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December 2014 • Volume 93 • Number 12 CONTENTS
FEATURES
40 Improving GMAW Efficiency through Shielding Gases
Practical recommendations are made to improve
welding operations through the use of argon-based
shielding gases — D. Sarma
46
46 A Technology to Increase SAW Productivity
The use of an electrically isolated welding wire
helps to increase deposition rates in submerged arc
welding — H. Raudsepp
Manufacturing Skills Legislation improvement. The analysis should include the scope, effec-
tiveness, and potential for redundancy of federal manufac-
Introduced turing programs and tax incentives. Apparently, there is
presently no official catalog of all federal programs designed
Inspired by the Race to the Top program created by the to support U.S. manufacturing, nor even a comprehensive
Department of Education, which created competition list of agencies charged with executing laws that affect
among schools to improve student metrics, a so-called “Race manufacturing.
to the Shop” legislation has been introduced in the House
and Senate. The Manufacturing Skills Act (S. 2897/H.R.
5564) would create an annual $100 million competitive White House Announces Three New
grant to support initiatives to strengthen the manufactur- Manufacturing Initiatives
ing workforce and address regional skills challenges. Grants
would be awarded to up to five states and five metropolitan Three new federal agency actions designed to strengthen
areas with the strongest and most comprehensive proposals. advanced manufacturing have been announced by the White
Each winner would receive up to $10 million over a three- House.
year period. The state or metropolitan area that receives the • The Departments of Defense, Energy, and Agriculture
grant would also be required to provide at least 50% of the and NASA have announced more than $300 million expen-
grant’s value in matching funds. The grants would be in- ditures for three technologies identified as critical to U.S.
tended to help promote reforms in workforce education and competitiveness: advanced materials including composites
skills training, under the administration of the Secretaries and bio-based materials, advanced sensors for manufactur-
of Commerce, Labor, Education and Defense, and the Direc- ing, and digital manufacturing.
tor of the National Science Foundation. • The National Science Foundation, the Department of
Energy, and NASA are developing “technology testbeds”
CTE Legislation Introduced in the Senate within federal research facilities where companies can de-
sign, prototype, and test a new product or process.
• This fall, the Department of Labor will launch a $100
Two Senate bills have recently been introduced on a bi- Million American Apprenticeships Grant Competition to
partisan basis, designed to boost career and technical educa- spur new apprenticeship models and scale effective ones in
tion. The Career and Technical Education Opportunity Act high-growth fields such as advanced manufacturing.
(S. 2795) would extend eligibility for federal student loans • The Department of Commerce’s Manufacturing Exten-
to short-term career and technical education programs that sion Partnership will build new capabilities at its state-based
do not meet the current program length requirements under centers and pilot a competition for $130 million over five
Title IV of the Higher Education Act. This extended eligibili- years across ten states to help small manufacturers adopt
ty for federal aid would provide increased access to courses new technologies and bring new products to market.
that provide students with industry-recognized credentials.
The Creating Quality Technical Educators Act (S. 2867)
would create a CTE teacher-training grant partnership to re- New STEM Resource Released
cruit and train high-quality CTE teachers. The goal would be
to foster partnerships between high-needs secondary The National Science Board, which is part of the National
schools and postsecondary institutions to create one-year Science Foundation, an independent government agency,
teacher residencies for CTE teachers. Through grants in the has released an interactive, online resource featuring new
Higher Education and Opportunity Act of 2008, many and updated data and graphics about STEM education and
teacher residency partnerships already exist between post- workforce in the U.S. and providing facts on topics such as
secondary institutions and local schools to train prospective student proficiency, college degrees in STEM fields, and jobs
educators, but none is CTE focused. CTE teacher residencies in science-related occupations. The resource features 60 cen-
created through the Creating Quality Technical Educators tral questions, organized by education level and the work-
Act would target mid-career professionals in related techni- force, with multiple data points, graphs, and maps providing
cal fields, as well as recent college graduates, veterans, or the answers to each question. The new resource is available
currently licensed teachers with a desire to transition to a at www.nsf.gov/nsb/sei/edTool.
CTE focus.
Export Import Bank Renewed
GAO Directed to Assess Federal Congress has quietly reauthorized the Export Import
Manufacturing Programs Bank for at least one more year. The bank, which provides fi-
nancing and insuring to foreign buyers of U.S.-made goods,
A bipartisan group of U.S. Senators has asked the Gov- has been the subject of much debate as to its ongoing value
ernment Accountability Office (GAO) to analyze federal and viability, with defenders and detractors along the politi-
manufacturing policies and provide recommendations for cal spectrum. WJ
HUGH K. WEBSTER, AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE — Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at 1747 Pennsylvania
Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; email hwebster@wcb.com; FAX (202) 8350243.
Aiken Technical College Receives $195,000 Oak Ridge National Laboratory Research
Nuclear Regulatory Commission Grant to Reveals Unique Capabilities of 3D Printing
Start Nuclear Welding Program
Researchers at the Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge
National Laboratory (ORNL), Oak Ridge, Tenn., have re-
cently demonstrated an additive manufacturing method to
precisely control the structure and properties of metal
components.
Ryan Dehoff, staff scientist and metal additive manu-
facturing lead at the Department of Energy’s Manufactur-
ing Demonstration Facility at ORNL, presented the re-
search at the Materials Science & Technology 2014 confer-
ence in Pittsburgh, Pa.
“We can now control local material properties, which
will change the future of how we engineer metallic compo-
nents,” Dehoff said. “This new manufacturing method
takes us from reactive design to proactive design. It will
help us make parts that are stronger, lighter, and function
better for more energy-efficient transportation and energy
production applications such as cars and wind turbines.”
The researchers demonstrated this method using an
ARCAM electron beam melting system where successive
layers of a metal powder are fused together by an electron
The new nuclear welding systems program at Aiken Technical beam into a 3-D product. By manipulating the process to
College will help fill the need for qualified nuclear welders in the manage the solidification on a microscopic scale, the re-
Central Savannah River Area. Pictured above, a student prac searchers demonstrated 3-D control of the microstructure
tices his skills in a welding lab at the college. of a nickel-based part during formation.
“We’re using well-established metallurgical phenomena,
A $195,000 grant from the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Com- but we’ve never been able to control the processes well
mission will enable Aiken Technical College, Aiken, S.C., to enough to take advantage of them at this scale and at this
design and implement a nuclear welding systems program level of detail,” added Suresh Babu, the University of Ten-
on campus. It will also meet the critical demand for qualified nessee-ORNL governor’s chair for advanced manufactur-
nuclear welders in the Central Savannah River Area. ing. “As a result of our work, designers can now specify lo-
The one-year, intensive pipe welding technology program cation- specific crystal structure orientations in a part.”
will serve as a stand-alone program for experienced welders Other contributors to the research are ORNL’s Mike Kir-
or an add-on certificate for students who plan to continue ka and Hassina Bilheux; University of California Berkeley’s
their nuclear welding education. Additionally, it will be de- Anton Tremsin; and Texas A&M University’s William Sames.
signed to meet industry welding standards and supported
with equipment, a mock-up industrial welding setting, and
online modules that cover nuclear welding specific topics.
Once developed, the program will join many others to be Recreational Vehicles Maker Expanding,
taught in the college’s Center for Energy & Advanced Manu- Creating 125 New Jobs
facturing currently under construction. This $8.5 million,
36,000-sq-ft facility will house the college’s welding, mecha- KZRV, LP, a maker of towable recreational vehicles, has
tronics, radiation protection technology, and nuclear quality plans to expand its operations in Shipshewana, Ind., creat-
systems programs. It’s expected to open for classes next fall. ing up to 125 new jobs by 2017.
In 2009, the Nuclear Energy Institute’s Workforce Report The company will invest up to $4.83 million to con-
cited a short- and long-term need for craft workers due to struct and equip a new 80,750-sq-ft lamination facility in
nuclear construction projects at the Department of Energy’s Shipshewana. This dedicated area, to be fully operational
Savannah River Site, as well as commercial sites in South by late spring 2015, will allow the company to increase its
Carolina and Georgia. Also, the study projected 1146 craft production capacity for lamination, aluminum frame weld-
workers trained in nuclear welding systems would be needed ing, and towable recreational vehicle assembly.
by 2020 in the Central Savannah River Area. Currently, KZRV (www.kz-rv.com) employs more than 360
The demand for nuclear welders is important to meet the full-time Indiana associates. It intends to begin hiring alu-
workforce needs of the Mixed Oxide Fuel Fabrication Facili- minum welders and general assembly workers in late spring
ty and Salt Waste Processing Facility at the Savannah River 2015. Interested applicants may apply in person at the com-
Site, plus the construction of new nuclear reactors operated pany’s human resources office in Shipshewana, Ind. WJ
by Southern Co. at Plant Vogtle in Waynesboro, Ga., and
SCANA Corp. at V.C. Summer Nuclear Power Station near
Columbia.
Nizi International Acquires Chemalloy Czech Republic, Spain, Great Britain, Belgium, and the U.S.
The busy atmosphere reflected the overall positive outlook
Nizi International, Luxembourg, a distributor of base of the sheet metal working sector. The exhibition survey
metals and foundry products, and Chemalloy Company, Inc., showed that companies assess the current business climate
Bryn Mawr, Pa., a manufacturer of custom-sized alloys, met- as more favorable than two years ago.
als, minerals, and chemicals and supplier of metal powders, Nicola Hamann, managing director of Mack Brooks Exhi-
have reached a nonbinding agreement that Nizi is to acquire bitions, the show organizers, said, “The prevailing mood at
substantially all of the business and assets of Chemalloy. the show was positive throughout. There was lively trading
Chemalloy will continue as a separate entity within the Nizi activity in the eight exhibition halls and many exhibiting
Group, operating under the Chemalloy brand. Chemalloy companies reported large numbers of international business
President and CEO Tony Demos and the company’s manage- contacts and buoyant sales figures. A first analysis of the ex-
ment team plan to provide a seamless transition of the hibitor survey shows that participating companies were
Chemalloy business to the Nizi Group. highly satisfied with the outcome of EuroBLECH 2014. A
Though the core market of Nizi has been Europe, the ac- vast majority of exhibitors were able to fully or largely reach
quisition of Miller and Company in 2012 strengthened the their target groups; they praised the quality of trade visitors
position of the group in the U.S. foundry market. The acqui- and the internationality of the audience.”
sition of Chemalloy, which is expected to close before the
end of the year, will further strengthen the Nizi Group in Program Helps Employers Resolve Skill Shortages
North America.
Regarding the acquisition, Dag Teigland, chairman of Nizi
International, said, “Nizi International represents our long- In response to the skills shortage challenges facing Alber-
term industrial commitment toward the metal industry and ta employers, the Canada-Alberta Job Grant (CAJG) pro-
we have high ambitions for the future development of the gram was recently announced, which will offer substantial
Nizi Group. With a strong financial platform, a highly dedi- funding support for employers to upgrade the skills of cur-
cated organization, and a robust business model, Nizi is well rent and new employees. The program, which places the de-
positioned for growth and further geographical expansion. cisions about required training in the hands of employers,
Chemalloy fits right into this strategy. In addition, both will provide up to $10,000 in direct costs such as tuition and
companies represent proud industrial traditions and share a other mandatory fees, books, and supplies for each trainee,
lot of the same values. Tony Demos has done a remarkable with employers covering a minimum one-third of the cost.
job in developing Chemalloy over the last decades and we Employers can receive a maximum $300,000 grant per year.
thank him for his trust in us to take over his company. To- In anticipation of the announcement, SAIT Polytechnic
gether, we will continue to offer a reliable and competitive has put in place a team of specialists dedicated to helping
supply of raw materials to our customers.” employers with the grant application process. “The job grant
program is closely aligned to SAIT’s real-world, hands-on
training and we’ve identified dozens of SAIT programs that
EuroBLECH 2014 Attracts International Audience meet the funding criteria,” said Rod Miller, associate vice
president of corporate training at SAIT. “We’re also well-
positioned to customize training to an employer’s specific
needs.”
To qualify, training will be more than 25 h long and will
be completed within 52 weeks of the approval date. It can-
not replace existing training offered by an employer, and it
must be delivered by a third-party provider such as SAIT.
Training can be full-time or part-time and can be delivered
in the classroom, at the workplace, or online.
Sheet Metal Welding Conference XVI back. “The automotive industry is being challenged with cre-
ating lighter-weight structures, requiring welding profes-
Highlights Premiere Resistance, Laser, sionals to stay informed as technology changes,” Poss said.
and Arc Welding Advancements At the traditional vendor display event, held the evening
of October 23, more than 30 booths represented various
welding equipment and technology companies. Susann
Morfino of MJM Sales, Inc., organized the gala. Guests visit-
ed the exhibits, networked, and tasted hors d’oeuvres.
In addition, on October 21 (before the conference began),
the Aluminum Welding Workshop at R & E Automated Sys-
tems, LLC, Macomb, Mich., attracted 75 participants. This
tutorial covered resistance spot welding of aluminum with
several product overviews and equipment demonstrations.
The biennial SMWC will be held again in 2016. Proceeds
support the AWS Detroit Section scholarships and educa-
tional programs. For more details, visit www.awsdetroit.org.
Posing for a group portrait at the Sheet Metal Welding Confer Washington State Community College
ence XVI (from left) are Mike Palko (2010 chair), Michael Poss Debuts New Welding Lab
(2014 chair), and Mark D. Gugel (2012 chair).
The joint highspeed vessel United States Naval Ship Fall River, as
seen above, completes acceptance trials testing and evaluations
in the Gulf of Mexico. (U.S. Navy photo.)
,++*)('&%$#)"!&
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jobs out in the country or welding work at exposed locations:
until recently, jobs like these always involved costly and time-
consuming preparations. Long mains supply leads or big, heavy
8 kVA generators are now no longer necessary. AccuPocket
&+)+#%"!+%$))%+(%'")++#)"!&
+ + + + + + +
+ &++%
+ + ++ +
rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. Contact your local sales team
for more information. www.fronius-usa.com
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+ !+)%'&")+
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+ +
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productivity.
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Industry Notes
• Support the Enlisted Project, a San Diego-based mili-
tary focused 501(c)(3) nonprofit, was recently presented a
check for more than $74,000 from the Gas and Welding
Distributors Association at its 2014 annual convention as
part of the organization’s gives back program to support lo-
cal charities in the meeting’s host city. The other nonprofit
selection was Warrior Foundation - Freedom Station.
The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image
and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counsel shall be based on an individual’s
career of outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in
the welding industry by one or more of the following:
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at
wreeve@aws.org at AWS headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the
Counselor nomination form located at http://www.aws.org/awards/fellow_counselor.html.
Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made major contributions to
our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2015. The
Counselors Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Counselor nominations for 2016
consideration.
Sincerely,
Lee Kvidahl
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
Friends and Colleagues:
The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to
recognize members for distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and
technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professional stature of the field. Election as a
Fellow of the Society is based on outstanding accomplishment and technical impact of the
individual. Such accomplishments will have advance the science, technology and application of
welding, as evidenced by:
I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the
standards set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you
look to the most senior members of your Section or District in considering members for
nomination. In many cases, the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most
familiar with their contributions, and who would normally nominate the candidate, are no long
with us. I want to be sure that we take the extra effort required to make sure that those truly
worthy are not overlooked because no obvious individual was available to start the nomination
process.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at
wreeve@aws.org at AWS headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the
Fellow nomination form located at http://www.aws.org/awards/fellow_counselor.html. Please
remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made major contributions to our
chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2015. The Fellows
Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2016 consideration.
Sincerely,
Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Committee
BUSINESS BRIEFS
Welding Efforts Donated to AWS CWI and CWE In addition, what is the practical
Museum and Memorial Ship Ivy Tech Community College welding current range in terms of ei-
Evansville, Ind. ther “average current” or “rms cur-
Earn High Praise rent?” Stated another way, what is the
This letter is in response to Melissa Gomez’s
practical wire feed speed range?
article, “Volunteers Repair Historic Navy Droplet Oscillation Research By use of the droplet and wire di-
Warship,” published on pages 96–98 of the mensions reported, and a cycle dura-
Supplement Gets Discussed tion of 50 msec, I calculated a feed rate
Welding Journal’s September 2014 issue. It
details the welding skills volunteered by stu as follows:
This correspondence references the part I
dents from Ivy Tech Community College to experimental study, and part II modeling Let D0 = wire diameter = 0.8 mm
the LST325, a decommissioned U.S. Navy and analysis, of the “Active Metal Transfer and D1 = droplet diameter = 1.0–1.3
tank landing ship. Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet Oscil mm (see pages 216-s and 329-s previ-
lation” research supplements by J. Xiao, G. ously cited).
J. Zhang, W. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang in the When, for example, we choose D0 =
Thank you so much for a wonderful- Welding Journal’s August 2014 (pp. 282s to 0.8 mm, D1 = 1.0 mm, duration = 50
ly written article! My Welding Journal 291s) and September 2014 (pp. 321s to msec.
has made its rounds here at the college 330s) issues. A response is also provided. Then let D1 = 1.25D0 drop volume,
and gotten my program a great deal of V1 = π (1/6) (1.25)3D03 wire volume, V0
attention from inside and outside the The authors did a good job describ- = π (1/4)D02L where L = length of wire
college. I’ve even had calls from poten- ing their investigations. However, I consumed to make a droplet.
tial students asking if they will get to have a few questions and comments. When V0 = V1 by rearrangement,
work on the ship if they enroll. I love What was the duration of a com- L = (2/3) (1.25)3D0 = 1.04 mm (approx-
the quotes from the students and John plete typical droplet transfer cycle? imately 1.0 mm).
Engstrom (vice president, board of di- By my observation of their oscillo- For a 50 msec cycle, the feed rate is
rectors, USS LST Ship Memorial). You grams, figures, and charts, it seems as about 47 in./min when D1 = 1.3 mm
did a fantastic job! if the duration ranged from 50 to 60 and D0 = 0.8 mm, D1 = 1.625D0.
msec per cycle. (This range seems to Then L = (2/3) (1.625)3D0 = 2.29
John C. Durbin agree with an article in the Welding mm.
Program Chair, Industrial Technology Journal’s July 2013 issue, pp. 205-s to For a 50 msec cycle, the feed rate is
Assistant Professor, Welding Specialty 217-s, concerning the same subject.) about 108 in./min.
For a feed rate range of 47–108
in./min, an 0.8-mm steel wire uses an
average current of less than 50 A (see
Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, p. 179, 9th
edition). This is a very limited welding
INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEMS range if my sample calculations above
Sales, Rentals, Lease Programs are correct.
Also, what is the practical welding
Weld Preheating, current range the authors expect with
Post-Weld Heat Treatment,
Coating Removal, Shrink Fit,
this type of metal transfer?
Liquid- and Air-Cooled Systems
August F. Manz
AWS Fellow
Union, N.J.
3,000
you are looking for. Unfortunately, the
noncorrosive aspect is a bit deceiving.
If you are joining Al to Al, the flux
residues can be noncorrosive. After
CONTRACTORS
joining, there are Al compounds that
are left on the components. When you
100,000
join something other than Al base
metals, the Al in the residue will create
a galvanic cell. In your case, if you
swap out the chloride-bearing flux for
IRONWORKERS
one of these Al fluxes, you swap out
chloride corrosion for galvanic corro-
sion. They are not an option.
There really are no viable noncorro-
sive fluxes in the temperature range
that you are faced with using the
Cd/Ag alloy. It takes you back to trying
to replace the alloy. Other than Al al-
loys, the only other reasonable choice
is a Zn-based material. The most com-
mon are in the Zn-tin group. You need
high Zn content as the most common
ones with intermediate amounts of Zn
have melt ranges that are as low as
390°F (200°C). Others need to be ap-
proached with caution as many also
contain Cd, which would defeat the
purpose of changing alloys to elimi-
nate it.
