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FIGURE 4-28 Welding in a

straight line will decrease bead
width, but weld penetration will
be increased

Starting an arc is not difficult. The trigger is pulled on the welding gun to ini-
tiate the arc. If the arc is not initiated, it generally means that the work lead con-
nection is poor or is not connected at all. Oxidation present on the end of the
electrode may cause the arc to stumble. Cutting the tip off the electrode prior to
starting the arc ensures arc initiation. To aid in arc initiating further, cut the tip of
the electrode at an angle, as opposed to perpendicular (see FIGURE 4-29).

FIGURE 4-29 Cutting the

MODES OF METAL TRANSFER electrode wire at an angle will
aid in initiating the arc
WHAT ARE THE MODES OF METAL TRANSFER? Metal transfer refers to
how filler metal is deposited to the base metal to form the weld bead. The
common modes of metal transfer are short-circuit, globular, axial-spray, and
pulsed-spray transfers. The mode of metal transfer is determined by many
mitigating factors:
쏋 Base Metal Type
쏋 Filler Metal Composition
쏋 Electrode Diameter
쏋 Polarity
쏋 Arc Current
쏋 Arc Voltage/Arc Length
쏋 Shielding Gas Composition
쏋 Welding Position

Short-circuit transfer occurs when filler metal is deposited from the electrode
by short-circuiting to the workpiece surface. Amperage and voltage settings,
along with proper shielding gas selection, determine if welds are produced with
short-circuit transfer. Short circuit can be easily understood as it is related to
what occurs in a circuit of an electrical fuse. If too much current (amperage) is

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1 2 3 4

SHORT ARCING

AMPERAGE
PERIOD EXTINCTION
RE-IGNITION

FIGURE 4-30 An electrical view 0

of the short-circuit cycle TIME

introduced to the circuit, the fuse overheats and blows. The same principles
occur when short-circuit welding. The difference is that the electrode (fuse) is be-
ing continually fed, and the short circuit occurs over and over again, depositing
the electrode on the base metal as weld.
On steels, typical voltages range from 16–20 volts. The filler metal is deposited
when the electrode heats up and shorts to the workpiece, more than 100 times
in a second, with typical short circuits in the 150–180 times per second range. There
is no visible open arc length when using short-circuit current unless observed in
slow-motion photography.
Short-circuit transfer operates at relatively low voltages and amperage
ranges. FIGURE 4-30 shows the rise in amperage that causes the short-circuit
cycle.

1. At this step, the trigger is pressed on the welding gun, and the wire feeds.
2. The electrode contacts the work, voltage drops, and amperage increases.
3. Magnetic forces pinch the electrode while the amperage peaks and voltage
increases.
4. The electrode melts off, and the arc opens. There is a separation of weld
deposit from electrode, and the open arc period begins. The arc length
increases, and the weld pool becomes more fluid and wets out to the base
metal.

The low operating parameters of short-circuit transfer provide sufficient heat to

weld sheet materials up to 3/16 inches (4.8 mm) thick. Welding in all positions is
also easily accomplished. Small electrode diameters from 0.024 inches (0.6 mm)
to 0.035 inches (0.9 mm) are easier to weld. Larger electrode diameters require
higher electrical parameters more suitable for globular, spray transfer, or pulse-
spray transfer methods. Welding with larger electrode diameters increases the
difficulty of successfully welding the thinner gauge steel without burn-through
and other discontinuities. It is easier to produce a weld free of defects when
using smaller electrode diameters on thin metals. Large electrode diameters
increase productivity.
Due to low heat input, short-circuit transfer is not recommended for plate
materials, as penetration and fusion capabilities are limited. While it can be used

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FIGURE 4-31 A small lapse

in welder technique and
concentration could lead to weld
defects, such as lack of fusion

successfully on plate thickness, it must be pointed out that the skill level and
concentration level of the welder must be significantly increased. A high degree
of concentration and a higher degree of welder skill are necessary to produce
sound welds. A small lapse in welder technique and concentration could lead to
weld defects, such as incomplete fusion (see FIGURE 4-31) and poor penetration.
Groove joint designs can help to overcome these issues for welding plate. V I D E O

WHAT IS SLOPE, AND IS IT ONLY EFFECTIVE WITH SHORT-CIRCUIT

WELDING? Most power sources have a preset slope and cannot be adjusted
by the welder. However, as stated earlier, some industrial power sources may be
equipped with a variable slope control or tapped slope terminals. Slope is most
effective when using the short-circuit transfer. As stated, typical short circuits
occur about 150–180 times per second. The number of turns of slope determines
the number of short circuits per second. Slope can be explained by examining
the representative volt/amp curves, found in FIGURE 4-32.

