail: industry@gold.org
Or contact your local World Gold Council office.
Payment in £ sterling, US $ or Euros by cheque or money order (no credit cards)

or into the World Gold Council bank account:
Barclays Bank plc., PO Box 15165, 50 Pall Mall, London SW1A 1QF, England
Bank Sort Code: 20 67 59 Account No: 70964271
All charges to your account. Please send confirmation of payment with order.

WORLD GOLD COUNCIL

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WORLD GOLD COUNCIL

THE LOST WAX CASTING PROCESS FOR

THE LOST WAX CASTING PROCESS FOR

Publication Date: May 2003

Published by World Gold Council, International Technology,

Produced by Dr Valerio Faccenda, Aosta, Italy

Christopher W. Corti, London, April 2003

6 Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting 7

8 Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting 9

10 Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting 11

1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN PROCESS

Handbook on Investment Casting 13

1.2 THE MODERN PROCESS AND PRODUCT QUALITY

14 Handbook on Investment Casting

1.3 CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT AND CONSUMABLES

Handbook on Investment Casting 15

If the results are unsatisfactory, extemporaneous inventions should be avoided.

1.4 HEALTH AND SAFETY

16 Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting 17

18 Handbook on Investment Casting

Handbook on Investment Casting 19

20 Handbook on Investment Casting

2.2 MAKING THE MASTER MODEL

2.2.2 Feed sprue

Handbook on Investment Casting 21

22 Handbook on Investment Casting

If there is the danger of investment erosion at the point of splitting of the

2.3 MAKING THE RUBBER MOULD

Handbook on Investment Casting 23

2.3.1 Types of mould rubber

Type Advantages Disadvantages

24 Handbook on Investment Casting

2.3.2. Making the mould

Handbook on Investment Casting 25

2.3.3 Cutting the mould

26 Handbook on Investment Casting

Figure 2.3.6 Mould designed

Handbook on Investment Casting 27

2.3.4 Storing and using the mould

Figure 2.3.9 c – Covering the model

28 Handbook on Investment Casting

Table 2 Common problems in the production of rubber moulds

Problem Causes Remedies

2.3.5 Common problems

2.4 PRODUCTION OF THE WAX PATTERNS

Handbook on Investment Casting 29

Table 3 Characteristics of some commercial wax types

2.4.2 Wax injection

30 Handbook on Investment Casting

Table 4 Common problems in the production of wax patterns

Problem Causes Remedies

Handbook on Investment Casting 31

32 Handbook on Investment Casting

2.4.3 Common problems

2.5 ASSEMBLING THE TREE

Figure 2.5.5 Variation in temperature

Handbook on Investment Casting 33

34 Handbook on Investment Casting

2.5.2 Tree design