There is a series of active solders
Ironw
nw
workers
kers
that you might want to investigate.
They are solders with alloying addi-
tions that make them wet a variety of
materials without flux. They require a
small abrasive action while the solder SAFETY, QUALITY,
Y, PRODUCTIVITY
UCTIVITY
is molten to activate the bonding orkers.org | www.impact-ne
www.ironwork -net.org
process, thus the term active solder. I
am not sure that there is a high-
temperature option for your applica-
tion but it might be worth trying.
Your best option may be to go to a
low-temperature Cu/phosphorus (P)
alloy. These are in the AWS BCuP
For info, go to www.aws.org/adindex
Winners
I would like to thank all who partic-
ipated in this aluminum quiz. I was
very impressed with the response and
quality of the answers. I received
many comments as to how individuals
had enjoyed researching the correct
answers, and many indicated that re-
sponding to the quiz was both educa-
tional and fun. What a great combina-
tion!
The ten winners, selected at ran-
dom from all who sent me 100% cor-
rect answers, are listed below.
Industrial Press
www.industrialpress.com
(888) 5287852
Magnaflux
www.magnaflux.com
(847) 6575300
Welding Equipment
Industry Report Provides
Key Statistics
The Global Welding Equipment Indus-
The company has improved some of try Report 2014, a professional and in-
its SONOTECH® ultrasonic couplants, depth study on the current state of the
able that permits the lamp and sprayer global welding equipment industry,
to be mounted together for single- including Ultragel II, Echogel, and
Sonotrace — now in bright, vibrant provides a basic overview including
handed fluorescent yoke inspection. definitions, classifications, applica-
colors that won’t fade or turn cloudy
— along with Soundsafe, Soundclear, tions, and industry chain structure.
Spectronics Corp.
www.spectroline.com and UT-X. Benefits include providing
(800) 2748888 better corrosion protection, having — continued on page 38
Outstanding features
• Fast, non-destructive measurement
of ferrite content on-site or in the
lab
• Ferrite measurable either in Ferrite-
percentage “%Fe” or Ferritenumber
“FN”
• Measurement range 0.1 to 80% Fe
or 0.1 to 110 FN
• Evaluation capabilities to the
platform FISCHER Data Center
Software
• User-friendly operation menu
www.fischer-technology.com
Improving
GMAW
Efficiency
through
Shielding
Gases
Practical recommendations are offered
for improved efficiency, quality, and BY DIGANTA SARMA
lower costs through use of argon-based
mixed shielding gases
M
any manufacturing compa- account end applications and manu- time; as well as being an environmen-
nies work as “lean” organiza- facturing variability as well as econom- tally friendlier process with signifi-
tions today. This means that ic considerations to ensure the welded cantly lower particulate fume forma-
small- and medium-sized companies structure is produced in the most opti- tion rates, carbon monoxide emis-
have to keep their focus on producing mal way and is free from risk of fail- sions, and so on.
while at the same time allocating re- ure. Components are typically fabricat-
sources or time to find increasingly ef- ed from a designed set of cut-to-shape Factors Related to
fective ways of working in order not to plate or sheet steel, castings, extru- Shielding Gas Choice
miss the opportunities that exist to sions, forgings, etc., and the variability
improve their efficiency, quality, and starts when individual components The welding arc, a highly efficient
cost savings. progress through the manufacturing but complex phenomenon, consists of
Semiautomatic or automatic gas value chain. varying amounts of ionized gases and
metal arc welding (GMAW) is one of This article deals with optimization metal vapor, which means the physical
the main production technologies for and improvement in efficiency while properties of the process gases have a
many manufacturing companies. How- using simple single-wire GMAW both direct and immediate impact on the
ever, advances in technology, weld de- in semiautomatic and robotic applica- arc (Ref. 2). In addition, the process
sign, and quality assurance are not tions, using argon-based, two-compo- gases also contact the hot metal, a
easily adopted. This results in ineffi- nent shielding gases. Benefits of using highly reactive area, in which the
cient or overwelding of both fillet and such gases include attainment of spray chemical and metallurgical effects of
butt-joint welds, especially T-joints in metal transfer mode, giving increased the gases also play an important role.
fillet welds, which is the most em- welding speeds and higher productivi- Ionization occurs directly in the case
ployed type of joint in welded struc- ty, lower fabrication costs, and signifi- of the monoatomic inert gases, Ar and
tures. Because of its geometry, this cantly reduced oxidation leading to He. Diatomic or polyatomic gases,
type of joint is often overwelded and smoother, high-quality, less oxidized such as H2 or CO2, have to be initially
twice or three times as much volume weld surfaces, less elemental losses disassociated in the arc, a process that
must be filled with metal as is needed through the arc, resulting in improved requires additional energy — Fig. 1.
for the desired size. That increases not mechanical properties; flatter fillet The less energy required for these
only direct costs and weight but also weld profiles with less weld metal processes, the easier it is to ignite the
the shrinkage force and distortion that waste compared to convex CO2 fillets; arc. If components that are compara-
add other costs (Ref. 1). A systems ap- significantly lower spatter rates lead- tively difficult to ionize, such as He or
proach is necessary, which takes into ing to reduced wastage and cleanup CO2, are present, the welding voltage
has to be increased accordingly. How-
ever, this additional electrical energy
is released again in the form of recom-
lonization energy, eV Dissociation Energy, eV
bination energy, which can both im-
prove heat input and increase welding
speed.
Depending on the gas, the proper-
ties of the plasma change, and as a
consequence, the weld joints them-
selves also differ distinctly. The radial
profiles of the emission coefficients of
an iron line, argon line, or atomic oxy-
gen line, respectively, have been deter-
mined for 100% CO2 and an Ar + CO2
mix (Ref. 2). These profiles indicate es-
tablishment of a metal vapor arc core
e
en
xid
m
og
ge
io
n
yg
dr
go
-d
tro
He
Hy
on
Ox
Ar
Ni
molar fraction above 75% in the arc the two components He and H2 signifi- quire a lower level of these deposits,
center could be roughly estimated for cantly improve process efficiency. the active gas components in the Ar-
this case. Estimations of the electrical Good thermal conductivity has a posi- based multicomponent gas mixes are
conductivity and the arc field indicate tive effect on joint geometry, wetting, reduced after taking into considera-
the current path must include not only degassing of the molten pool, and tion requirements regarding fusion,
the metal vapor arc core but also outer welding speed. Figure 2 shows details penetration, and number of pores. In
hot regions dominated by welding gas of thermal conductivities of various the case of a higher quantity of CO2,
properties in the case of Ar. According- components in a shielding gas mix. All carbon pickup may occur, depending
ly, more energy in a more focused re- these are important, especially as it on the type of base material.
gion should be transmitted to the has been established that better weld Purity levels and mixing accuracies
workpiece in the case of CO2. The en- toe geometry results in better fatigue play a vital role. Shielding gases are
ergy transfer should be lower and dis- resistance (Ref. 4), which is the largest standardized in AWS A5.32/
tributed over a larger region in the reason for failure of welded joints in A5.32M:2011, Welding Consumables —
case of an Ar + CO2 gas mixture. ships. Investigations have shown that Gases and Gas Mixtures for Fusion Weld-
It has now been shown that the this geometry is adversely affected due ing and Allied Processes, and ISO 14175
oxygen index only weakly correlates to spatter-induced incomplete fusion (which has the same title as A5.32).
with fume formation rate (FFR) (Ref. in GMAW using CO2 gas. These standards specify, among other
3). A strong correlation of increasing Carbon dioxide and oxygen are things, the minimum quality require-
FFR with increasing CO2 concentra- both active, oxidizing gases. Especially ments of the components and mix-
tions in argon-based shielding gases at high temperatures, they react quick- tures. However, depending on the ma-
was obtained. This was attributed to ly with materials present to form ox- terial, process, method, and quality re-
the influence of CO2 on metal transfer ides. In appropriate quantities, metal quirements, higher qualities may be
and arc characteristics, decreasing arc oxides can improve arc stability, which necessary. Therefore, for the current
stability, where increased CO2 content is put to good use in several multicom- project, shielding gas of the type ISO
would promote larger droplets, longer ponent gas mixtures. However, if a 14175 M21-ArC-18 (Ar + CO2) has
detachment times, higher arc tempera- larger percentage of active gases is been used.
tures, and, consequently, increased present, for example, GMAW of car-
fume generation. It has also been bon steels, the resulting increase in ox- Background
found that shielding gas composition idation generates additional heat. The
had no obvious effect on fume compo- product of oxidation, otherwise The company under study manufac-
sition. However, enrichment of Mn in known as “slag” or “silicate,” is often tures front and rear assembly units for
the fume composition was observed. found on the surface of the joint. Oxy- two-wheeled vehicles — Fig. 3. These
Some of the arc’s heat is transferred gen as a shielding gas component has a components are made of carbon steels
to the workpiece via the plasma gas greater oxidizing effect than the same (ERW St. 30, 37 Grades CRC-D and
flow. Especially at high temperatures, quantity of CO2. If quality demands re- HRC-D). Material thickness usually
N
orwegian winch specialist I.P. clude shipyards, ship owners, and oil The welding procedure specifica-
Huse (www.iphuse.no) reaches companies — Fig. 3. The Harøya facto- tions (WPS) employed by the company
deposition rates of 55 lb/h for ry has approximately 130 employees. in production produce averages be-
its submerged arc welding (SAW) tween 44 and 55 lb/h, using a single
operation using a single power source power source, while maintaining heat
and a welding head that incorporates Welding with New Technology input below 76 kJ/in. and welding
patent pending “cold” electrode speeds at 33 in./min. Using a single
technology. I.P. Huse currently has four welding cold electrode welding head, it has
Historically, twin arc welding has stations employing the integrated cold achieved up to 67 lb/h and above in fill
been the most productive SAW process technology in its SAW process. One of passes, and the welds satisfy ISO
in terms of deposition rates. Twin arc the stations has been upgraded with a 15614 and impact toughness require-
welding is accomplished using two new 1000/A AC/DC inverter power ments for offshore applications.
wires in the same contact device, con- source to further increase productivi- Prior to implementing this technol-
nected to the same power source and ty. The company also employs cored ogy, the focus on consistent improve-
same polarity. wires to maximize deposition rates ment ensured that it was already
The cold electrode technology inte- and weld quality with this process. achieving the optimal productivity
grates a third electrically insulated
“cold” wire between and parallel with
the two hot wires in the same contact
device (Fig. 1). The cold wire feed
speed is controlled independently
from the hot wires with integrated
software resident in the control unit.
The cold wire melts from the excessive
energy generated by the arcs from the
two hot wires. This technology can in-
crease deposition rates up to 100%
and in some applications provides
even higher deposition rates.
Fig. 4 — Manufacturing mistakes, identified in recall notices or other actions, can affect the company’s reputation and have a significant fi-
nancial impact on any company.
Welding Operations
Become More
Accountable
In today’s media-saturated environ-
ment, mistakes can become global
knowledge in a matter of minutes.
Manufacturing mistakes, identified in
recall notices or other actions, often
become common knowledge, affecting
a company’s reputation — Fig. 4.
These mistakes can also have a signifi-
cant financial impact on the company.
With the increasing presence of social
media and the growing ability to hold a
company publicly accountable for ac-
tions that may be perceived as negli-
gent, it is becoming more crucial that
companies take the proper steps to
move with changing times to prevent
errors in the manufacturing environ-
ment. Unfortunately, the days are gone
where welding operators had decades
of experience and could bear the bur-
den of being the most critical compo-
nent of influencing weld quality.
The world has changed over the
past couple of decades, and technology
is certainly changing from year to year.
If your company hasn’t taken a look at
the tools available for weld-quality
monitoring, today may be the right
time to begin the journey to update
your welding practices. WJ
References
1. Heraclitus. (n.d.).
goodreads.com/quotes. Retrieved
from goodreads.com:
www.goodreads.com/quotes/537168-
change-is-the-only-constant-in-life
2. Wright, J. 2013 (March 7).
Forbes.com. Retrieved July 10, 2013,
For info, go to www.aws.org/adindex
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
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Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI ServoRobot Training Seminars. Two-day laser-vision semi-
Z136.1, Safe Use of Lasers, Orlando, Fla., or customer’s site. nars held throughout the year at Servo-Robot, Inc., near
Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org. Montreal, Canada. Seminars include tutorials and hands-on
practical training. For seminar schedule and costs, e-mail
Laser U — Online Education Portal. Offers practical infor- request to info@servorobot.com.
mation to use on the job. Topics range from 3D printing to
drilling, welding, wireless and optical product requirements, Shielded Metal Arc Welding of 2in. Pipe in the 6G Position
and many others. Visit website for complete information — Uphill. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute of Welding Technolo-
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Soldering Training, LiveInteractive Online Courses. Three
Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly courses offered: basic hand soldering, through-hole technol-
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sented at Servo-Robot, Inc., St. Bruno, QC, Canada. For lines, schedules, prices, and to register. Soldering Training &
schedule, cost, and availability, send your request to Certification (STC), www.solderingtraining.com/ online-solder-
info@servorobot.com. ing-training.php.
Machine Safeguarding Seminars. Rockford Systems, Inc.; SSPC Training and Certification Courses. Courses in protec-
(800) 922-7533; www.rockfordsystems.com. tive coatings, abrasive blasting, paint inspector, bridge coat-
ings inspector, surface preparation, NAVSEA inspector, and
Machining and Grinding Courses. TechSolve, www.TechSolve.org. many others. The Society for Protective Coatings;
www.sspc.org.
NACE International Training and Certification Courses. Na-
tional Assoc. of Corrosion Engineers; (281) 228-6223; Thermadyne® Distributor Training. Year-around training at
www.nace.org. Denton, Tex.; West Lebanon, N.H.; Bowling Green, Ky.; and
Chino, Calif. trainingteam@victortechnologies.com.
NDE and CWI/CWE Courses and Exams. Allentown, Pa., and
customers’ locations. Welder Training and Testing Institute; Tool and Die Welding Courses. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute
(800) 223-9884; www.wtti.edu. of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers’ loca- Unitek Miyachi Corp. Training Services. Personalized train-
tions. Level I and II and refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, ra- ing services on resistance and laser beam welding and laser
diation safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT, LLC; (714) marking; (626) 303-5676; www.unitekmiyachi.com.
255-1500; www.testndt.com.
Vibration Training Short Courses. Presented at locations na-
Online Education Courses. Topics include Introduction to tionwide, customer’s site, and by correspondence. Vibration
Die Casting ($99), Metal Melting and Handling ($99), Prod- Institute; www.vibinst.org.
uct Design ($59), Energy Training ($19), Dross Training
($19), Managing Dust Hazards ($19), Safety (free). North Welding Courses. A wide range of specialized courses pre-
American Die Casting Assn.; (847) 808-3161; www.diecast- sented throughout the year. The Lincoln Electric Co.;
ing.org/education/online. (216) 486-1751; www.lincolnelectric.com.
Plastics Welding School. A two-day course for certification Welding Introduction for Robot Operators and Program
to European plastics welding standards. Malcom Hot Air mers. This one-week course is presented in Troy, Ohio, or at
Systems; www.plasticweldingtools.com. customers’ locations. Hobart Institute of Welding Technolo-
gy; (800) 332-9448, ext. 5603; www.welding.org.
Protective Coatings Training and Certification Courses. At
various locations and online. The Society for Protective Welding Skills Training Courses. Courses include weldability
Coatings; (877) 281-7772; www.sspc.org. of ferrous and nonferrous metals, arc welding inspection,
quality control, and preparation for recertification of Certi-
Robotics Operator Training. Presented by ABB University at fied Welding Inspectors. Hobart Institute of Welding Tech-
13 locations nationwide. For course titles and locations: nology; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org. WJ
(800) 435-7365, opt. 2, opt. 4; www.abb.us/abbuniversity.
Safety Training Online. Unlimited training on myriad indus- An Important Event on Its Way?
trial safety course titles. Visit website for complete informa-
tion and previews of several courses; www.safety99.com. Send information on upcoming events to the Welding Journal
Dept., 8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166. Items can
Service Manager Course. Designed for sheet metal workers also be sent via FAX to (305) 443-7404 or by e-mail to
and HVAC service shop owners. Various locations and dates. woodward@aws.org.
Note: The 2015 schedule for all certifications is posted online at Denver, CO July 19–24 July 25
www.aws.org/w/a/registrations/prices_schedules.html. Kansas City, MO July 19–24 July 25
Scottsdale, AZ July 19–24 July 25
Waco, TX July 19–24 July 25
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) Miami, FL July 26–31 Aug. 1
Milwaukee, WI July 26–31 Aug. 1
Location Seminar Dates Exam Date Sacramento, CA July 26–31 Aug. 1
Long Beach, CA Feb. 8–13 Feb. 14 Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Aug. 1
New Orleans, LA Feb. 8-13 Feb. 14 Anchorage, AK Aug. 2–7 Aug. 8
Seattle, WA Feb. 8–13 Feb. 14 Baton Rouge, LA Aug. 2–7 Aug. 8
Waco, TX Feb. 8–13 Feb. 14 Chicago, IL Aug. 2–7 Aug. 8
Atlanta, GA Feb. 22–27 Feb. 28 Las Vegas, NV Aug. 2–7 Aug. 8
Milwaukee, WI Feb. 22–27 Feb. 28 Philadelphia, PA Aug. 2–7 Aug. 8
Miami, FL Exam only Feb. 26 Seattle, WA Aug. 2–7 Aug. 8
Mobile, AL Mar. 1–6 Mar. 7 Rochester, NY Exam only Aug. 8
Houston, TX Mar. 1–6 Mar. 7 Charlotte, NC Aug. 9–14 Aug. 15
Kansas City, MO Mar. 1–6 Mar. 7 Mobile, AL Aug. 9–14 Aug. 15
Norfolk, VA Mar. 1–6 Mar. 7 Portland, ME Aug. 9–14 Aug. 15
Boston, MA Mar. 8–13 Mar. 14 Minneapolis, IN Aug. 16–21 Aug. 22
Indianapolis, IN Mar. 8–13 Mar. 14 Salt Lake City, UT Aug. 16–21 Aug. 22
Portland, OR Mar. 8–13 Mar. 14 San Antonio, TX Aug. 16–21 Aug. 22
Rochester, NY Exam only Mar. 14 San Diego, CA Aug. 16–21 Aug. 22
Edmonton, AB Canada Exam only Mar. 16
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Mar. 21 Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Birmingham, AL Mar. 22–27 Mar. 28 Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Chicago, IL Mar. 22–27 Mar. 28 Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Dallas, TX Mar. 22–27 Mar. 28 Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Miami, FL Mar. 22–27 Mar. 28
Springfield, MO Mar. 22–27 Mar. 28
York, PA Exam only Mar. 28 Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
Las Vegas, NV Mar. 29–Apr. 3 Apr. 4 CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Minneapolis, MN Mar. 29–Apr. 3 Apr. 4
Syracuse, NY Mar. 29–Apr. 3 Apr. 4 Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
St. Louis, MO Exam only Apr. 11 CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
Nashville, TN Apr. 12–17 Apr. 18
New Orleans, LA Apr. 12–17 Apr. 18 9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
San Francisco, CA Apr. 12–17 Apr. 18 For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education re-
Perrysburg, OH Exam only Apr. 18 quirements without taking the exam. The exam can be tak-
Miami, FL Exam only Apr. 23 en at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Corpus Christi, TX Apr. 26–May 1 May 2
Albuquerque, NM May 3–8 May 9 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Fresno, CA May 3–8 May 9 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
Miami, FL May 3–8 May 9 exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Oklahoma City, OK May 3–8 May 9
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only May 16
Knoxville, TN Exam only May 23 Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
Birmingham, AL May 31–June 5 June 6 ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 391–8421
Hutchinson, KS May 31–June 5 June 6 OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Spokane, WA May 31–June 5 June 6 Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Bakersfield, CA June 7–12 June 13 Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Beaumont, TX June 14–19 June 20 Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
Hartford, CT June 14–19 June 20 On request at MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Orlando, FL June 14–19 June 20
Memphis, TN June 14–19 June 20
Miami, FL Exam only June 25 IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Please ver
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only June 27 ify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course sta
tus before making travel plans. Applications are to be received at least six
Miami, FL Exam only July 16 weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that
Cleveland, OH July 12–17 July 18 time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application dead
Jacksonville, FL July 12–17 July 18 line dates by visiting our website www.aws.org/certification/docs/sched
Los Angeles, CA July 12–17 July 18 ules.html. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or
Louisville, KY July 12–17 July 18 to register online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443
9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.