1 2 3 4

M
O LE
SS
T
RE

UR
NS
TU

OF
RN

SL
VOLTAGE

SO

O
F SL

PE

FIGURE 4-32 The amount

O PE

of available amperage to pinch

off the electrode wire (steps 2, 3,
and 4) depends on the turns
AMPERAGE of slope

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All three curves have the same maximum voltage and are smooth. The dif-
ference among these slopes can be observed as welding amperage is increased.
Remember, the rise in amperage causes the short-circuit cycle.
The three given slopes provide different responses when the electrode wire
short-circuits to the base metal. Because a constant voltage power source is
designed to maintain a preset welding voltage, the short-circuiting of the elec-
trode causes the power source to increase its welding amperage until the short-
circuit deposit is removed and the welding voltage returns to its preset value.
With flat slope (less turns of slope), there is no limiting the short-circuit cur-
rent. Thus, the high incoming amperage causes the wire to be pinched off rapidly
and violently, resulting in poor arc starts and excessive spatter (FIGURE 4-33).
For steels, about 8 turns of slope limits short-circuit current. This limited
short-circuit amperage allows the electrode wire to be pinched off at a slower
rate, resulting in smoother starts and less spatter. This volt/amp curve is typical
of a fixed slope found in most power sources manufactured today. It provides
acceptable arc performance for the short-circuit and spray transfer arc welding
of mild steel and aluminum. Because of the poor conductivity of stainless steel,
the curve would still allow too much short-circuit amperage, resulting in difficult
arc starts and spatter.
The steeper slope (more turns of slope) reduces the available short-circuit
current compared to those curves of the flatter slopes (less turns of slope). A
slope setting at 10 turns is beneficial when welding stainless steel, reducing both
popping starts and spatter. However, it results in poor performance for welding
aluminum and mild steel. Too steep a slope reduces short-circuit currents so low
that the electrode may just pile up on the base metal.
If the slope is set too steep for the other modes of transfer—i.e., globular,
spray, or pulse spray—the electrode often stumbles prior to establishing the arc.
If the slope is set too flat in these other modes of transfer, arc initiation is difficult,
and the electrode wire often snaps back to the contact tip and may fuse to the
contact tip. Once the arc is established, slope has no bearing on these other
V I D E O modes of transfer.

FIGURE 4-33 A slope set too

flat may cause excessive spatter,
as in this case on stainless steel

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WHAT ROLE DOES INDUCTANCE PLAY IN THE SHORT-CIRCUIT CYCLE?

While slope controls how many short circuits occur per second, inductance
controls the rise in amperage (current) between the time the electrode contacts
the base metal and then pinches off. The higher the inductance is set, the longer
the arcing period. Both short-circuit cycles shown in FIGURE 4-34 illustrate the
same amount of time. As the inductance increases, the rise in amperage is
impeded, thus increasing the amount of time the electrode wire is in contact with
the base metal while decreasing the amount of time the open arc occurs, which
increases the puddle fluidity.
Provided the voltage and amperage are set correctly and if the inductance
is set correctly, the puddle will be fluid with little spatter. Voltage and amperage
(wire feed speed) are the primary parameters to set. Inductance can be thought
of as the final stage to fine-tune the arc. If the inductance is set too high, the
rise of amperage is impeded, and the electrode will have poor arc starting sta-
bility. The electrode wire will stumble, and the operator will feel the welding gun
push back.