Omaha, NE July 12–17 July 18
Shown at the fall meeting, held Oct. 8, 9, are (from left) Chuck Ford, Ben Finney, Bill Beckman, Pat Newhouse, Chris Lander, John Gul-
lotti, Nancy Porter, Richard Holdren, Bryan Worley, David Beneteau, Steve Borrero, Johnny Dingler, Chair JP Christein, and Ben
Grimmett. The A2 Committee on Definitions and Symbols held its fall meeting Oct. 8, 9, at EWI in Columbus, Ohio. The committee is re-
sponsible for the oversight of the A2B Subcommittee on Definitions (AWS A3.0M/A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions) and
A2C Subcommittee on Symbols (AWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination).
From left are Don Reis, Bill Newell, Jennifer Molin, Bill Kashin, Chair Mike Lang, John Hill, Chris Goocher, Danny Ciarlariello, Andy Mul-
roy, and John Hainsworth. At the meeting, John Hill received a certificate in appreciation for his 23 years of service to the committee.
LONG ISLAND — From left are Tom Gartland, Jesse Provler, Chair Brian Cassidy, Deborah McInnis, Alex Duschere, Dist. 2 Director Har-
land Thompson, Ray O’Leary, and Barry McQuillan.
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
BOSTON
September 19
Activity: The Section manned a booth
to promote the Society at a Steel Day
event hosted by Capone Iron Corp. in
Rowley, Mass. Tom Ferri, Dist. 1 di-
rector, and Dave Paquin were joined BOSTON — From left are Tom Ferri, Dist. 1 director; Dave Paquin; and Doug Desrochers
by Doug Desrochers representing the from the Central Mass./R.I. Section.
Central Mass./Rhode Island Section,
distributing literature and answering
questions for the high school stu-
dents and visitors.
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
LONG ISLAND
October 9
Activity: The Section’s experts held a LEHIGH VALLEY — Mike Wiswesser, Dist. 3 director (standing, far right), is shown
group discussion on the relative mer- with attendees at the Lehigh Career and Technical Institute .
its of welding 1⁄4-in. plate using gas
metal arc vs. shielded metal arc LEHIGH VALLEY
processes. The winner was shielded District 3 August 6
metal arc. Participating were Chair Michael Wiswesser, director Activity: The first Section meeting of
Brian Cassidy, Jesse Provler, Deborah (610) 820-9551 the season was held at Lehigh Career
McInnis, Tom Gartland, Alex mike@welderinstitute.com and Technical Institute in Sch-
Duschere, Ray O’Leary, and Harland necksville, Pa. Mike Wiswesser, Dist.
Thompson, Dist. 2 director. 3 director, attended the program.
SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA
September 30
Activity: The Section members, Weld-
ing Instructor Chris Overfelt, and
Dist. 4 Director Stewart Harris con-
ducted a high school student weld-off
competition at A. R. Burton Technol-
ogy Center in Salem, Va. Hunter
Richard was the overall winner and
Rachel King took the top spot in the
girl’s division.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 356-2107
cmatricardi@aol.com
SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA — (Top photo) Attendees are shown at the September pro-
Aiken South Carolina gram. Above, at left, are Chris Overfelt (left), Hunter Richard (center), and Stewart Har-
Student Chapter ris, Dist. 4 director. At right, Rachel King displays her trophy.
October 16
Activity: The Student Chapter mem-
bers toured Praxair in Columbia, S.C.,
to study its gas cylinder filling opera-
tions.
AIKEN SOUTH CAROLINA STUDENT CHAPTER — From left are Jason Pfentner, Aaron Carter, Chandler Stokes, Brian Gore, Kevin
Rawlins, Joseph Long, Devon Rains, Lane Simmons, Robyn Westphas, Craig Miller, and Kevin Gratton.
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@sgsdiving.com
COLUMBUS
September 23
Speaker: Melvin Pascall, professor
Affiliation: The Ohio State University
Topic: Food packaging nano technolo-
gy
Activity: The event was held at DNV
GL in Dublin, Ohio, for 37 attendees,
including members of local chapters
of SWE, ASME, ASM International,
and AIAA.
NORTHERN NEW YORK — Doug Tanner
is shown guiding the Section’s tour of the
October 15 USS Slater.
Speaker: Lee Kvidahl, AWS president
1993–1994
Affiliation: Ingalls Shipbuilding PITTSBURGH
Topic: Welding in shipbuilding Activity: Recently, more than 60 Sec-
Activity: Vice Chair Jim Worman re- tion members and welding students
ceived his Silver Member certificate toured Chapman Corp. in Washing-
for 25 years of service to the Society ton, Pa. Leading the program were
from Uwe Aschemeier, Dist. 7 direc- Ron Delsandro, Pipe Fabrication Shop
tor. Fifty people attended this pro- manager; Jody Dadum, general fore-
gram, including members of several man; Lou Rudi, QA manager; and COLUMBUS — (Top photo) Silver Mem-
local technical societies. The event Matt Wilson, foreman. Also attending ber Jim Worman (left) receives his certifi-
was held at La Scala Restaurant in were Ken Broadbent, business manag- cate from Uwe Aschemeier, Dist. 7 direc-
Columbus, Ohio. er, and workers from Steamfitters UA tor. (Above) Chair John Lawmon (left) is
Local #449 based in Pittsburgh, Pa. shown with speaker Lee Kvidahl.
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
fits@bellsouth.net
Lawson State C. C.
Student Chapter
September 23
Activity: The Student Chapter held its
fall term election of officers at the
college in Birmingham, Ala. Elected LAWSON STATE C. C. STUDENT CHAPTER — From left are (seated) Niya Jackson,
were Ladarious Bledsoe, chair; Mason Chair Ladarious Bledsoe, and Mason Lusker; (standing) Maurice Davis, DeMarcus
Gates, Rushton Syphurs, and Jerome Ambers.
Ferris State University Student Chapter — Members are shown during their Adopt-a-Highway project in September.
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(920) 241-1542
daniel.roland@airgas.com
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
CHICAGO
October 15
Speaker: Stuart Kleven
Topic: Recovery and restoration of the
Huntley, a Confederate submarine
Activity: Attending were welding stu-
dents and members of the local chap-
ter of ASNT. The event was held at
Bohemian Crystal Restaurant in
DRAKE WELL — From left are (seated) Bob Fugate, Carol Miller, and Brenda Benyon;
Westmont, Ill., for 43 attendees. and (standing) Dan Bubenheim, Mike Owens, Ward Kiser, and Travis Crate.
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
District 16
Karl Fogleman, director
(402) 677-2490 HOUSTON — At left, Metallurgist Ben Pletcher (left) is shown with Vice Chair Grant
Peltier at the September program. At right, Arc Specialities owner Dan Allford (left)
fogleman3@cox.net chats with Chair Barney Burks.
District 17
Jerry Knapp, director
(918) 224-6455
jerry.knapp@gasandsupply.com
District 17 CWI Tour — Instructor Ron Theiss (third from the left) poses with his CWI class during their tour of SMU.
EAST TEXAS —At left, presenter George Stevens (left) is shown with J. Jones, AWS director-at-large. At right, attendees are shown at
the District 17 conference held June 14.
October 15
Speaker: Phil Zammit, QA manager
Affiliation: Brooklyn Iron Works (ret.)
Topic: Reading welding symbols
Activity: The event was held at
Spokane Community College for 72 HOUSTON — Instructor Ron Theiss (wearing jacket) and CWI class members are shown
attendees. at United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America.
District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director
(505) 284-9644
phgorma@sandia.gov
COLORADO
September 11
Activity: The Section visited Leed
Fabrication in Loveland, Colo., to
study the manufacture of pressure
vessels. Eric Warren made a presenta-
tion then conducted the tour of the
facility. ARIZONA — Shown at Mohave College
are (from left ) presenter Buddy May,
Fran Johnston, Leon Zamora, and Gary HOUSTON — Justin Gordy, a past chair,
Gardner. is shown during the Arc Specialities tour.
COLORADO — Presenter Eric Warren (holding the Section banner) poses with Section members at Leed Fabrication.
Weber State University Student Chapter — Attendees are shown during their tour of GSC Foundries in Ogden, Utah.
ARIZONA — Shown at the October meeting are from left (seated) John Weber, Buddy
May, Paul Moreno, and Chair Brent Boling; (standing) Gary Gardner, Leon Zamora, Jer-
ry Siko, Andrew Lamer, and Nick Martinez.
LA/INLAND EMPIRE — Chair George LA/INLAND EMPIRE — The top Welding Thunder team members are (from left) Ben
Rollo (left) is shown with Dean Wilson, Perez, Omar Andino, Alexandra Ruesga, Tyler Faust, Caleb Purdy, Michael Gilman, and
AWS president, in October. Joseph Brennan.
Head to WEMCO’s
annual meeting
or be left behind.
Non-member executives are encouraged to participate.
MEET THE SPEAKERS
Vinoy Renaissance Resort & Golf Club Chris Mapes was appointed chairman of Lincoln Electric in
December 2013, and president and chief executive officer in
December 2012. Previously, Chris was Lincoln’s chief operating
St. Petersburg, Fla. officer, the position he was appointed to when he joined the
company in 2011. He was elected to the Lincoln Board in 2010
while serving as executive vice president of A.O. Smith Corporation
and president of its electrical products unit. Prior to his career at
Theme: Welding Industry A.O. Smith, Chris was president, motor sales and marketing of
Regal Beloit Corporation and had also served as president of the
Consolidation and Globalization Global OEM Business Group of Superior Essex, Inc.
Jack Keough
Contributing Editor and Associate Publisher
Industrial Distribution Magazine
T
he WEMCO Annual Meeting is filled with Jack Keough has been researching and writing about the
unparalleled networking opportunities and distribution/manufacturing sector for 30 years. He’s been serving
as contributing editor and associate publisher for Industrial
enlightening presentations. Renowned economist Distribution Magazine of Madison, Wis. for 26 of those years. Jack
is also the president of his own marketing and consulting firm,
Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for Trend Research will Keough Business Communications, and the contributing editor for
Electrical Distributor magazine and its website. He has written
again be our keynote speaker. Network with additional extensively about distribution management, sales and technology
issues that have changed industrial distribution in the past three
speakers such as Lincoln Electric CEO Chris Mapes decades.
and Industrial Distribution Magazine’s Jack Keough.
Non-members are welcome to attend and
experience the full benefits of networking
with your industry peers!
KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Alan Beaulieu
Economist and President
Institute for Trend Research
One of the country’s most informed economists, Alan Beaulieu is a
principal of ITR Economics, where he serves as president. He is
co-author of Make Your Move, a book on how to increase profits
through business cycle changes. Alan is also the senior economic
Registration opens mid-December. For more advisor to the NSW, chief forecaster for the European Power Train
Distributors Association, and the chief economist for HARDI.
information, please contact Keila DeMoraes at Pronouncements from the Institute for Trend Research and/or Mr.
Beaulieu have appeared in/on the Wall Street Journal, New York
kdemoraes@aws.org or 800-443-9353, ext. 444 Times, USA Today, Knight Ridder News Services, Business Week,
Associated Press, Washington Times, CBS Radio, CNN Radio, Sirius
talk radio, KABC, NPR affiliate WLRN, and numerous other outlets.
PERSONNEL
W
e have all seen the effect of
welds carried out without ad-
equate gas coverage — the
hot metal simply oxidizes in contact
with air. The effect is noticeable with
stainless steels — Fig. 1. To some, this
is an inconvenient feature that can be
removed by grinding, but the cost of
doing so can be high, particularly if ac-
cess is difficult.
Even with reduced oxygen content
in the gas coverage, the effect can be
marked. It will come as a surprise to
most that oxygen contents as low as
60 ppm (0.006%) (Fig. 1B) can pro-
duce discoloration or “heat tint” in
stainless steels.
While for many applications this
discoloration may be acceptable cos-
metically, it is now apparent that it
presents a corrosion hazard (Refs.
1–7).
Fig. 1 — Photos showing oxidation of 316L stainless steel coupons welded using argon
purging gas: A — 12 ppm (ensures no heat tint occurs in stainless steel); B — 60 ppm (even
The Mechanism this relatively low oxygen content can lead to “heat tint”); C — 70 ppm; D — 200 ppm;
of Corrosion E — 250 ppm; F — 500 ppm (the result of poorly protected underbead in welded austenitic
stainless steel).
Fig. 2 — Schematic of a fully integrated, inflatable weld-purge system for use in pipe and tube fabrication. These devices are available for di-
ameters between 25 and 2400 mm.
tensile stresses in the material and the Removal of Heat Tint reliable and versatile — Fig. 2.
presence of a corrosive medium. It can Considerable design effort has been
be induced in some stainless steels by Light discoloration can be removed applied by the designers and manufac-
adverse heat treatments, such as those by bright annealing or acid pickling, turers of these products over the past
occurring in weld heat-affected zones. but heavier deposits may require ma- decade or so, and currently available
chining such as grinding and polish- systems address the problems of con-
Crevice Corrosion ing. Removal clearly requires access to trolled inert gas pressure and flow, the
the area in question, not only for need for easy and rapid deployment
treatment but also for debris removal. and removal to limit overall welding
Crevice corrosion is localized corro-
Even when access is available, none of time, thermal resistance, and leak-
sion of a metal surface that is attribut-
these treatments is easy and most can tight access for oxygen-monitoring
able to close proximity of another met-
be expensive. equipment. They also provide a large
al such as a weld. It is a locally acceler-
pipe contact area and therefore excel-
ated type of corrosion and is one of
lent and reliable sealing.
the major corrosion hazards in stain-
less steels.
Weld Purging Coupled with these advantages
comes flexibility to allow access and
The alternative to potentially time- removal through pipe bends, abrasion
Microbiologically consuming, difficult, and expensive resistance, and the use of materials
Induced Corrosion cleaning of heat tint is to avoid it dur- that meet food, semiconductor, and
ing the welding process. This can be nuclear compliance standards.
Microbiologically induced corrosion undertaken by protecting the joint The Argweld® systems are examples
(MIC) is promoted or caused by micro- from oxidation by using an inert gas of fully integrated, inflatable purge
organisms, typically in industries related such as argon. The upper side of the equipment that can accommodate
to food, beverage, and chemical process- joint is protected by the inert gas used tube and pipe diameters from 25 to
ing. It is common in welded sections. in the torch. The underside, known as 2400 mm (Ref. 8).
To avoid these forms of corrosion, it the underbead, needs separate treat- Clearly, a knowledge of the oxygen
is essential that heat tints are properly ment. This technique is referred to as level in the purge gas is essential, rec-
removed before the stainless steel weld purging. ognizing that a level as low as 12 ppm
equipment or piping is exposed to ag- Seals are inserted on either side of may be necessary — Fig. 1A. This can
gressive or aqueous environments. The the weld root and inert gas is admitted be accommodated with an oxygen
alternative is to prevent heat tinting to displace air in the space between monitor, and sensitive versions of
during the welding process by using an them. While a wide range of options these have been developed specifically
inert environment to protect the sur- for sealing are available, those based for the welding industry. Commercial-
face. on inflatable seals have been found be ly available weld-purge monitors can
combine monitoring down to 10 ppm suming that stainless steels are totally 5. Henon, B. K. 2008. Considera-
with software for data recording, resistant to corrosion can be risky. WJ tions for orbital welding of corrosion
analysis, and quality control. resistant materials to the ASME Bio-
References processing Equipment Standard. Pre-
Conclusion 1. Titz, J. T. Microbiologically in-
sented at the Stainless Steel America
Conference 2008 and available at
fluenced corrosion of stainless steel. www.arcmachines.com/applications.
During the last few years, the semi- Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium 6. Netten, G. Necessity of
conductor, bioprocessing, food and On Orbital Welding In High Purity In- removal of heat tints on stainless
beverage, and petrochemical indus- dustries, La Baule, France. steel to avoid or minimize corrosion.
tries in particular have revised their 2. Ammann, T. 2010. Purging Vecon Netherlands Technical Bulletin
weld-acceptance standards upward in while Welding. BOC Australia July 2005.
striving to manufacture products with Document. 7. Taban, E., et al. 2014. Effect of
impurity levels measured in nanome- 3. Grant, A., Henon, B. K., and the purging gas on properties of 304H
ters. The welding accessory manufac- Mansfeld, F. 1997. Effects of purge GTA welds. Welding Journal 93(4):
turers have responded by developing gas purity and Chelant passivation on 124-s to 130-s.
equipment capable of meeting these the corrosion resistance of orbitally 8. Huntingdon Fusion
standards, but increased use of this welded 316L stainless steel tubing. Techniques, Ltd, UK.
equipment is vital in the pursuit of Pharmaceutical Engineering 17 (1): www.huntingdonfusion.com.
quality. 1–13, (2): 46–54.
Industry sectors with demanding 4. Purge welding stainless steel for
standards for weld quality need to be cleanability and corrosion resistance.
aware of the corrosion hazards arising Food Processing Online. May 20, 2010. Michael Fletcher is CEO of Delta
Consultants, UK.
from poor welding practice. Simply as- www.foodprocessing.com.au.
W
hen Joe Williams graduated Many school districts looked on weld- erment jobs, shipyards, and even on
from the welding class at ing as dirty, expensive, and not a very the production set of Avatar: The Last
Philadelphia’s A. Philip Ran- good career path. The program became Airbender. “I was always getting calls
dolph Career and Technical High dormant until 2012 when Williams for welding jobs,” he said. “One day, I
School in 1986, little did he think that was hired to revive it. thought ‘if there is this great need for
he would come back to his old class- welders, who is teaching all these
room and sit at his teacher’s desk, no Fateful Call welders who are needed?’” That
longer a student, but the instructor thought motivated him to call the
running the program. Like many weld- Since his graduation, Williams nev- Philadelphia school district and in-
ing programs in the last 20 years, it er had a hard time finding a welding quire whether there were any welding
fell into disfavor and faded away. job. He’s worked in oil refineries, gov- jobs open. He got a positive response
Fig. 2 — A student welding an Amnesty Box for the Philadelphia school district.
and immediately sent in his résumé. Admission is competitive. a partnership with the school would be
Within 30 days, he was approved and “Initially, the welding program was a good fit to help fulfill the future
signed up as the instructor who would not very popular and was considered need for welders,” said Stark. “It also
give a rebirth to the welding program. by the students not to be as ‘glam- presented a good social outreach for us
orous’ as other programs,” said and its close proximity to our head-
Williams. He exposed those initial quarters were favorable factors, but
Diverse Student classes to the many opportunities that what sealed the deal was meeting Mr.
Population welding careers provide, but it was Williams,” said Stark. “He was enthusi-
hard to get them hooked when the astic and dedicated to the program.”