AVERAGE INDUCTANCE
1 2 3 4

SHORT ARCING
AMPERAGE

PERIOD EXTINCTION
RE-IGNITION

0
TIME

INCREASED INDUCTANCE

1 2A 2B 3 4

SHORT ARCING
AMPERAGE

PERIOD EXTINCTION
RE-IGNITION FIGURE 4-34 An electrical
view of inductance of pinch
effect. Steps 2, 2a, 2b, and 3 are
0 the short, and step 4 is the arcing
TIME period

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If the inductance is set too low, the rise of amperage is not impeded, and the
short-circuit cycle is fast and violent, producing a great deal of spatter. In worse
cases, the short circuit is so violent that the electrode wire snaps back and fuses
to the contact tip. Today’s modern power sources have a usable range of induc-
tance and have eliminated the problem areas at the extreme high and low ends.
For carbon steels, 30% inductance is sufficient to reduce spatter and pro-
vide good wetting at the weld edges. Inductance settings for stainless steels are
set significantly higher in order to reduce spatter, and a 50% setting is desired.
The higher inductance tends to ball the end of the electrode, which must be cut
V I D E O before restarting the arc.

WHAT IS GLOBULAR TRANSFER? Globular transfer (FIGURE 4-35) occurs

with increased arc voltages in the same amperage range as the short-circuit
transfer. The increased arc voltage melts the electrode back away from the weld
pool. The electrode forms a balled end approximately 2 times the electrode
diameter, and filler metal is deposited when gravity causes the molten droplet to
detach from the electrode and fall across an open gap, causing an explosive
deposit. The welder will observe an open arc or gap between the electrode and
the weld pool.
FIGURE 4-36 shows the volt/amp relationships among the common transfer
modes. Amperage for the globular range parallels that of a short-circuit transfer,
and an adjustment in voltage, up or down, changes the arc characteristic
between short-circuit and globular transfers.
Globular transfer is limited to flat position welding or horizontal fillet welds.
The highly erratic arc creates undesirable weld spatter and makes welding in ver-
tical and overhead positions impractical. Spatter often sticks to the base metal
around the weld and must be removed before painting or finishing. For these rea-
sons, globular transfer is avoided as a mode of metal transfer.
Axial-spray transfer occurs both at higher currents and higher voltages than
short-circuit and globular transfers and requires a gas shield rich in the inert gas
argon. For steels, the minimum argon percentage is 80%. For welding aluminum,
100% argon is most common, with additions of helium for use on heavier plate

FIGURE 4-35 Globular transfer

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35

30 TRANSITION CURRENT
ANSFER
RAY TR
SP
25
GLOBULAR E AGE
TAG AMPER
VOLTAGE

TRANSFER L
VO IGH
20 GH H
HI

UIT
15 RT CIRC
SHO

10

50 100 150 200 250 FIGURE 4-36 Area of modes of

AMPERAGE transfer

materials. Helium should not exceed 50% for spray transfer to occur when alu-
minum welding.
The point where one mode of transfer converts to another mode is called the
transition current. Note the transition current in FIGURE 4-36. Increasing current
beyond the transition current and increasing voltage allows for spray transfer to
occur. Higher voltages cause an increase in arc length greater than that of globu-
lar or short-circuit transfers. Small individual droplets are transferred across the
open arc to the workpiece at rates from 150–200 drops/second. Electromagnetic
forces carry the droplets across the arc gap. The open arc is visible to the welder
and looks like the lower half of an hourglass (FIGURE 4-37). V I D E O

High voltage and amperage settings of the spray transfer arc and the fluidity of
the weld pool provide for deep penetration, flat wide bead contours, and high weld-
ing speeds. These characteristics are suitable to welding on thicker plate materials.
Excellent bead profiles and elimination of spatter are factors that make use of spray
transfer desirable. Due to weld puddle fluidity, spray transfer welding is limited to
use in the flat position for grooves and flat and horizontal positions for fillet welds.
Pulse-Spray Transfer combines high heat inputs of the spray transfer arc
with slightly lower currents near the globular transfer range to provide a balanced
average current low enough to allow for metal transfer in all positions. This is
accomplished by pulsing the arc current between a high peak current in the
spray transfer range and a lower background current (see FIGURE 4-38.)