A. Philip Randolph Career and equipment they were using to practice The deal involved providing new
Technical High School is a city-wide their skills dated back to when equipment and accessories for the
school servicing a diverse group of stu- Williams was a student. That problem welding lab. Through a partnership
dents from across Philadelphia. “In ad- was solved when a helping hand was with Miller Electric Co., Appleton,
dition to core academics, it offers nine offered from Airgas, Radnor, Pa. Wis., Airgas was able to provide new
programs of study, one of which is Miller welding machines and related
welding,” said Williams. “My students products. “Now the students could
learn all facets of the welding trade Partnership Jump perfect their skills on state-of-the-art
from reading blueprints to processes Starts Program equipment,” said Williams. “With
like shielded metal arc, gas metal arc, these industry collaborations, word
and flux cored arc welding.” Ron Stark, senior vice president of quickly spread through the school and
Students who attend the high sales and marketing for Airgas, came the community, and the welding pro-
school have to apply for admission. It in contact with Darryl Overton, princi- gram became the school’s premier of-
is a magnet school that is not restrict- pal of A. Philip Randolph High School, fering,” he continued. “This year, our
ed by neighborhood boundaries and who was passionate about restarting enrollment in the welding class has
accepts students from across the city. the welding program. “Airgas thought doubled from last year.”
EVENTS
THE 4 EVEN TS LEADING THE METAL
FABRICATION INDUSTRY IN MONTERREY
258,000+
SQUARE FEET
OF FLOOR SPACE
TALKS
AND WORKSHOPS
LIVE
DEMONSTRATIONS
550
EXHIBITORS
ww
www.fabtechmexico.com
w.fabtechmexico.com
THE AMERICAN WELDER
G
rinding in metal fabrication is
one of the most expensive and
time-consuming operations.
There are, however, many ways that
the fabricator can save time, effort,
and money to reduce the prohibitive
cost of grinding. While there are alter-
native means to grinding, including
weld preparation bevelers, and other
tools, this article is strictly related to
grinding.
The first consideration of a fabrica-
tor who employs many people in
grinding operations is what sort of
power tool, i.e., grinder, should they
be using. The first considerations are
the volume of work and the number of
employees who use grinding. If the
shop has more than five grinding sta-
tions, considerable savings can be real-
ized. There are several decisions to be Other Cost Factors moved from job to job, and offer rela-
made. tively good power-to-weight ratio.
In grinding operations, the issues However, they have the highest main-
Grinder Power Sources of paramount importance are mainte- tenance costs, and are heavier than
nance costs, power-to-weight ratio, some other options.
The market in power tools is huge, horsepower, speed (rev/min), total The pneumatically driven motors
but for specialty applications it is tool weight, and noise. commonly used industrially tend to be
much smaller than the common tool All of these can impact operator fa- noisy, have poorer power-to-weight ra-
market. For powering grinders, there tigue, which in grinding is an impor- tios, are expensive in power consump-
are the following five types of motors tant factor. While the grinding wheel tion, require frequent service, and do
currently available: makeup, binder, and grit size are also not operate at constant speeds.
• Universal 110-V, 60-Hz, single- important, this article assumes all are The squirrel cage three-phase in-
phase electric motor optimized for the task in question. duction motors are heavy and more
• Pneumatic (air-driven) motor Each of the five motor types has difficult to handle.
• Three-phase (squirrel cage) induc- certain advantages and shortcomings Hydraulic motors, while excellent
tion motor as follows: for some power tool applications, are
• Hydraulic (oil-liquid-driven) The universal 110-V, 60-Hz electric not suited to grinding operations at
• High-frequency, 300- to 360-Hz motors have these advantages. They all.
electric squirrel cage motors. can be used most any place, are easily Since the high-frequency or high-
cycle tools are not commonly used, an explode. For this reason, all air motors
WORK
W ORK
explanation is required. The three- used in grinding applications have
phase, 60-Hz induction motors oper- built-in governors. Another drawback
ate at 3600 rev/min. This speed is not is air tools are very noisy. The motor
high enough for industrial grinding exhaust noise is often louder than the
operations, which normally require a grinding noise. Consider also that air
speed of 16,000 surface ft/min. Note:
This is the optimum speed of a grind-
ing wheel at the point of contact,
which is approximately the speed of a
22-caliber bullet. High-frequency tools
operate at multiples of the line fre-
motors have very poor power curves.
As the load increases, the rev/min rap-
idly fall. Bear in mind that if optimum
speed (rev/min) of the grinding wheel
is not maintained, the output falls.
And lastly, air tools are heavy and
SSMART
MART
RT
quency, which in the United States is clumsy compared to modern high-
60 Hz. The multiples of 60 Hz are 60, frequency tools.
120, 180, 240, 300, 360, etc. The 120 The high-frequency-powered tools
and 180 Hz are too low, resulting in are by far the most satisfactory for
motor speeds of only 7200 and 10,800 grinding operations. The reasons are
rev/min, respectively. The optimum as follows: They offer the best weight-
speed for such a motor is from 18,000 to-power output, lowest weight-to-
to 21,600 rev/min. All commercial air- power ratio, highest rev/min, and low-
craft engines use 400-Hz motors due est maintenance requirements. In ad-
to weight and the fact they are not tied dition, they offer the lowest noise out-
to a 60-Hz original power source, they put and most favorable operator ac-
operate at about 25,000 rev/min. Air- ceptance. In shipbuilding, foundries,
craft motor information is mentioned and heavy fabrication where more
here to provide proof that the power- than ten grinders are employed, the
to-weight ratios and reliability for cost reductions and improved work
high-frequency tools are far and away output can pay for the equipment in Model 200 Positioner
the best for all power tools. less than 12 months.
It may be worthwhile to investigate
Comparing Two Power the cost to upgrade the equipment in
your shop. Start by getting quotes
Sources for Best from the high-frequency tool manu-
Operation facturers, which include Bosch, Fein,
AEG, and CP. The frequency convert-
The two most desirable power tool ers are available from GE, Westing-
grinding methods therefore require house, and Himmelwerke. The
secondary power sources. Pneumatic switchgear products are sold by Square
tools require a compressor, in most D and most electrical switchgear man-
cases, a screw compressor; and high- ufacturers.
frequency tools require a frequency Because the grinding speed is close-
converter. In both cases, there is appli- ly related to wheel consumption it is Model 1200 Pipemate
cable electric switchgear in environ- important to keep the grinding edge of
mentally and economically sound ap- the wheel running at the optimum
plications. Note the star-delta motor 16,000 surface speed per second
starter switches use less power when (SFPS). To maintain this speed, the
starting. user should purchase grinders with
These two comparative means of different operating speeds. For exam-
driving the power tool in question re- ple, for angle grinders, the most com-
quires us to consider their individual monly used grinder, purchase tools
rated at 6000 and 8500 rev/min, and
For info, go to www.aws.org/adindex
characteristics.
Air-driven tools have very poor 9-in.-diameter wheels. As the wheel
ability to maintain constant speed. Air wears down to under 7 in. in diameter,
tool manufacturers try to compensate switch to the higher speed grinder to
for this using a motor-speed governor, maintain 16,000 SFPS constant speed
which complicates the motor design, at point of contact and get the best
but is absolutely necessary from a possible output. WJ
safety perspective. Without a gover-
nor, an excessive increase in air-line DR. ADRIAN H. KRIEG, CMFGE
(adriankrieg@A2ZPublications.com) is an
pressure could cause the motor to spin AWS Life Member. He is with
too fast causing the grinding wheel to A2Z Publications LLC, Bradenton, Fla.
R & S Welding Mentors LLC management and teaching staff members are (from left) CWI Tom Welch, Instructors Tony Kummer and Milan
Pond, Owner James Stanton, Business Manager Koneta Stanton, Administrator Collette Myers, and CWI BJ Hutchins. All photos by Barry
Hutchins Photography, Salem, Ore.
Community Impact
Mari McGovern, a job developer
and training specialist at Careers NW,
said, “As a job developer for the Ore-
gon Vocational Rehabilitation Services
program, I have seen several of my
clients successfully complete welding
certificates of every kind at R&S Weld-
ing Mentors. Because my clients face
serious barriers to employment, from
physical and learning disabilities to
homelessness and felonies, just to
name a few, James Stanton and Busi-
ness Manager Koneta Stanton mentor
far beyond simply teaching them weld-
ing skills. They use a nonjudgmental,
gentle yet firm approach with them,
taking into consideration the welding
Practicing some team cooperation are (from left) Instructor Milan Pond, student Travis student’s underlying struggles and
Suek, and CWI BJ Hutchins. background to teach them both the
vocational and life skills necessary to
clude a skill assessment should the ap- school, continued welding training become a successful, contributing
plicant have welding experience. through high school, and graduated team member. As a result, many of the
Stanton said, “We strive to help with the skills to secure a journeyman companies I work with recruit their
each student set appropriate goals for welder position. He worked in many welding candidates directly through
their long-term career plans. Under- different aspects of the industry in- R&S.”
standing each student’s goals in the cluding production welding, as a jour- Graduate welding student Heather
welding industry helps us tailor their neyman shipwright, manufacturing, Clark agreed the instructors are help-
training on an individual basis. This crane operator/certified welder in ful, encouraging, and consistent every
enables each student to be more suc- bridge construction, and underground day. Their interaction with students is
cessful in his or her pursuit of employ- boring including pipe welding. During with the utmost respect and patience.
ment in the welding industry. his work in the industry, Stanton en- She especially liked the emphasis on
joyed teaching coworkers the art of time allocated to welding in the booth,
The Facility welding and fabrication. He is passion- which for her was the best way to de-
ate about teaching and helping stu- velop the skills she needed to acquire
The R & S Welding Mentors facility dents overcome barriers while devel- the various certifications. WJ
is equipped with 14 individual welding oping their strengths. “Welding,” he
booths with the latest state-of-the-art said, “is in my genes, being that I am
equipment. In addition, a number of the great-grandson of the famous R & S Welding Mentors LLC
older welding machines is maintained blacksmith Walter Stanton of the Contact
on site to familiarize students with the Charles Goodnight Ranch.” Koneta Stanton
earlier technology they may encounter Tom Welch, a Senior Certified Business Manager
while working in the field. The equip- Welding Inspector (SCWI) and a con- 1750 Oxford St. SE, Salem, OR 97302
ment training is occasionally supple- sultant for IMR KHA Portland Test Phone: (503) 884-3277
mented by demonstrations presented Labs and Steel Quality Specialists, e-mail; jwsteam@clear.net
by Ron Gross, district manager for shares his extensive experience and www.weldingmentors.com
Miller Electric who details the Dynasty knowledge of the welding industry to
350, and Les Nelson, district business students in his classes.
manager for Victor Technologies, who Milan Pond, a full time instructor,
displays the newest products in the is passionate about teaching and help-
Tweeco line. ing students overcome barriers while
developing their strengths. Pond is ex-
The Instructors perienced in the building construction,
automotive welding, fabrication, and
School owner James W. Stanton has ornamental ironwork industries.
an extensive background in the weld- Tony Kummer recently joined the
ing industry. He discovered his pas- staff as a part-time instructor. Kum-
sion for welding during junior high mer is a highly skilled GTA welder who
High-quality welds with fewer weld defects than other Incomplete Fusion
processes can be produced with submerged arc welding
(SAW) because of the excellent protection of the weld metal Incomplete fusion can occur at any depth of the weld. It
by the blanket of molten slag. As in other processes, howev- can occur between either the present or previous beads or
er, the problems of porosity, slag inclusions, incomplete fu- the bead and the bevel or groove faces. Specific conditions,
sion, and cracking occur in SAW. Following are some causes most of which inhibit the melting and the fusible contact
and remedies for the problems. between surfaces, may foster incomplete fusion. These con-
ditions include the following:
Porosity 1) Incorrect joint preparation or procedure
2) Presence of slag or oxide residue
Weld metal deposited with the SAW process is usually clean 3) Arc instability
and free of harmful porosity, but when porosity does occur, it 4) High travel speeds
may be found on the weld bead surface or beneath a sound 5) Insufficient heat input
surface. As with other welding processes, the base metal and 6) Improper displacement, angle, or position of the weld-
electrode must be clean and dry in SAW. High travel speeds ing head.
and associated fast weld metal solidification do not provide
time for gas to escape from the molten weld metal. The travel Cracking
speed can be reduced, but other solutions should be investigat-
ed to avoid higher welding costs. Porosity from covered elec- Weldment cracking is considered the most serious of dis-
trode tack welds can be avoided by using electrodes that leave continuities because of the potential for catastrophic service
no porosity-causing residue. Recommended tack weld elec- failure and the often-experienced difficulty in radiographic
trodes are E6010, E6011, E7015, E7016, and E7018. inspection. Cracking can be categorized according to several
criteria, including location [weld metal, heat-affected zone,
Inclusions or base metal cracking (hot or cold cracking)], but it is gen-
erally assumed to have two causes — an imposed strain and
An inclusion in a weld is defined as the entrapment of an inability to accommodate that strain.
solid foreign material such as slag, flux, or oxide. If not
properly applied, SAW is not immune to slag inclusions. In- Hot and Cold Cracking
clusions are primarily found in the root overlap or between
previous passes, and generally near bevel faces or groove The types of hot cracking include solidification, liquation,
faces. The risk of inclusions is greater under the following and stress-relief cracking. This discontinuity is usually asso-
conditions: ciated with the weld metal. Several conditions associated
1) In downhill orientations, which may allow the molten with strains and the ability to accommodate them, predomi-
flux to race ahead of the weld pool and then roll under to be- nantly of cross-sectional geometry and chemistry, follow:
come entrapped during solidification; 1) Excess depth-to-width ratio
2) In grooves along the edges of previously deposited 2) Excessive concavity (inability to accommodate strains),
beads, especially if they are convex; especially with fillet welds
3) If there is undercut along the edges of the weld bead; 3) Inadequate fill at weld bead stopping points (decreases
4) When arc destabilization inhibits the slag from rising ability to accommodate strain), which can cause crater
to the top of the solidifying weld pool; cracks
5) When a flux too high in viscosity is used, impeding the 4) Chemical contamination, especially from sulfur or
solidification of the weld pool; hydrocarbon-bearing compounds.
6) When a clean prior bead surface is not maintained; Excessive heat input may decrease the cooling rate and
7) In the case of improper welding head displacement, increase the time for metallurgical reactions in a crack-
particularly in the downhill orientation; susceptible temperature range.
8) In the case of reduced penetration due to reduced heat Like hot cracking, cold cracking manifests itself in a num-
input, supplemental wires or powders, increased electrode ber of ways. These include hydrogen-induced cracking or
extension, excessive travel speed, or reduced arc density; stress-corrosion cracking. Most cold cracking is associated
9) In the case of excessive travel speed, which causes with the heat-affected zone, base metal, or weld metal. WJ
faster cooling and may inhibit the slag from rising to the top
of the weld pool.
Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, 9th Edition, Volume 2, Welding Processes, Part 1.
Time
Tiime Event/Speaker Subject
7:45-8:30 Registration
Registration & Continental
Contin
Co tine Breakfast
Breakfast
8:30-8:45 old
John Lippold Introduct
Introductions
The Ohio State
io Sta
S te University
8:45-9:30 Johhhnn DuPont
John Tempera
eem ture Failure
High Temperature Failure of Austenitic to Ferritic
Ferritic
Lehigh
Le University Welds: Causes and Cures
Dissimilar Metal Welds:
9:30-10:15 Alexandrov
Boian Alexandrov Dissimilar Metal Overlays for Oil and Gas
State University
The Ohio State sityy AApplication
pplication
10:15-10
-10:30
10:15-10:30 Break
Break
100:30-11:15
10:3
0
10:30-11:15 McCracken
Steve McCracken Dissimila
laar Metal Joining in the PPower
Dissimilar ower Genera
ation
Generation
Electric PPower
ower Research Institute Industr
Industryy
11:15-12:00
11:15-12:0
2:00 Antonio Rameriz Joining Dissimilar e-based and Ni-based
lar FFe-based
State University
The Ohio State Materials by FSW
Materials
12:00-1:00 Lunch
Lunch
1:00-1:45 Jerr
erry Gould
Jerry Application
ion of Dissimilar Metals
Application Metal
tals Joining in the
Edison Welding
on Weelding Institute Automotive Industry
Industry
1:45-2:30 Daeh
ehn
Glenn Daehn Welding Technologies
Impact Welding Teechnologies for Dissimilar
Dissim
ssim
State Universi
The Ohio State sityy
University Ma terials
Materials
2:30-3:15 Tim Frech
Tim Frech materials joining in the
Dissimilar materials
Edison Weelding Institute
Welding tute medical and electronic industries
3:15-3:30 Break
Break
3:30-4:15 Wei Zhang
Wei Dissimilar Metal Joint of Titanium
Titanium to Stainless
State University
The Ohio State Literature Assessment and Numerical
Steel – Literature
Modeling
4:15-5:15 John Lippold Panel Discussion
Panel
State University
The Ohio State
WELDING JOURNAL INDEX
5, 4, 3, 2, 1...Getting the New Year’s Eve Ball Done! — K. Corrosion Hazard in Stainless Steel, Heat Tint Poses — M.
Campbell, (March) 90 Fletcher, (Dec) 80
A Must in Today’s Workplace: Weld-Quality Monitoring — DC Pulse Welding Machine, The Control System for a — H.
M. Albright, (Dec) 48 Zheng-Xiang, Y. Yan-Yan, X. Guo-Jian, and Z. Jing-Quan,
A Technology to Increase SAW Productivity — H. Raudsepp, (July) 36
(Dec) 46 Digital Systems Deliver Orbital Welding Consistency — S.
Abrasive Flap Disc, Tips for Selecting an — T. Hufford, Cole and K. Beardsley, (Sept) 50
(July) 32 Dispelling Automation Myths — D. Postlethwaite, (June) 68
Additive Manufacturing of Titanium, Exploring Arc Welding Dissimilar Metals, Explosion Welding of — D. J. Butler and
for — N. Kapustka and I. D. Harris, (March) 32 D. G. Brasher, (Nov) 40
Agents Gather, AWS International — K. Campbell, (May) 59 Dissimilar Welding Utilizing Nickel-Based Filler Metals — B.
Aluminum Brazing, What Matters Most in Vacuum — C. Gaal, M. Caruso, and S. Kiser, (Nov) 50
Moller and J. Grann, (Feb) 50 Education, The Future of Welding — W. R. Polanin, (April)
Analyzing the Physical Stress Welding Guns Create — C. Pe- 38
termann, K. Krüger, F. C. Mooren, and E. Schubert, (Aug) Effects of Buttering on High-Carbon Equivalent In-Service
50 Pipe — M. Dull and K. Forest, (Sept) 48
Anniversary Special: AWS at 95 — A. Cullison, M. R. Engineers, Meeting the Demand for Welding — D. Phillips,
Johnsen, H. Woodward, K. Campbell, and M. Gomez, A. Benatar, and J. C. Lippold, (Oct) 52
(June) 60 Equipment for Comfort and Efficiency, Selecting GMAW —
Army Offers Uncommon Career Path — (March) 96 J. Wells, (June) 122
Art of Upcycling: Welding Trash into Treasure, The — M. European Way, Welding Personnel Qualification the — L.
Gomez, (March) 86 Quintino, (April) 51
Automated Pipe Cutting, Making the Switch from Manual to Exploring Arc Welding for Additive Manufacturing of Tita-
— J. Henderson, (Sept) 40 nium — N. Kapustka and I. D. Harris, (March) 32
Automating a Wheel Manufacturing Operation — J. C. Explosion Welding of Dissimilar Metals — D. J. Butler and
Dutra, N. G. Bonacorso, D. Erdmann Dos Santos, M. H. D. G. Brasher, (Nov) 40
Hemmer, and R. H. Gonçalves E Silva, (June) 76 FABTECH 2013 — A. Cullison, K. Campbell, and M. R.