FIGURE 4-37 Spray transfer

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PULSE
WIDTH
METAL
TRANSFER
TRANSITION
CURRENT

CURRENT
CURRENT
TIME AT

PEAK
BACKGROUND
BACKGROUND
CURRENT

FIGURE 4-38 An electrical

schematic of pulse-spray transfer TIME

Increasing or decreasing times at each current level can change the wave-
form pulses between peak and background currents. For ease of use, many
newer power sources have preprogrammed output waveforms for filler metal
electrode types and shielding gas combinations to utilize this mode of metal
transfer. This simplifies electrical setup for the welder to adjustments of wire feed
speed and arc length. In some instances, welding engineers within a business
make customized programs specific to company needs.
The main advantages of pulsed-spray transfer in steels and stainless steels
over conventional spray transfer that are it can be used for welding in all positions
and the low fume output. Pulsing can also be used on thin materials with large
diameter filler metals at high welding speeds. The lower overall heat input reduces
distortion and size of the heat affected zone. Stainless steels benefit from lower
heat input that reduces the chances of inter-granular corrosion occurring and con-
siderably reduces distortion.
Aluminum electrodes should never be short-circuit-welded and are almost
always used in the spray transfer mode. However, the advantage of pulse-spray
welding with aluminum electrodes is the ability to use larger diameters. Oxides
are a bane of aluminum electrodes. Larger electrode diameters have a greater
cross-sectional area of clean (non-oxide) electrode compared to smaller diame-
ters (FIGURE 4-39). It may not be possible to weld on 1/8 inch (3 mm) aluminum
V I D E O sheet metal using a 1/16 inches (1.6 mm) diameter electrode in the spray transfer
mode. However, using pulse spray, the task is easily accomplished.
TABLE 4-4 summarizes the variation in GMAW process metal transfer
modes discussed so far.
OXIDES

FIGURE 4-39 A cross-section

of an aluminum electrode wire.
Oxide contamination forms a ring CLEAN ALUMINUM
around the electrode wire

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Variations in the GMAW Process

Short Circuit Spray Transfer Pulse Spray Voltage Amperage Inductance Slope
Plate Steel Not Flat position All thicknesses; Above 22 volts Set to Low ~
~ 8 turns
recommended and horizontal all positions match volts
on fillets
Sheet Performs well Caution— All thicknesses; Below 22 volts Set to ~
~ 30% SC ~
~ 8 turns
Metal Steel in all positions burn-through all positions match volts
Stainless Performs well On plate in flat All thicknesses; Lower for short Set to ~
~ 50% SC Steep
in all positions position and all positions circuit; higher match volts
horizontal on fillets for spray
Aluminum Not All thicknesses; All thicknesses; Typically Set to Low Flat
recommended all positions all positions above 20 volts match volts
Electrode 1/4–1/2 inches 1/2–3/4 inches 3/8–5/8 inches — — — —
Extension

TABLE 4-4

ELECTRODES
WHAT MUST BE CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING AN ELECTRODE FOR
GMAW? When choosing an electrode, one must consider arc stability,
solidification rate, mechanical properties, deposition rate, base metal
compatibility, and parameter settings. Parameter settings for GMAW electrodes
depend on:

쏋 Diameter of the Electrode

쏋 Mode of Transfer
쏋 Shielding Gas Composition
쏋 Welding Position
쏋 Manual or Automated

Other considerations may also include corrosion resistance, wear resist-

ance, and if the metal is to be preheated, postheated, or have no heat treatment.
Color match is also a consideration, especially when welding aluminum.

WHAT SIZES OF STEEL ELECTRODES ARE USED FOR GMAW? The GMAW
process uses a consumable, automatically fed wire electrode and is considered
a semiautomatic welding process when welded by hand. Electrode diameters used
in GMAW typically range from 0.024 inches (0.6 mm) to 0.062 inches (1.6 mm).
However, electrode diameters are manufactured from as small as 0.020 inches
(0.5 mm) to as large as 1/8 inch (3 mm).
As a rule, electrode size selection is based on base metal thickness, weld-
ing position, and mode of metal transfer. Larger electrodes can obviously pro-
vide higher welding speeds and the higher amperages desired for spray
transfer welding on heavier base metals. Beyond that, a few considerations
should be made.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING 107