Automation Myths, Dispelling — D. Postlethwaite, (June) Johnsen, (Jan) 44
68 FABTECH Canada Shows Growth — A. Cullison, (June) 86
AWS International Agents Gather — K. Campbell, (May) 59 Fume Control, Questions You Need to Ask about — C. Brod-
Brazing a Honeycomb in Turbine Engines, Selecting Materi- nick and J. Lange, (Aug) 56
als for — D. Sporer and D. Fortuna, (Feb) 44 Fume Management in Your Shop, Weld — A. Felicijan and S.
Brazing Best Practices: 12 Tips for HVAC Technicians — C. Lowney, (Aug) 46
Cordia and G. Mitchell, (Nov) 62 Galvanized Steel with Metal-Cored Wire, Pairing — A.
Brazing Brightens Surface Finish, Controlled-Atmosphere D’Arcy, (Oct) 44
Induction — K. K. Kuhn and R. Detty, (Nov) 58 Genealogy, Tracing Our Welding — A. F. Manz, (June) 72
Brazing Ceramics to Titanium Using Amorphous Filler GMAW Efficiency through Shielding Gases, Improving — D.
Metal — Y. H. Liu, J. D. Hu, Z. X. Guo, and J. C. Li, (Nov) Sarma, (Dec) 40
66 Going beyond the Arc: Welding Program Teaches Teamwork
Business Briefs Profile: John Stropki — (Feb) 38 — B. Wehrman, (April) 48
Business Software Benefits — S. Leavitt, (Aug) 62 Grinders, Considerations for Selecting Shop — A. H. Krieg,
Buttering on High-Carbon Equivalent In-Service Pipe, (Dec) 88
Effects of — M. Dull and K. Forest, (Sept) 48 Grinding Pointers for a Safer Workplace — (July) 40
Canada, There’s More to See and Do at FABTECH — H. M. Guns Create, Analyzing the Physical Stress Welding — C. Pe-
Woodward, (March) 46 termann, K. Krüger, F. C. Mooren, and E. Schubert, (Aug)
Canada Shows Growth, FABTECH — A. Cullison, (June) 86 50
Ceramics to Titanium Using Amorphous Filler Metal, Braz- Hazard Communication, Changes Are Coming to — (Oct) 48
ing — Y. H. Liu, J. D. Hu, Z. X. Guo, and J. C. Li, (Nov) 66 Heat Tint Poses Corrosion Hazard in Stainless Steel — M.
Changes Are Coming to Hazard Communication — (Oct) 48 Fletcher, (Dec) 80
Career Path, Army Offers Uncommon — (March) 96 High-Carbon Equivalent In-Service Pipe, Effects of Butter-
Codes and Standards that Deal with Stainless Steels — R. ing on — M. Dull and K. Forest, (Sept) 48
Campbell, L. Sturgill, and W. Roth, (May) 44 High-Purity Welding for Hygienic Applications — W. Roth,
Considerations for Selecting Shop Grinders — A. H. Krieg, R. Campbell, B. Henon, and D. Avery, (Nov) 54
(Dec) 88 High-Purity Welding in the Biotechnology and Pharmaceuti-
Controlled-Atmosphere Induction Brazing Brightens cal Industries — R. Campbell, J. Dvorscek, C. Elkins, and
Surface Finish — K. K. Kuhn and R. Detty, (Nov) 58 W. Roth, (Nov) 44
Albright, M. — A Must in Today’s Workplace: Weld-Quality Study of Underwater Friction Welding Technology, (Sept)
Monitoring, (Dec) 48 54
Avery, D., Roth, W., Campbell, R., and Henon, B. — High- Caruso, M., Kiser, S., and Gaal, B. — Dissimilar Welding Uti-
Purity Welding for Hygienic Applications, (Nov) 54 lizing Nickel-Based Filler Metals, (Nov) 50
Beardsley, K., and Cole, S. — Digital Systems Deliver Orbital Chertov, A. M., Perez Regalado, W., Karloff, A., Tchipilko, A.,
Welding Consistency, (Sept) 50 Lichaa, P., Clement, D., Phan, T., and Maev, R. Gr. — In-
Benatar, A., Lippold, J. C., and Phillips, D. — Meeting the De- Line Inspection of Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet Metal
mand for Welding Engineers, (Oct) 52 Assembly, (Jan) 58
Benson, D. — Tips for Successfully Welding Stainless Steel to Clark, D. — What the Recent Recommendation on
Carbon Steel, (May) 54 Manganese Exposure Means to You, (Aug) 36
Biro, E., Cretteur, L., and Dupuy, T. — Spot Welding Clement, D., Phan, T., Maev, R. Gr., Chertov, A. M., Perez Re-
Different Sheet Metal Grades and Gauges, (Jan) 38 galado, W., Karloff, A., Tchipilko, A., and Lichaa, P. — In-
Bonacorso, N. G., Erdmann Dos Santos, D., Hemmer, M. H., Line Inspection of Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet Metal
Gonçalves E Silva, R. H., and Dutra, J. C. — Automating a Assembly, (Jan) 58
Wheel Manufacturing Operation, (June) 76 Cole, S., and Beardsley, K. — Digital Systems Deliver Orbital
Brasher, D. G., and Butler, D. J. — Explosion Welding of Dis- Welding Consistency, (Sept) 50
similar Metals, (Nov) 40 Coleman, G., and Skrjanc, S. — Lights, Camera...Welding,
Brodnick, C., and Lange, J. — Questions You Need to Ask (April) 38
about Fume Control, (Aug) 56 Cordia, C., and Mitchell, G. — Brazing Best Practices: 12 Tips
Butler, D. J., and Brasher, D. G. — Explosion Welding of Dis- for HVAC Technicians, (Nov) 62
similar Metals, (Nov) 40 Cretteur, L., Dupuy, T., and Biro, E. — Spot Welding
Campbell, K. — 5, 4, 3, 2, 1...Getting the New Year’s Eve Ball Different Sheet Metal Grades and Gauges, (Jan) 38
Done!, (March) 90 Cullison, A. — FABTECH Canada Shows Growth, (June) 86
Campbell, K. — AWS International Agents Gather, (May) 59 Cullison, A. — Welding Program Revitalized, (Dec) 84
Campbell, K. — Hollywood Spotlight Shines on Welding, Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., Woodward, H., Campbell, K.,
(April) 32 and Gomez, M. — Anniversary Special: AWS at 95, (June)
Campbell, K., Gomez, M., Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., and 60
Woodward, H. — Anniversary Special: AWS at 95, (June) Cullison, A., Campbell, K., and Johnsen, M. R. — FABTECH
60 2013, (Jan) 44
Campbell, K., and Johnsen, M. R. — Welding for Unique In- D’Arcy, A. — Pairing Galvanized Steel with Metal-Cored
dustries, (July) 44 Wire, (Oct) 44
Campbell, K., Johnsen, M. R., and Cullison, A. — FABTECH Detty, R., and Kuhn, K. K. — Controlled-Atmosphere Induc-
2013, (Jan) 44 tion Brazing Brightens Surface Finish, (Nov) 58
Campbell, R., Sturgill, L., and Roth, W. — Codes and Ding, J., Nunes, A., Lawless, K., and Russell, C. — Welding
Standards that Deal with Stainless Steels, (May) 44 Technology Takes Flight with NASA, (May) 38
Campbell, R., Henon, B., Avery, D., and Roth, W. — High- Dull, M., and Forest, K. — Effects of Buttering on High-
Purity Welding for Hygienic Applications, (Nov) 54 Carbon-Equivalent In-Service Pipe, (Sept) 48
Campbell, R., Dvorscek, J., Elkins, C., and Roth, W. — High- Dupuy, T., Biro, E., and Cretteur, L. — Spot Welding
Purity Welding in the Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Different Sheet Metal Grades and Gauges, (Jan) 38
Industries, (Nov) 44 Dutra, J. C., Bonacorso, N. G., Erdmann Dos Santos, D.,
Can-Feng, Z., Hui, G., Xiang-Dong, J., and Ya-Guo, X. — Hemmer, M. H., and Gonçalves E Silva, R. H. — Automat-
Part 2 – RESEARCH
SUPPLEMENT SUBJECT INDEX
VOLUME 93
A Study on the Surface Depression of the Molten Pool with Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 1 — Grain Morphology Depend-
Pulsed Welding — M. Yang, Z. Yang, B. Cong, and B. Qi, ent upon Alloy Composition and Grain Refiner Content, So-
(Aug) 312-s lidification of GTA — P. Schempp, C. E. Cross, A. Pittner, G.
Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet Oder, R. S. Neumann, H. Rooch, I. Dörfel, W. Österle, and
Oscillation Part 1: Experimental Study — J. Xiao, G. J. M. Rethmeier, (Feb) 53-s
Zhang, W. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (Aug) 292-s Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 2 — Thermal Conditions and
Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet Model for Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition, Solidification
Oscillation Part II: Modeling and Analysis — J. Xiao, G. J. of GTA — P. Schempp, C. E. Cross, A. Pittner, and M. Reth-
Zhang, W. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (Sept) 321-s meier, (March) 69-s
Aluminum Alloy 2-mm-Thick Sheets Using Ultrasonic Spot Analysis of the Local Stresses at Laser-Welded Lap Joints —
Welding, Joining 5754 Automotive — C. Y. Zhang, D. L. K. D. Lee, K. I. Ho, and K. Y. Park, (Sept) 351-s
Chen, and A. A. Luo, (April) 131-s Arcs by the Schlieren Measuring Technique, Visualization of
Aluminum to Magnesium with Zn-Coated Steel Interlayers, Gas Flows in Welding — E. Siewert, G. Wilhelm, M. Hässler,
Dissimilar Resistance Spot Welding of — P. Penner, L. Liu, J. Schein, T. Hanson, M. Schnick, and U. Füssel, (Jan) 1-s
A. Gerlich, and Y. Zhou, (June) 225-s Barium Titanate Ceramics, Wettability by Liquid Metals, Met-
Aluminum to Steel, Pulsed Double-Electrode GMAW-Brazing alization, and Brazing of — T. V. Sydorenko and Yu. V.
for Joining of — Y. Shi, G. Zhang, Y. Huang, L. Lu, J. Naidich, (Jan) 6-s
Huang, and Y. Shao, (June) 216-s Boron Steels with Various Coatings, Weldability of CMT Join-
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Oak Ridge, Tenn. S. SANDERSON is with MegaStir Technologies LLC, Provo, Utah. M. MAHONEY is a consultant, Midway, Utah.
Experimental Methods
Fig. 2 — Cross sections showing A — Premachined A572 Grade 50 plate for MMFSW; B Friction Stir Welding Procedure
— buttjoint weld for the bottom layer; C — insertion and FSW of the first weld plate
above the root weld; D — insertion and FSW of the second weld plate above the first Detailed procedures for MM-FSW
weld plate and the final welded structure. Thickness of both top and middle layers was can be found in the authors’ recent
4.6 mm and the bottom layer was 6.1 mm. The total thickness of the MMFSW structure publication (Ref. 14). To provide the
was 15.2 mm. The combination of tool rotation direction (counter clockwise) and tool necessary background for the detailed
travel direction puts the advancing side of the weld at the lap interface. characterization results (e.g., hooking
defect and toughness) presented later,
ment to achieve 95% joint efficiency. difficult to make thick structures with salient features of MM-FSW are de-
One shortcoming of FSW is the a thickness greater than 15 mm. To scribed in the following:
thickness of the workpiece that can be overcome this limitation, a new A three-layered structure, with five
joined, especially for hard materials method of FSW that can be applied to multipass friction stir welds, was made
such as steels. That is, the length of a thick section is needed. using flat plates of high-strength low-
the pin limits the thickness of material A thick-section steel structure, fab- alloy (HSLA) steel (ASTM A572 Grade
that can be friction stir welded. Only a ricated by a novel multilayer and mul- 50; chemistry: 0.23C-1.35Mn-0.04P-
few studies have reported FSW of steel tipass FSW (MM-FSW) method, was 0.05S-0.3Si-0.2Cu in wt-%) resulting
plates thicker than 10 mm (Refs. 8, demonstrated in the authors’ recent in a total thickness of 15.2 mm. As
12). Although double-sided welding work (Refs. 13, 14). Unlike the tradi- shown in Fig. 1A, the base metal con-
has been attempted to make thick tional multipass FSW (Ref. 15), the tains mainly equiaxed ferrite (F) and a
welds (up to 12 mm thick), it is still MM-FSW is based on a layer-by-layer small amount of pearlite (P). The mag-
nified SEM image in Fig. 1B also indi- ishing of the mounted samples. A 5% at the Laboratory Testing Industry
cates distinct ferrite and pearlite mi- Nital solution was used to etch the (LTI) facility. After Charpy impact
crostructures in the BM. Figure 1C samples. An optical microscope (Nikon tests, the fracture surfaces were stud-
shows the pearlite microstructure il- Epiphot) and field emission scanning ied by SEM imaging.
lustrating a lamellar structure consist- electron microscope (FE-SEM) (Hi-
ing of alternate layers of ferrite and tachi S4800) were used to characterize Results and Discussion
cementite. The width of the cementite microstructures of the weld samples.
lamellar layer was measured to be ap- To characterize the original mi-
proximately 100 nm with a uniform crostructure of the steel and the mi- Characterization of MMFSW
spacing of slightly more than 100 nm. crostructural evolution in the SZ and Structure
A brief description of each step for HAZ, a JEOL 6500 scanning electron
MM-FSW is illustrated in Fig. 2. A microscope equipped with an EBSD One characteristic of MM-FSW is a
stepped assembly was machined to ac- camera was used. This microscope has combination of butt and lab joint con-
commodate MM-FSW. To avoid over- an accelerating voltage of 20 kV and a figurations that involved inserting a
lapping with weld(s) in the previous spot diameter of 5 nm with a scanning metal plate to stack up the next layer.
layer, friction stir welds in the subse- step size of 0.1 mm. EBSD maps were For this reason, it is referred to as a
quent layer were offset transversely by analyzed using OIM analysis software. “butt/lap” joint. Such a butt/lap joint
a distance of 38.1 mm. For FSW, a tool Vickers hardness of each welded feature is likely to incur the interface
with a convex scroll shoulder step spi- sample was measured by a Leco micro- defect called “hooking.” This defect is
ral pin (CS4 tool design) was used and hardness tester (LM 100AT) with 200 typically formed at a lap joint due to
was fabricated from an MS80 grade of mm spacing, 200 g of load, and 13 s of upward bending or flow of the metal
PCBN, as shown in Fig. 3. MS80 grade dwell time. The measured hardness horizontal interface when the tool
is a PCBN material made of Al-based data were transferred to Origin® soft- penetrates into the bottom layer (Refs.
ceramic binder phases with 80 vol-% ware (Origin Pro 8.1) for visualizing 16–19). Figure 5 shows optical images
of the ultrahard CBN phase. For FSW, hardness maps. at a butt/lap joint interface with two
the plunge was performed at 1100 Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact different process conditions. The first
rev/min followed by a 6-s dwell at 250 toughness tests were conducted per condition was with the FSW tool posi-
rev/min. Following the dwell, the tool ASTM E23 to study the fracture tioned on the retreating side of the lap
rotation rate was maintained at 250 toughness of the SZ, HAZ, and BM at interface, as shown in Fig. 5A. The lat-
rev/min and the tool travel speed was each of the three layers. Due to the dif- ter condition positioned the FSW tool
1.27 mm·s–1. The FSW was performed ferent thicknesses at each layer, sub- on the advancing side of the lap inter-
using load control with normal loads sized samples were prepared for face, as depicted in Fig. 5C. In the first
ranging from 32 to 35.6 kN. impact testing with the following di- condition, uplift of the interface oc-
mensions (10 ¥ 4 ¥ 55 mm) with the curred even though the weld nugget
Metallography and Hardness notch tip oriented parallel to the weld- was free from volumetric defects, as
Testing ing (or longitudinal) direction, as shown in Fig. 5B. Conversely, Fig. 5D
shown in Fig. 4. Charpy tests were per- displays the top layer weld where in-
To reveal the microstructure at the formed at six different temperatures terfacing hooking was minimized.
weld zone for each layer, multilayered for the SZ, i.e., –50°, –30°, –20°, –10°, That is, hooking was minimized by po-
samples were cut and mounted for 0°, and 20°C. Similarly, samples lo- sitioning the tool advancing side on
metallography. Diamond solutions (6, cated in the HAZ and BM were tested the lap interface side of the corner
3, and 1 mm) were used for final pol- at –50°, 0°, and 20°C. Triplicate sam- joint. The difference in results is due
ples were tested at each temperature to the difference in material flow
Microhardness and
Metallography
Fig. 10 — Grain size distribution of all three regions (SZ, HAZ, and BM).
forms back into ferrite during cooling, age vessels. Multilayer pressure vessels 2. Dawes, C. J., and Thomas, W. M.
resulting in a final microstructure that or storages are often preferred over 1996. Friction stir process welds alu-
is composed of fine ferrite grains. In heavy thick single-wall structures due minum alloys. Welding Journal 75(3): 41-s
addition, the kernel average misorien- to lower cost and manufacturing effi- to 45-s.
3. Yu, Z. Z., Zhang, W., Choo, H., and
tation (KAM), a parameter that is used ciency (Refs. 37, 38).
Feng, Z. 2012. Transient heat and material
to evaluate the strain or the stored en- flow modeling of friction stir processing of
ergy for a given point (Refs. 33–35), Conclusion magnesium alloy using threaded tool. Met-
shows a very small value and no signif- allurgical and Materials Transactions A:
icant preferred orientation for regions In conclusion, the use of MM-FSW Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science
in Fig. 9B. Therefore, it is believed that enables fabrication of thick structures 43A (2): 724 to 737.
this region is not significantly influ- 4. Woo, W., Balogh, L., Ungar, T., Choo,
in high-strength low-alloy steel. This
enced by the mechanical deformation H., and Feng, Z. 2008. Grain structure and
technique can be potentially used for dislocation density measurements in a fric-
common to the thermal mechanically multilayer high-pressure storage/
affected zone. tion-stir welded aluminum alloy using X-
vessel applications. Strengths in the ray peak profile analysis. Materials Science
Figure 10 shows the grain size dis- SZ and HAZ were higher than the BM and Engineering A- Structural Materials
tribution in the SZ, HAZ (both FGHAZ based on microhardness measure- Properties Microstructures and Processing
and ICHAZ) and BM from EBSD data ments. Also, CVN results indicate that 498(1–2): 308 to 313.
for the bottom layer. The average grain impact toughness in the SZ and HAZ 5. Park, H. S., Kimura, T., Murakami, T.,
sizes of the FGHAZ and ICHAZ are are generally higher than BM. Both the Nagano, Y., Nakata, K., and Ushio, M.
slightly lower than that of SZ, both of SZ and HAZ have fine-grained mi- 2004. Microstructures and mechanical
which are less than 10 m. As a result, crostructures, although the mecha- properties of friction stir welds of 60% Cu-
the peak temperature of the FGHAZ 40% Zn copper alloy. Materials Science and
nism for it is expected to be different Engineering A- Structural Materials Proper-
observed in the current EBSD study is for the SZ (i.e., dynamic recrystalliza-
expected to be lower than 1000°C (Ref. ties Microstructures and Processing
tion) vs. the HAZ (i.e., intercritical 371 (1–2): 160 to 169.
36). Conversely, the BM has the temperature). Taken together, with all 6. Rai, R., De, A., Bhadeshia, H. K. D.
largest grain size, i.e., ~30 m. Similar the mechanical tests and hardness H., and DebRoy, T. 2011. Review: friction
grain sizes and microstructures were measurements, the present work indi- stir welding tools. Science and Technology of
found in the SZ, HAZ, and BM for the cates that the overall mechanical Welding and Joining 16(4): 325 to 342.
middle and top layers. For brevity, strength of the MM-FSW steel sam- 7. Park, S. H. C., Sato, Y. S., Kokawa, H.,
those microstructures are not re- ples were comparable or superior to Okamoto, K., Hirano, S., and Inagaki, M.
peated in the current paper. 2003. Rapid formation of the sigma phase
the base metal. For future work, hook-
Finally, the grain size was different in 304 stainless steel during friction stir
ing that occurs due to the butt/lap welding. Scripta Materialia 49(12): 1175 to
in the SZ, HAZ, and BM with the joint configuration should be avoided
smallest grain size found in the HAZ. 1180.
by either using a special tool to pro- 8. Thomas, W. M., Threadgill, P. L., and
If average grain diameters (9 m for duce horizontal metal flow or by using Nicholas, E. D. 1999. Feasibility of friction
the HAZ, 10 m for the SZ and 28 m an alternate joint design. stir welding steel. Science and Technology of
for the BM) were plugged into the fol- Welding and Joining 4(6): 365 to 372.
lowing Hall-Petch relationship, 9. Fujii, J., Cui, L., Tsuji, N., Maeda, M.,
Acknowledgments Nakata, K., and Nogi, K. 2006. Friction stir
g = KyD–1/2 (2) welding of carbon steels. Materials Science
and Engineering A- Structural Materials
where Ky is 0.363 MPa m1/2 (Ref. 36), Properties Microstructures and Processing
The authors would like to acknowl-
g is the strength contribution from edge the financial support of the U.S.
429(1-2): 50 to 57.
grain boundaries, and D is average 10. Khodir, S. A., Morisada, Y., Ueji, R.,
Department of Energy Office of En- and Fujii, H. 2012. Microstructures and
grain diameter. The estimated ergy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, mechanical properties evolution during
strength contribution from grain Fuel Cell Technologies Office and Ad- friction stir welding of SK4 high carbon
boundaries for the SZ, HAZ, and BM vanced Manufacturing Office. Oak steel alloy. Materials Science and Engineer-
are 114.8, 121, and 68.6 MPa, respec- Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is ing A- Structural Materials Properties Mi-
tively. Since bainite, which has more managed by UT-Battelle, LLC, for the crostructures and Processing. 558: 572 to
dislocations than ferrite, is also ob- U.S. Department of Energy under Con- 578.
served in the SZ, additional strength 11. Taendl, J., Nambu, S., Inoue, J., En-
tract DE-AC05-00OR22725.
in the SZ is expected. Nevertheless, zinger, N., and Koseki, T. 2012. Friction
the grain boundary strengthening has stir welding of multilayered steel. Science
a significant effect in the current fric- References and Technology of Welding and Joining.17(3):
244 to 253.
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12. Matsushita, M., Kitani, Y., Ikeda, R.,
ment in grain size can increase the Endo, S., and Fujii, H. 2012. Microstruc-
impact toughness. 1. Lienert, T. J., Stellwag, W. L., Grim-
ture and toughness of friction stir weld of
By taking advantage of the MM- mett, B. B. Jr., and Warke, R.W. 2003. Fric-
thick structural steel. ISIJ International.
FSW method, a potential application tion stir welding studies on mild steel —
52(7): 1335 to 1341.
Process results, microstructures, and me-
for the present work could be fabrica- chanical properties are reported. Welding
13. Feng, Z., David, S. A., and Freder-
tion of multilayer high-pressure stor- ick, D. A. 2010. Multiple pass and multiple
Journal 82(1): 1-s to 9-s.
layer friction stir welding and material en- 22. Konkol, P. J., and Mruczek, M. F. rials Properties Microstructures and Process-
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7762447. and submerged arc weldments in HSLA-65 31. www.thermocalc .com/start/
14. Lim, Y. C., Sanderson, S., Mahoney, steel. Welding Journal 86(7): 187-s to 195-s. 32. Zhang, W., Elmer, J. W., and
M., Qiao, D., Wang, Y., Zhang, W., and 23. Arora, K. S., Pandey, S., Schaper, M., DebRoy, T. 2002. Modeling and real time
Feng, Z. 2013. Mechanical Properties and and Kumar, R. 2010. Microstructure Evo- mapping of phases during GTA welding of
Microstructural Characterization of a Multi- lution during friction stir welding of alu- 1005 Steel. Materials Science and Engineer-
layered Multipass Friction Stir Weld in Steel. minum alloy AA2219. Journal of Materials ing A — Structural Materials Properties Mi-
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15. Brown, R., Tang, W., and Reynolds, minum alloy thick plate joints by friction L. Adams (Eds.), Electron Backscatter Dif-
A. P. 2009. Multi-pass friction stir welding stir welding. Science and Technology of Weld- fraction in Materials Science, 2nd Ed.,
in alloy 7050-T7451: Effects on weld re- ing and Joining 11(3): 366 to 370. Springer, New York, N.Y., 2009, pp.
sponse variables and on weld properties. 25. Song, H. Y., Zhang, W., Babu, S. S., 301–315.
Materials Science and Engineering A- Struc- and Feng, Z. 2013. Toward understanding 34. Khan, A. S., Baig, M., Choi, S. H.,
tural Materials Properties Microstructures of mechanical property degradation of Yang, H. S., and Sun, X. 2012. Quasi-static
and Processing 513-14: 115 to 121. steel welds in high-pressure hydrogen and dynamic responses of advanced high
16.Badarinarayan, H., Yang, Q., and Zhu, transmission pipeline — Role of mi- strength steels: Experiments and model-
S. 2009. Effect of tool geometry on static crostructure. Proceedings of the 9th Interna- ing. International Journal of Plasticity,
strength of friction stir spot-welded alu- tional Conference on Trends in Welding 30–31: 1 to 17.
minum alloy. International Journal of Ma- Research. Eds. DebRoy, T., S. A. David, J. N. 35. Badji, R., Chauveau, T., and Bacroix,
chine Tools & Manufacture 49(2): 142 to 148. Koseki, and H. K. Bhadeshia. pp. 461–468. B. 2013. Texture, misorientation and me-
17. Ericsson, M., Jin, L. Z., and Sand- ASM International. chanical anisotropy in a deformed dual
strom, R. 2007. Fatigue properties of fric- 26. Moon, D. W., Fonda, R. W., Spanos, phase stainless steel weld joint. Materials
tion stir overlap welds. International G. 2000. Microhardness variations in Science and Engineering A- Structural Mate-
Journal of Fatigue 29(1): 57 to 68. HSLA-100 welds fabricated with new ultra- rials Properties Microstructures and Process-
18. Badarinarayan, H., Shi, Y., Li, X., low-carbon weld consumables. Welding ing 515: 94 to 103.
and Okamoto, K. 2009. Effect of tool Journal 79(10): 278-s to 285-s. 36. Yu, X., Caron, J. L., Babu, S. S., Lip-
geometry on hook formation and static 27. Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H. 2001. Bainite pold, J. C., Isheim, D., and Seidman, D. N.
strength of friction stir spot welded alu- in Steels: Transformations, Microstructures 2010. Characterization of microstructural
minum 5754-O sheets. International Jour- and Properties, IOM Communication Ltd., strengthening in the heat-affected zone of
nal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49(11): London, pp.19. a blast-resistant naval steel. Acta Materialia
814 to 823. 28. Arbegast, W. J., in: Z. Jin, A. Beau- 58 (17): 5596 to 5609.
19. Yin, Y. H., Sun, N., North, T. H., and doin, T. A. Bieler, B. Radhakrishiman 37. Zhen, L., Jiang, N., and Liu, S. J.
Hu, S. S. 2010. Influence of tool design on (Eds.), Hot Deformation of Aluminum Alloys 2011. Experimental study of integrated
mechanical properties of AZ31 friction stir III, TMS, San Diego, Calif., 2003, pp. multilayer clamping high pressure vessel.
spot welds. Science and Technology of Weld- 313–327. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology-Trans-
ing and Joining 15(1): 81 to 86. 29. Ghosh, M., Kumar, K., and Mishra, actions of the ASME 133(6): 061206-1 to
20. Yadava, M. K., Mishra, R. S., Chen, R. S. 2010. Analysis of microstructural 061206-6.
Y. L., Carlson, B., and Grant, G. J. 2010. evolution during friction stir welding of ul- 38. Zhang, W., Ren, F., Feng, Z., Wang,
Study of friction stir joining of thin alu- trahigh-strength steel. Scripta Materialia J.-A., Jawad, M., Kelly, M., and Vossoughi,
minum sheets in lap joint configuration. 63(8): 851 to 854. F. 2012. Design analysis of steel concrete
Science and Technology of Welding and Join- 30. Ghosh, M., Kumar, K., and Mishra, composite vessel for stationary storage of
ing. 15(1): 70 to 75. R. S. 2011. Friction stir lap welded ad- high-pressure hydrogen. International Hy-
21. Fuller, C. B., Mahoney, M. W., and vanced high strength steels: Microstruc- drogen Conference: Hydrogen-Materials In-
Bingel, W. H. 2005. Friction Stir Weld Tool ture and mechanical properties. Materials teractions. Eds. B. P. Somerday and P.
and Method. U.S Patent 20050121497 A1. Science and Engineering A- Structural Mate- Sofronis, pp. 479–488. ASME.
A. ELREFAEY (ahmed.elrefaei@ait.ac.at), K. ANDERS, and H. KILIAN are with Mobility Dept., LKR Leichtmetallkompetenzzentrum, Ranshofen GmbH (Light
Metals Technologies Ranshofen), Austrian Institute of Technology, Ranshofen, Austria. F. ELLERMANN and W. KÜHLEIN are with Hammerer Aluminium Indus
tries Extrusion GmbH, Ranshofen, Austria.
Fig. 1 — Samples of extruded sections and the joint configuration before welding.
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of the A B
FSW joints and the base metal are given
in Table 2. Surprisingly, the offset yield Fig. 6 — SEM micrographs of the following: A — Base metal; B — stir zone.
point (Rp0.2) of welded joints is 2.3%
higher than the base metal. Meanwhile,
the average maximum tensile strength
of the welded joints is 95% that of the
base metal. The reason for the improved
mechanical properties of the welded
joints is the severe plastic deformation
offered by the FSW process in addition
to the grain size refinement in the weld
metal area. These strengthening mecha-
nisms hinder dislocation motion and
render the material stronger than it was
previously (Refs. 31, 32). The reduction Fig. 7 — Macrograph of fractured samples in tensile and fatigue tests.
in area of the welded joints was almost
half of the values reported for the base
metal, and all welded samples showed
failure outside the welded region, which
is an indication of defect-free joints.
Figure 7 shows a tension sample after
testing in addition to a fatigue test sam-
ple that will be discussed later. Further
investigations were performed by ana-
lyzing the fracture surface of the sam- A B C
ples. Figure 8A shows a general view of
the tensile fracture surface whose frac- Fig. 8 — SEM of fracture tension sample: A — General view of the surface; B — magni
ture featured a lot of tears, ridges, and a fied view of the propagated crack; C — dimplelike fracture surface.
few cracks at different areas. The rough
topography is due to the macroscopic Statistical evaluation of the fatigue ples, at room temperature, are quite
fracture process occurring on a plane test stresses for 10, 50, and 90% proba- similar to base metals, which is an indi-
that is at some angles to the applied bilities of survival was estimated at cation of sound welded joints.
stress direction in the tensile specimen. room temperature and also at 240°C. Figure 10A shows the postfatigued
A closer observation of the rectangular Figure 9 shows the plotted SN curves. fracture surface of sample failed after
area in Fig. 8A is shown in Fig. 8B. A The obtained data for the fatigue limit 877706 cycles under a stress of 81.25
dimple-like structure is prominent in are listed in the graph. Fatigue test MPa and at room temperature. Crack
the morphology. However, some Si par- stresses at room temperature for 10, 50 initiation sites were at or near the sur-
ticles and voids originated by the unat- and 90% probabilities of survival were face as shown by arrows in Fig. 10A, D.
tached silicon were clearly observed in calculated as 81.94, 81.01, and 80.09 Since the silicon particles are stiffer
the second close-up view in Fig. 8C. The MPa, respectively. All samples were frac- than the matrix, the stress concentra-
Si particles, confirmed by EDX analyses, tured outside the joined area as shown tion created in this area is enough to
and corresponding voids are indicated in Fig 7. The fatigue limit decreased ap- cause microslips in the matrix close to
by black and light arrows, respectively. proximately 25% due to raising the tem- the silicon particles, which leads to the
The presence of these areas close to the perature to 240°C. Additionally, the particle debonding and then crack ini-
crack is an indication of the initiation of base metal fatigue test stresses at room tiation (Ref. 34). Under a condition of
the crack owing to the Si particles. It is temperature for 10, 50, and 90% proba- relatively high stress levels, especially
reported that damage and failure of Al- bilities of survival were 82.32, 81.27, in aluminum alloys, quite large num-
Si alloys is generally associated with ini- and 79.92 MPa, respectively. It is also bers of microcracks were formed (Refs.
tiation and growth of cracks in the Si noted that (not included in Fig. 9) the 33, 35). At a later stage, linking up of
particles (Refs. 27, 33). fatigue characteristics of welded sam- these cracks occurred to form one sin-
A B C
D E F
Fig. 9 — SN curves for the fatigue samples at room tempera
ture and 240°C. Fig. 10 — Postfatigued fracture surface: A — Overview of the frac
ture surface of sample tested at room temperature; B — magnified
view of one of the crackinitiation areas and the propagation direc
tion at room temperature; C — magnified view of the flat and tear
areas at room temperature; D — overview of the fracture surface of
the sample tested at 240°C; E — magnified view of one of the crack
initiation areas and the propagation direction tested at 240°C; F —
magnified view of the tear area tested at 240°C.
Innovation and Technology (bmvit) for 235–242. new-typed lap-butt joint of dissimilar Al
financial support in the framework of 12. Jata, K.V. 2003. Friction Stir Welding alloys. Materials and Design 34: 725–731.
A3plus from the program IV2Splus and Processing II. Warrendale, Pa.: TMS - 27. Tutunchilar, S., Besharati Givi, M.
(Project 824182, “Hybrid Rotary Engine The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society. K., Haghpanahi, M., and Asadi, P. 2012.
pp. 234–252. Eutectic Al-Si piston alloy surface trans-
Components in Aluminium Alloy”). Ad-
13. Mishra, R. S., and Ma, Z. Y. 2005. formed to modified hypereutectic alloy via
ditionally, the authors would like to ex- Review Article: Friction stir welding and FSP. Materials Science and Engineering A
press their appreciation to the project processing. Materials Science and Engineer- 534: 557–567.
partners AVL List GmbH, Mepura Met- ing R 50: 1–78. 28. Asadi, P., Mahdavinejad, R. A., and
allpulvergesellschaft m.b.H., Rübig 14. Wang, W., Shi, Q., Liu, P., Li, H., and Tutunchilar, S. 2011. Eutectic Al-Si piston
GmbH & Co KG. Li, T. 2009. A novel way to produce bulk alloy surface transformed to modified hy-
SiCp reinforced aluminum metal matrix pereutectic alloy via FSP simulation and
composites by friction stir processing. experimental investigation of FSP of AZ91
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Introduction
ABSTRACT
During the fabrication of steel
Harmful tensile residual stresses are observed in structural steel weld structures such as bridges, platforms,
joints as a result of the thermal strains between the solidified weld metal and ships, welding is the most essen-
and surrounding base material. These harmful stresses, superimposed on tial joining process. Upon completion
external stresses, make the welded joints more prone to fatigue failures.
Thus, the presence of compressive residual stresses, instead of the typical of solidification and after the weld is
tensile residual stresses, improves the fatigue resistance of the structural cooled to room temperature, nonuni-
welded joint. In this research work, numerical analysis of gas metal arc weld- form strain distribution and tensile
ing (GMAW) with developed low transformation temperature welding residual stresses often result. Distor-
(LTTW) wires was performed using Sysweld. Simulation of all-around fillet tion may also occur in welded structur-
welds on a structural steel plate clearly estimated the effects of the different al components. As tensile residual
experimentally developed LTTW wires on residual stress generation and stresses are deleterious to the integri-
welding distortion control. Alloys with higher chromium equivalent promot- ty of the weld joint (Refs. 1–3), it is
ed greater control on out-of-plane distortion. Their effect on compressive important to be able to model and pre-
residual stress generation around the weld toes was not as evident and de- dict the residual stress distribution in
serves further investigation. Simulation results agreed reasonably well with
the experimentally determined results. The weld made using the higher the weld toe region. Methods that can
chromium equivalent welding wire showed the maximum induced compres- reverse the residual stresses from ten-
sive residual stress in and around the weld joint (at the order of 600 MPa) sion to compression, and enhance fa-
with relatively low transverse distortion values compared to the other welds. tigue performance of welded compo-
Stress evolution with time plots from Sysweld simulation were able to show nents, are also important.
the interaction between thermal contraction and phase transformation- Postweld heat treatment (PWHT)
induced expansion, and also the amount of martensite required to promote and peening are known to reduce the
overall residual compressive stresses in the fillet weld joint. tensile residual stresses and possibly
induce a compressive stress state in a
weld joint. However, both methods are
costly and time consuming. A more at-
KEYWORDS tractive approach is to use a welding
consumable that can produce a com-
• Low Transformation Temperature Welding Consumables • Martensitic pressive residual stress state in the
Transformation • PhaseInduced Volumetric Expansion • Residual Stress weld joint during welding. These are
Management • Compressive Residual Stress • Numerical Analysis • Residual the low transformation temperature
Stress Evolution with Time welding consumables (Refs. 2–6).
When martensite transformation ini-
tiates at a low temperature and finish-
T. ALGHAMDI is with the Consulting Services DepartmentSaudi Aramco, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. S. LIU (sliu@mines.edu) is with the
Center for Welding, Joining, and Coatings Research, Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering, Colorado School of Mines,
Golden, Colo.
A B
ble of reducing the distor- the data bank of mechanical and ther-
tion in the final weld. mophysical properties for a sizable
Taking into account materials specification, it allows the
the larger atomic radius of user to upload all possible experimen-
chromium, 128 pm as com- tal properties from the tested materi-
Fig. 7 — Goldak double ellipsoid heat source model.
The arrow points to the welding direction (Refs. 26,
pared with 126 pm (Fe) and als such as welding parameters, travel-
27). 124 pm (Ni), alloys with ing speed, elongations, Ms tempera-
higher chromium equiva- tures, etc. In this work, numerical
lent would promote greater analysis was considered for single bead
that all welding and structural param- expansive strains and likely higher T-joint weld, i.e., a continuous fillet
eters such as heat input, joint design, compressive residual stresses around weld around a bar member, on an
welding sequence and direction, weld the weld toe than the higher nickel ASTM A36 grade structural carbon
start and stop, and weld length were equivalent alloys for a similar Ms tem- steel plate. The dimensions of the T-
kept relatively unchanged, the welded perature. Moreover, a SO-200B weld joint are illustrated in Fig. 5.
joints using the different LTT welding joint in particular presented the mini- As with any finite element model,
consumables showed different trans- mum cumulative transverse distor- the first step in a weld analysis is the
verse, out-of-plane distortions with re- tion, which implied the maximum creation of an assembly and finite ele-
spect to the conventional wire such as compressive residual stresses of the ment mesh. Because of the high peak
ER70S-3. The thickness of the plate four welds. It is obvious that atomic temperature and large temperature
and the elevation of the plate from the radii difference should not be the only gradient and fluctuations imposed by
table were measured using a pair of factor considered in determining the the weld heat source, it is important to
calipers. To calculate the cumulative sign and magnitude of the resulting have fine meshing around the weld
displacement of the T-joint, the thick- residual stresses, bonding characteris- joint, i.e., very small element size, and
ness of the welded plate (H) is sub- tics (electronic interaction) between consistent time steps. The fine mesh
tracted from the total height from the chromium and iron, and nickel and helps to capture thermal gradient in
top surface of the workpiece to the flat iron should be examined more in de- small time steps to resolve the large
ground surface. The averages of three tail in the future to provide greater in- temperature variation for a given
measurements for the T-joint displace- sight. Preliminary ABINIT calculations mesh for the purpose of detailed and
ment are plotted and compared. showed that chromium additions in an accurate analysis in and near the weld
Figure 3 shows the out-of-plane iron lattice caused changes to the com- interfaces. Coarser meshes expanding
displacement of the T-joint fillet weld pressibility and bulk modulus of the away from the boundary of the heat
made by the conventional wire, crystal lattice (Refs. 39, 40). flux can be applied to obtain good ac-
ER70S-3. The out-of-plane distortions curacy with reasonable computation
would then be converted to angles us- Welding Simulation Using time.
ing trigonometric relationships. While Sysweld Code Figure 6 shows the finite element
the measurements were made in inch- model and mesh established for the sol-
es, the displacement values were ex- Sysweld is a finite element software id T-joint investigated. After the mesh is
pressed in millimeters. dedicated for thermal analysis and created, it is necessary to apply the ma-
Both Table 3 and Fig. 4 show that welding activities. Sysweld simulates terial properties (material database) and
the SO-200B weld metal exhibits the all common welding processes. It has apply thermal and mechanical bound-
minimum cumulative transverse (out- an excellent set of tools enabling re- ary conditions. Next are the heat source
of-plane) distortion compared to the searchers to control and optimize heat parameters and molten pool dimen-
other experimental wires, indicating treatment and welding by taking into sions (length, width, and depth). Other
possibly higher compressive residual consideration all aspects of material parameters such as the clamping condi-
stresses around the weld toe. The behavior, design, and process. It mini- tion, external loading, and heat transfer
transformation plasticity associated mizes the requirements for physical behavior can be entered through the
with the formation of martensite has prototypes with a reduction in cost welding advisor module before compu-
been shown experimentally to be capa- and lead time (Ref. 23). In addition to tation is initiated.
Fig. 9 — A closeup view the first bead of the Tjoint showing the
weld path, weld line (trajectory), reference line, and start nodes.
u.a.–unavailable.
A B
C D
E F
Fig. 12 — Crosssectional view for allaround fillet welded joint using the SO200A electrode showing the stresses. A — Along Xaxis; C
— along Yaxis; and E — along Zaxis. Residual stress distribution (along the white dotted line on the contour map) is along the follow
ing: B — Xaxis of the weld; D — Yaxis of the weld; and F — Zaxis of the weld.
group of one-dimensional finite ele- trajectory. The start node is only one these parameters along the weld path
ments parallel to the welding trajecto- node that defines the starting point of is illustrated in Fig. 9.
ry. It is similar to the welding line used the trajectory. The temperature-dependent values
to determine the normal to the trajec- In case the reference line is applied, of thermal conductivity, specific heat
tory and must have the same number another node should be set as the capacity, and Young’s modulus are
of elements as the weld line. The pa- starting point of the reference and summarized in Table 4. Density was
rameters that should be entered in both nodes must be the first nodes in assumed to be 7850 kg.m–3 at room
this group are identical to the parame- this group (the starting side of the temperature and 7290 kg.m–3 at
ters of the trajectory, i.e., start and weld). On the other hand, the end 1400°C. The Poisson’s ratio was as-
end nodes plus a start element. If no nodes are the nodes defining the end- sumed to be 0.29 for the weld metal
reference data are entered, the source ing points of the trajectory and refer- and 0.26 for the base metal, independ-
must be axial-symmetric around the ence line (Ref. 29). A close-up view for ent of temperature. The thermal ex-
A B
Fig. 13 — Transverse residual stress distribution across the second bead of the fillet
weld. A — SO200A; B — SO200B; C — SO350A; D — SO350B.
pansion values were not listed in Table ciated with the martensitic transfor-
4. The individual values of thermal ex- mation can cancel the thermal shrink-
Fig. 15 — Stress distribution through
pansion coefficient, when needed for age of the weld and even create com- the thickness of the panel plate.
computation, are calculated for the pressive residual stresses as proven by
given T in Table 4, and the elonga- many researchers and explained earlier
tion of the deposited welds as plotted as shown in Fig. 10. Welding distor- larger expansion due to martensitic
in Fig. 2. tion is also expected to be reduced by transformation that offsets the ther-
In this analysis, the latent heat of this mechanism. mal contraction during cooling.
fusion was not considered. The yield Despite the heat input and geome- Stress was also calculated using the
strength is also defined as a tempera- try of the experimental welds were Sysweld code, taking into considera-
ture-dependent parameter as listed in similar, various out-of-plane distor- tion phase transformations. Sysweld
Table 5 for the weld and base metal, tion values were measured on plates simulation results agreed reasonably
respectively. The yield strength at welded with single pass fillet weld on well with the experimental analysis as
room temperature was taken from the both sides of the vertical plates as il- shown in Fig. 11, particularly regard-
experimental tensile testing results. lustrated in Table 3 and Figs. 3 and 4. ing the comparison between high-
However, the yield strengths at higher The actual magnitude of the expan- chromium equivalent and high-nickel
temperatures were defined from the sion varied with the composition of equivalent welds. The weld produced
literature for similar materials for the different alloying elements. This using SO-200B wire, which has higher
both the martensite and austenite behavior is illustrated by the different chromium equivalent, resulted in
phases. The thermal strains and Ms deflection angles or displacements of smaller out-of-plane distortion of 1.48
temperatures were input based on the the welded plates. Despite similar Ms mm as compared with the 1.58 mm for
dilatometric results obtained for each temperatures, e.g., SO-200B and SO- the SO-200A weld. The same explana-
individual welding wire. 200A, the two welds exhibited differ- tion is for SO-350A and SO-350B as
ent transverse distortions indicating shown in Fig. 11C and D where the Ms
Results and Discussion different residual stresses induced temperature is 350°C. The displace-
around the welded joints. Smaller dis- ments in this case were 1.40 and 1.38
Using the LTT welding wires with tortion, i.e., smaller deflection angle mm, respectively. In this case, the dis-
the delayed austenite decomposition, or smaller displacement in a unit tortions were quite similar, suggesting
volume expansion of weld metal asso- length of thickness, would imply in that higher martensite start tempera-
Fig. 18 — The nodal stress drops in the base metalweld inter Fig. 19 — The nodal stress drops in the base metalweld in
face along the Xaxis for the SO200B weld. terface along the Xaxis for the SO350A weld.
wires generally showed higher induced workpiece dropped the stress to ap- the exact temperatures at which the
compressive residual stresses in and proximately 100 MPa at 273 s. different phase transformations oc-
around the weld joint as listed in Table The decrease in tensile stress had a curs should be better determined, the
6. Note that these stresses are nodal distinct behavior between 1600° and sequence of phase transformation is
stresses that do not necessarily repre- 1080°C. Several slope changes within credible and the residual stresses evo-
sent the bulk stresses of the weld this temperature range were observed lution as a function of martensite as
joint. However, the higher compres- with time. It is entirely likely that outlined is conceivable. In situ syn-
sive residual stresses reduced the cu- these slope changes are related to the chrotron X-ray diffraction appears to
mulative distortion as shown in Fig. several phases that formed during be the right technique to be consid-
11. transformation. For example, -ferrite ered with the experimental validation
When the transformation com- appeared to have begun to form be- of the observation extracted from
pletes at temperature higher than the tween 1600°–1510°C in about 1.2 s. Sysweld analysis.
ambient temperature, subsequent According to this simulation, solidifi- On the other hand, the tensile
thermal contraction continues, but cation would have completed by about stress drop prior to reaching Ms tem-
with no further associated volume ex- 1510°C and -ferrite remained the perature (Ms = 380°C) in the SO-350A
pansion. This thermal shrinkage after predominating phase between weld was quite different as shown in
Mf temperature tends to increase the 1510°–1250°C for about 1.2 s. Austen- Fig. 19. Nonetheless, at 241 s, the
tensile residual stresses in the weld ite appeared around 1250°C to coexist martensite started to form at 380°C
joint or reduce the compressive stress- with δ-ferrite between 1250°–1120°C where the residual stress was still al-
es as shown in Fig. 17 for the weld for approximately 1s. The wide tem- most 200 MPa in tension. After only
made using the SO-350B wire. perature range of δ-ferrite is possibly 0.8 s, the stress dropped to zero at
Using, as an example, the nodal associated to the high content of Cr in 355°C. Since martensite transforma-
stress of the base metal-weld interface the SO-200B welding wire (10 wt-%). tion completed quickly in this weld,
along the X-axis for the SO-200B weld Finally, austenite remained stable un- the compressive stress state originated
as shown in Fig. 16A to study the til the martensite start temperature of via phase transformation became less
stress evolution with time, a close-up 190°C at 273 s. The austenite-to- effective in counteracting the effects
view between 228 to 295 s shows that martensite transformation is associat- of contraction upon further cooling.
stress dropped in this region even ed with volume expansion leading to For the sake of evaluating the influ-
though the temperature had not further drop in the tensile residual ence of residual stress on weld distor-
reached the Ms temperature as shown stress. The drop took almost 14 s to tion, the SO-200B weld was selected for
in Fig. 18. This decreasing tensile reach zero residual tensile stress, at further simulation studies, with and
stress is conceivable due to simultane- 287 s. The zero residual stress was without taking into account the phase
ous accumulation of shrinkage and ex- achieved with approximately 32% of transformation effect. That is, the resid-
pansion in the surrounding of the martensite in the weld joint. As the ual stresses and distortion were com-
weld. The weld upon cooling under- fraction of the martensite continued puted with and without considering
goes shrinkage while the adjacent base to increase in the weld, the magnitude martensitic transformation. Without
metal expands because of the heat of the compressive stresses also in- the effect of solid-state phase transfor-
transferred from the heat source. creased to further counteract the ef- mation, no expansive strain due to the
These counteracting actions of the fect of contraction by cooling. While volume change would occur along the
Fig. 20 — The longitudinal stresses (in the direction of the Fig. 21 — The effect of martensite proportion in the weld made
weld) on the weld made using a SO200B wire with and with using the SO200B wire on the residual stresses
out considering the effect of phase transformation. distribution.
thermal strain and, thereby, resulting in metal is a function of design (struc- and at a predetermined depth and
tensile residuals stresses along the weld ture), material, and fabrication. How- width from the weld toe. Finally, the
and around the weld toe. This behavior ever, keeping the above parameters effect of martensitic transformation
would be equivalent to a non-LTTW unchanged, the magnitude of the volu- temperatures below 200°C need to be
consumable such as ER70S-3. These metric expansion in the weld and heat- further investigated. Concerns about
tensile residual stresses would have re- affected zone (HAZ) and, accordingly, incomplete martensitic transforma-
sulted in a weld distortion at the order the amount of residual stresses in and tion at room temperature must be
of 1.92 mm based on Sysweld calcula- around the welded joint, will depend clarified such that a reduction in
tion. On the other hand, simulation on the volume fraction of martensite martensite fraction in the weld does
work showed that the compressive that formed in the weld. not also result in reduced advanta-
residual stresses induced in the welded Using Sysweld as a predictive tool, geous compressive residual stress cre-
joint, when taking the phase transfor- Fig. 21 shows that when welding with ated around the weld toe.
mation into consideration, would have the SO-200B welding wire, which con-
reduced the transverse displacement to tained 10 wt-% chromium and 4 wt-% Conclusions
1.47 mm along the Z-axis. nickel (10.7 Creq and 5.8 Nieq), approxi-
As expected, the induced residual mately 40% of martensite would be Some major reflections and con-
stresses were found sensitive to mi- present at the reversal of tensile to clusions achieved in this work are as
crostructural evolution. For a weld ma- compressive residual stresses in the follows:
terial consisted of almost a 100% fer- vicinity of the weld. As the martensite • Despite similar heat input used
rite/pearlite microstructure, the ten- fraction increased, the compressive to weld with the newly developed LTT
sile residual stress state would have residual stresses also increased along welding wires, the welded joints
developed in the weld in the presence all three axes. Nevertheless, the signif- showed different transverse, out-of-
of thermal contraction alone. icance of the amount of martensite at plane distortions with respect to a
Figure 20 shows the two residual the tension-compression reversion for conventional welding wire, ER70S-3.
stress modes in the weld made using a particular welding consumable The LTTW consumables controlled
the SO-200B wire along the weld direc- should be examined more carefully. invariably better weld distortion.
tion. These (nodal) stresses were cal- Based on the findings in this work, • Keeping all structural and weld-
culated with and without considering it is recommended that martensitic ing parameters unchanged, the cumu-
the martensitic transformation. With transformation start temperature be lative distortion was found to be
martensitic transformation, a residual limited to below 350°C. A higher Ms strongly affected by the Ms tempera-
compressive stress (in the longitudinal temperature than 350°C may lead to ture and the content of the alloying
direction) at the order of 650 MPa tensile residual stresses due to the elements in the welding filler metal.
would have resulted instead of the 250 thermal contraction of the weld after • Alloys with similar Ms tempera-
MPa tensile residual stress when the completion of martensitic trans- ture exhibited different experimental
martensitic transformation is ignored. formation. By following this method- cumulative distortion and predicted
Several factors contribute to the ology, it is possible, in principle, to de- compressive residual stresses. This
formation of residuals stresses and de- sign cost-effective LTTW electrodes to observation points out that the Ms is
formation. The plastic deformation meet pre-established levels of com- not a unique indicator for the predic-
produced in the base metal and weld pressive residual stress requirements tion of the resulting transformation-
induced compressive residual stresses. to, J., Hiraoka, K., Morikage, Y., Kubo, T., steel plate using low-transformation-tem-
• Alloys with higher chromium equiv- Yasuda, K., and Amano, K. 2007. Develop- perature welding wire. Welding Journal
alent seemed to promote greater com- ment of new low transformation tempera- 82(4): 78-s to 83-s.
pressive residual stresses around the ture welding consumable to prevent cold 13. Suzuki, N., Ohta, A., and Maeda, Y.
cracking in high strength steel welds. Sci- 2004. Repair of fatigue cracks initiated
weld toe as compared to the higher
ence and Technology of Welding and Joining around box welds using low transforma-
nickel equivalent alloys for similar Ms 12(6): 516–522. tion temperature welding material. Welding
temperatures. The SO-200B weld joint, 3. Zenitani, S., Hayakawa, N., Ya- International: 112–117.
in particular, presented the minimum mamoto, J., Hiraoka, K., Shiga, C., Morik- 14. Krauss, G. 1989. Steels: Heat Treat-
cumulative transverse distortion that age, Y., Kubo, T., and Yasuda, K. 2002. ment and Processing Principles. ASM Inter-
indicated the maximum compressive Prevention of cold cracking in high national. pp. 43–87.
residual stress. However, the effects of strength steel welds by applying newly de- 15. Martínez Díez, F. 2004. Develop-
chromium equivalent and nickel equiva- veloped low transformation-temperature ment of compressive residual stress in
lent on distortion as well as residual welding consumables. 6th International structural steel weld toes by means of weld
stresses should be further investigated. Trends in Welding. metal phase transformations. PhD thesis,
4. Eckerlid, J., Nilsson, T., and Karlsson, Colorado School of Mines.
• The expansive strain measured for
L. 2003. Fatigue properties of longitudinal 16. Martínez Díez, F., and Liu, S. 2007.
all designed welding wires in the attachments welded using low transforma- Compositional boundary between primary
dilatometric testing led to compressive tion temperature filler. Science and Technol- austenitic and ferritic Mn-Cr and Ni-Cr
residual stresses (the highest modal ogy of Welding and Joining 8: 353–359. steel weld metals. Materials Science and En-
value at the order to 600 MPa) in the 5. Darcis, Ph.P., Katsumoto, H., Pa- gineering: 452–453.
vicinity of the welds as predicted by yares-Asprino, M. C., Liu, S., and Siewert, 17. Payares-Asprino, M. C., Katsumoto,
Sysweld. T. A. November 2007. Cruciform fillet H., and Liu, S. 2008. Effect of martensite
• The stress evolution with time welded joint fatigue strength improve- start and finish temperature on residual
study showed that increasing marten- ments by weld metal phase transforma- stress development in structural steel
sitic fraction can reverse tensile resid- tions. Intl. Journal of Fatigue and Fracture of welds. Welding Journal 87(11): 279-s to
Engineering Materials and Structures 31: 289-s.
ual stresses to compressive stresses at
125–136. DOI: 10.1111/j.1460- 18. Schaeffler, A. L. 1949. Constitution
temperatures around and below the Ms 2695.2007.01205.x. diagram for stainless steel weld metal. Met-
temperature. 6. Martinez, F., and Liu, S. May 16–20, al Progress 56(11): 680–688.
• Results of the Sysweld simulation 2005. Development of compressive resid- 19. Alghamdi, T., and Liu, S. 2010.
also showed that leaner and more eco- ual stress in structural steel weld toes by Low transformation temperature (LTT)
nomical welding wires, i.e., with tai- means of weld metal phase transforma- welding consumable: Different methods
lored martensite faction in the weld tions. Proceedings of the 7th International for calculating martensitic transforma-
metal, can be designed to promote ad- Conference on Trends in Welding Research. tion start temperature. Material Science
equate compressive residual stresses 7. Ohta, A., Watanabe, O., Matsuoka, and Technology Conference, Houston, Tex.
in welded structures. K., Siga, C., and Nishijima, S. 1999. Fatigue 20. Alghamdi, T., and Liu, S. 2012.
strength improvement by using newly de- Newly developed low transformation tem-
veloped low transformation temperature perature (LTT) welding consumables. Pa-
Acknowledgments welding material. Welding in the World per presented at the 14th Middle East Cor-
43(6). rosion Conference (05-MS-01), Bahrain.
8. Ohta, A., Watanabe, O., Matsuoka, 21. Ramjaun, T., Stone, H. J., Karlsson,
The authors would like to acknowl- K., Maeda, Y., Suzuki, N., and Kubo, T. L., Kelleher, J., Moat, R. J., Kornmeier, J.
edge the support of Saudi Aramco, Con- 2000. Fatigue strength improvement of R., Dalaei, K., and Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H.
sulting Service Department (CSD) for box welds by low transformation tempera- 2014. Effect of interpass temperature on
the conduction of this research pro- ture welding wire and PWHT. Welding in residual stresses in multipass welds pro-
gram. The authors would also like to ex- the World 44. duced using low transformation tempera-
press their appreciation to Harald 9. Ohta, A., Suzuki, N., and Maeda, Y. ture filler alloy. Science and Technology of
2001. Superior fatigue strength of welded Welding and Joining 19: 44–51.
Porzner and Brian Shula of ESI America
joints made with low transformation tem- 22. Shirzadi, A., Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H.,
for their collaboration and great assis- perature welding material. National Insti- Karlsson, L., and Withers, P. J. 2009. Stain-
tance in the numerical modeling of the tute for Materials Science, Japan. less steel weld metal designed to mitigate
LTTW weld behavior using Sysweld. Fi- 10. Ohta, A., Maeda, Y., Suzuki, N., residual stresses. Science and Technology of
nally, the authors appreciate the sup- Watanabe, O., Kubo, T., and Matsuoka, K. Welding and Joining 14: 559–565.
port received from the NSF-CIMJSEA 2002. Fatigue strength improvement of 23. Yamamoto, J., Hiraoka, K., and
(Center for Integrative Materials Join- box welds using low transformation tem- Mochizuki, M. 2010. Analysis of marten-
ing Sciences for Energy Applications). perature welding material. tripled fatigue site transformation behaviour in welded
strength by post weld heat treatment. joint using low transformation tempera-
Welding International 16(1): 44–47. ture welding wire. Science and Technology of
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proving fatigue strength by additional 24. Mikami, Y., Morikage, M.,
welding with low temperature transforma- Mochizuki, M., and Toyoda, M. 2009. An-
1. Deng, D. 2009. FEM prediction of tion welding electrodes. Steel Structures 1: gular distortion of fillet welded T joint us-
welding residual stress and distortion in car- 25–32. ing low transformation temperature weld-
bon steel considering phase transformation 12. Ohta, A., Matsuoka, K., Nguyen, N. ing wire. Science and Technology of Welding
effects. Materials and Design 30: 359–366. T., Maeda, Y., and Suzuki, N. 2003. Fatigue & Joining 14: 97–105.
2. Zenitani, S., Hayakawa, N., Yamamo- strength improvement of lap joints of thin 25. Self, A. J., Carpenter, B. F., Olson,
D. L., and Matlock, D. K. 1986. Phase ment analysis. Thesis for Master of Science 37. Alghamdi, T., and Liu, S. Develop-
transformations and alloy stability in Fe- in Aerospace Engineering submitted to ment of phase transformation-
Mn-Ni-Cr-Al weld metal. Alternate Alloy- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State induced compressive residual stresses
ing for Environmental Resistance War- University. around the weld joint: Numerical model-
renville: AIME-TMS. 32. Konig, G. 2003. Life Enhancement of ing. Presented at the 10th International
26. Eichelmann, G. H., and Hull, F. C. Aero Engine Components by Shot Peening: Conference on Numerical Modelling of
1953. The effect of composition on the Opportunities and Shot Peening. Edited by Welding, Graz, Austria, Sep. 24–26, 2012,
temperature of spontaneous transforma- Lother Wagner, DGM-Wiley-VCH, pp. and published in Mathematical Modelling
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Society of Metallurgists 45: 77–95. strength of welded structures. Cambridge: 38. AlGhamdi, T. 2012. Development
27. Ghosh, G., and Olson, G. B. 1994. The Welding Institute. of low transformation temperature weld-
Kinetics of F.C.C. to B.C.C. heterogeneous 34. Welding Simulation-User Guide, ing (LTTW) consumables. PhD thesis, Col-
martensitic nucleation-II, thermal activa- Sysweld, 2008. 2007. ESI US, Inc., and ESI orado School of Mines.
tion. Acta. Metall. Mater. 42(10): North America, Inc., 32605 W. 12 Mile, Ste. 39. Thomas, S. H. 2013. Analysis of low
3371–3379. 350, Farmington Hills, Mich., 48334-3379. transformation temperature welding
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Inc., 32605 W. 12 Mile, Ste. 350, Farming- 36. AlGhamdi, T., Liu, S., and Al-Ab- perature welding (LTTW) consumables—
ton Hills, Mich., 48334-3379. bas, F. 2012. Newly developed low trans- Distortion control and evolution of stress-
30. Goldak, J., Chakravarti, A., and formation temperature (LTT) welding es. Journal of Science and Technology of
Bibby, M. 1984. A new finite element consumables. Proceedings of the 14th Mid- Welding and Joining 19(5): 392–401. Pub-
model for welding heat sources. Metallur- dle East Corrosion Conference & Exhibition, lished online: DOI
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31. Francis, J. D. 2002. Welding simula- MS-01-MECC, Manama, Kingdom of
tion of aluminum alloy joints by finite ele- Bahrain.
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Measurement of Dynamic
Resistance
In order to investigate the effect of
adhesive on the resistance between
the steel sheets, dynamic resistance
was measured in this study (Refs. 24,
25). Figure 5A is a photo of the experi-
mental setup used to measure the dy- Fig. 4 — Weld schedule for resistance welding and weld bonding of 1.6mmthick galva
namic resistance. The weld current nized DP780 steel.
and voltage data between the steel
sheets were collected using the weld-
ing monitor (MM-370A) made by MIY- Table 3 — The Orthogonal Experiment Levels and Factors for Tests of Variable Electrode Force Shown
ACHI. Figure 5B is a schematic of the in Fig. 9
measurement method where RD is the
dynamic resistance between the top Control Factors Levels
I II III
and bottom sheets. Five replicates
were performed for each type of weld Weld force during the first half of the weld cycle, FW1 (kN) 3.5 3.9 4.3
bonding, and the average dynamic re- Weld force during the second half of the weld cycle, FW2 (kN) 4.3 4.7 5.1
Forging force during the hold cycle, Ff (kN) 4.3 4.7 5.1
sistances were reported. A detailed de-
scription can be found in Ref. 15.
Mechanical Testing
mens, shims were attached to both [called lap-shear strength (Ref. 27)]
Quasi-static tests were performed ends of the specimen using masking were recorded. Postfailure analysis was
by loading each specimen to failure in tape to accommodate the specimen performed using optical microscopy to
a tensile tester according to the stan- offset, as shown in Fig. 2. Load vs. dis- study the failure mechanisms. During
dard ASTM D1002-01 (Ref. 26) for de- placement curves were obtained as the the metallographic analysis, the pol-
termination of the joint strength. To specimens were loaded at a stroke rate ished specimens were etched with a
minimize the bending stresses inher- of 2 mm/min. Five replicates were per- 4% Nital reagent and the weld nuggets
ent in the testing of lap shear speci- formed, and the average peak loads were examined by optical microscopy.
A B
Fig. 5 — Experimental schematic for measurement of the following: A — Test setup; B — dynamic resistance between the steel and adhesive in
weld bonding of 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel.
A B
Fig. 6 — Comparison of resistance welding and weld bonding of 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel: A — Process window; B — lobe
width (i.e., weld current range for an acceptable weld).
Design of Experiment Results and Discussion at the faying interfaces acted as a bar-
rier for conducting the welding cur-
A design of experiment on the vari- Welding Lobe rent, and consequently more joule
able electrode force was performed to heat was generated in WB compared
obtain the maximum weld strength and Tests were conducted to determine to that of RSW. The excessive heat in-
least weld expulsion. The Taguchi ap- the welding lobe (i.e., welding current put during welding caused both the
proach incorporating orthogonal arrays and welding time under a constant minimum nugget boundary and the
was used to perform the systematic electrode force) for weld bonding expulsion boundary to move to lower
evaluation of the variable electrode (WB) of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized current levels. Moreover, the expul-
force (Ref. 28). Table 3 shows the or- DP780 steel. For the purpose of com- sion limit had a more remarkable
thogonal array with regard to three fac- parison, resistance spot welding trend toward lower current levels
tors and three levels L9, where the sub- (RSW) of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized than the minimum nugget boundary
script 9 denotes the number of experi- DP780 steel under the same electrode resulting in an overall narrower weld-
ments to be performed. Based on the force was also performed and the re- ing lobe for weld bonding.
output response (i.e., the peak load in sults are shown in Fig. 6A, B. The re- The WB lobe width is less than the
all nine investigated cases), optimiza- sults show the overall welding lobe acceptable lobe width of 2 kA (Ref.
tion of the variable electrode force for weld bonding was smaller than 16). These results indicate a fluctua-
would be achieved by Taguchi experi- that for resistance spot welding and tion in welding current or weld cap
mental design. The design of orthogo- the minimum current level for an ac- wear may cause discrepant welds in
nal techniques, which can greatly reduce ceptable weld at a given time occurred production. Therefore, a method to
the time and increase the accuracy of at lower current levels for weld bond- widen the welding lobe for WB of 1.6-
prediction, have been widely used in the ing vs. resistance spot welding. This mm-thick galvanized steels is needed
optimization of welding parameters difference is primarily attributed to and will be presented in the following
(Refs. 29–31). the fact that the insulating adhesive section.
Fig. 7 — Schematic of the effect of welding time on the weld expansion Fig. 8 — Schematic of the variable electrode force in weld
force resulting from the molten liquid under a given electrode force. bonding of 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel.
Fig. 9 — Schematic of the variable force vs. time for the weld bonding Fig. 10 — The effect of variable electrode force on the peak
process. load of weld bonded 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel.
Widening of the Welding Lobe Weld expulsion occurs when the the first half of the weld cycle, FW2; 3)
electrode force is less than the expan- weld force during the second half of
In regard to widening the welding sion force resulting from the weld ini- the weld cycle, FW2; and 4) forging
lobe, a key question is how to move tiation and growth of the molten liq- force, Ff . The effects of variable force
the expulsion boundary to the right. uid (Ref. 32). To avoid weld expulsion, and weld time on the weld initiation
Figure 7 shows a schematic of the ex- the electrode force needs to exceed the and growth are described below.
pansion force from the metal due to weld expansion force. Based on this As presented in Fig. 8, to start the
joule heating as a function of welding hypothesis, a variable electrode force weld bonding process a squeeze force
time under a given weld current in re- was adopted as a means to contain the (FS) is applied to the workpieces. This
sistance spot welding. As shown, the weld expulsion in WB of 1.6-mm-thick electrode force thins out the adhesive
expansion force increases with the galvanized DP780 steel. bondline thickness between the work-
welding time. In the early stage of the Figure 8 presents a schematic of the pieces, thereby enhancing the intimate
welding cycle, joule heat is generated variable electrode force in weld bond- contact of the workpieces at the faying
at the faying interface. As the welding ing of the steels. Experimental obser- interface. Once the workpieces are in in-
time is increased, the molten metal vations showed the weld bonding timate contact, the electrode force is
initiates and grows, and as a result, process generally can be divided into lowered to FW1 prior to conducting the
the expansion force from molten weld four stages: 1) adhesive squeeze-out; weld current. This decrease in electrode
metal increases. As the welding 2) weld nugget initiation; 3) weld force would result in an increased con-
process continues, a free volume ex- nugget growth; and 4) quenching of tact resistance at the faying interface.
pansion of the molten weld nugget is the molten weld pool. Corresponding Then, an electrical current is applied
constrained by the surrounding solid to these stages, the electrode force can through the electrodes and flows
metal, and consequently, the growth be also divided into four stages: 1) through the workpieces. As a conse-
of the weld nugget slows down. squeeze force, FS; 2) weld force during quence of the current flow, the temper-
Fig. 13 — Effect of an optimized variable electrode force on: A — Process window; B — lobe width (i.e., weld current range) in weld bond
ing of 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel.
A B
C D
Fig. 14 — Effect of variable electrode force and weld current on the weld quality of the weld bonded 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780
steel: A — 9 kA; B — 10 kA under constant electrode force; C — 9 kA; D — 10 kA under variable electrode force.
process window, the application of weld bonded 1.6-mm-thick galva- of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized DP780
variable electrode force is recommend- nized DP780 steel. steel was developed. The variable elec-
ed. The comparative results made with trode force was composed of a squeeze
variable and constant electrode force Weld Strength force of 4.3 kN, the electrode forces of
proved that variable electrode force 3.5 and 4.7 kN for the first and second
has a satisfactory effectiveness for im- To examine the effect of variable halves of the weld cycles, respectively,
proving process robustness. With the electrode force on the strength of the and a hold force of 4.3 kN.
application of the servo gun, weld weld bonded specimens, quasi-static
bonding with a variable electrode force tests were conducted and the results
can be applied readily to the vehicle as- are shown in Fig. 15. As shown, the Acknowledgments
sembly. However, the potential nega- use of variable electrode force in-
tive influences of variable electrode creased slightly the force displacement This research was supported by the
force on other aspects of the weld of the weld bonded DP780 steel General Motors Collaborative Re-
bonded nugget deserve careful study sheets. To further understand the qua- search Laboratory at Shanghai Jiao
such as nugget thickness and indenta- si-static characteristics of the speci- Tong University and by National Natu-
tion on the surface of the sheet metal. mens, the failure modes of the tested ral Science Foundation of China (No.
spot-welded and weld-bonded speci- 50905111, No. 51275304).
Weld Quality mens made with a welding current of 9
kA were examined and the results are
Figure 14 shows the effects of shown in Fig. 16. As shown, the speci- References
welding current and variable elec- mens made with constant and variable
trode force on the weld quality of the electrode forces had the weld button-
weld bonded specimens. As shown in pullout (Ref. 33). Since both speci- 1. Messler, R. W. 2002. Weld-bonding:
Fig. 14A, B, the weld size increased mens had similar failure modes, the The best or worst of two processes. Indus-
from 6.90 to 7.03 mm as the welding increase in weld strength shown in trial Robot 29(2): 138–148.
Fig. 15 was likely related to the in- 2. Chang, B. H., Shi, Y. W., and Dong, S.
current increased from 9 to 10 kA for J. 1999. A study on the role of adhesives in
the specimens made with constant creased weld size resulting from the weld-bonded joints. Welding Journal 78(8):
electrode force. While the weld size extra joule heat introduced by the 275-s to 279-s.
increased, severe weld expulsion oc- presence of the small electrode force at 3. Darwish, S. M. 2003. Characteristics
curred for the welding current of 10 the first stage of the weld cycles. of weld-bonded commercial aluminum
kA. On the other hand, the weld size It is emphasized that the results sheets (B.S.1050). International Journal of
increased with an increase of the presented in this study only illustrate Adhesion and Adhesives 23(3): 169–176.
welding current from 9 to 10 kA, but the improvement of process robust- 4. Goncalves, V. M., and Martins, P. A. F.
little weld expulsion was observed for ness (i.e., weld lobe width) for weld 2006. Joining stainless steel parts by
the specimens made with variable bonding of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized means of weld bonding. International Jour-
DP780 steel by applying the variable nal of Mechanics and Materials in Design 3:
electrode force. Comparing the re- 91–101.
sults shown in Fig. 14A, B with that electrode force. The electrode condi- 5. Smith, S., Vrenken, J., and van der
in Fig. 14C, D revealed the specimens tions and alignment, and metal fitup Veldt, T. 2013. Structural performance of
made with variable electrode force reported here are not indicative of the adhesive and weld-bonded joints. Welding
had slightly larger weld sizes than production environment in a vehicle in the World 57: 147–156.
those made with constant force (i.e., body shop. Nevertheless, the present 6. Xia, Y., Zhou, Q., Wang, P. C., John-
about 5 and 8% increase for the weld- results showed process robustness in son, N. L., Gayden, X. Q., and Fickes, J. D.
ing currents of 9 and 10 kA, respec- weld bonding of high-strength steel 2009. Development of a high-efficiency
tively). Furthermore, little weld ex- can be improved significantly. With modeling technique for weld-bonded steel
pulsion was observed at a welding the current servo gun technology, the in vehicle structures, Part I. Static Experi-
variable electrode force method can be ments and Simulation. International Jour-
current of 10 kA with variable elec- nal of Adhesion & Adhesives 29: 414–426.
trode force. Careful examination of readily implemented. 7. Xia, Y., Zhou, Q., Wang, P. C., Johnson,
the test results indicated the reduc- N. L., Gayden, X. Q., and Fickes, J. D. 2009.
tion in weld expulsion was primarily Conclusions Development of a high-efficiency modeling
attributed to the increase in electrode technique for weld-bonded steel in vehicle
force that contained the molten steel 1. Variable electrode force was adopt- structures - Part II; Dynamic experiments
during the welding process. Further- ed to improve the process robustness and simulations. International Journal of Ad-
more, as shown in Fig. 14, the weld (i.e., widening the weld lobe) in weld hesion & Adhesives 29: 427–433.
microstructure and indentation (or bonding of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized 8. Long, X., and Khanna, S. K. 2008. Fa-
metal thinning) of the welds made tigue performance of spot welded and weld
DP780 steel. It not only widened the
bonded advanced high strength steel
with variable electrode force were weld current range by approximately sheets. Science and Technology of Welding
similar to that of the welds fabricated 50% but minimized the weld expulsion and Joining 13(3): 241–247.
with constant electrode force. These under a given weld time. 9. Hayat, F., Demir, B., Acarer, M., and
results suggest the application of 2. Via a design of experiments, the Aslanlar, S. 2010. Adhesive weld bonding
variable electrode force would not optimum variable electrode force un- of interstitial free steel at spot welding for
likely degrade the strength of the der a given weld time for weld bonding automotive application. Kovove Materialy
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Durability of adhesively-bonded single lap- Sibilia, G., and Saindrenanb, G. 2008. % Your research sent to more
shear joints in accelerated hygrothermal Characterization of electrical contact con- than 69,000 American
exposure for automotive applications, In- ditions in spot welding assemblies. Journal
ternational Journal of Adhesion and Adhe- of Materials Processing Technology 195: Welding Society members
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13. Morin, D., Haugou, G., Bennani, B., 25. Cho, Y., and Rhee, S. 2002. Primary % Your published paper
and Lauro, F. 2011. Experimental charac- circuit dynamic resistance monitoring and posted on the AWS Web
terization of a toughened epoxy adhesive its application to quality estimation during site for FREE access
under a large range of strain rates. Journal resistance spot welding. Welding Journal
of Adhesion Science and Technology 25(13): 81(6): 104-s to 111-s. worldwide
1581–1602. 26. American Society for Testing and (www.aws.org/w/a/
14. Senkara, J., Zhang, H., and Hu, S. J. Materials Standard D1002-01. 2001. Stan- research/index.html)
2004. Expulsion prediction in resistance dard Test Method for Apparent Shear
spot welding. Welding Journal 83(4): 123-s Strength of Single-Lap-Joint Adhesively % The most recent Impact
to 132-s. Bonded Metal Specimens by Tension Loading
15. Zhang, Y. S., Shen, J., Zhao, Y. Y., (Metal-to-Metal), ASTM International. Factor of 1.143
Wang, P.-C., and Carlson, B. 2013. Effect of 27. Aslanlar, S., Ogur, A., Ozsarac, U.,
adhesive characteristics on the weld quali- Ilhan, E., and Demir, Z. 2007. Effect of % No page charges
ty in weld bonding multiple steel sheets. welding current on mechanical properties
Welding Journal 92(12): 363-s to 374-s. of galvanized chromided steel sheets in % Your paper printed in
16. Tawade, G., and Boudreau, G. 2004. electrical resistance spot welding. Materials
full color
Robust schedules for spot welding zinc and Design 28(1): 2–7.
coated high-strength automotive steels. 28. Roy, R. 1990. Designs with Interac-
Great Designs in Steel Seminar Presenta- tions, A Primer on Taguchi Method. New
% Electronic submission and
tions, American Iron and Steel Institute, York, N.Y.: Van Nostrand Reinhold. p. 61. tracking through Editorial
Livonia, Mich. 29. Rowlands, H., and Antony, J. 2003. Manager
17. Kim, E. W., and Eagar, T. W. 1988. Application of design of experiments to a
Parametric analysis of resistance spot spot welding process. Assembly Automation
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Zhang, H. 2000. Forging force in resistance vanized mild steel. Welding Journal 92(9):
spot welding. Welding Journal 79(7): 175-s 274-s to 282-s.
Journal since 1970
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Design of experiment analysis and weld welding pool of dissimilar laser-welded (www.aws.org/wj/
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Lee, A., Biro, E., and Boudreau, G. 2006. tions. CRC press, Taylor & Francis Group.
Expulsion monitoring in spot welded ad- 33. Radakovic, D. J., and Tumuluru, M.
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