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Ch01 Xviii-045
Ch01 Xviii-045
Chapter 3
Chapter 2 Biodiversity
1
Get Ready for Unit 1
A Forest Ecosystem
7. Predict Which of the government strategies for Ottawa 774 072 886
reducing collisions listed below might be the Simcoe County 266 100 656
most effective? Explain your answer.
Thunder Bay 109 140 463
a. Installing fencing along major highways
b. Draining salty ponds near highways 9. Ranking List the areas in order from highest to
c. Posting warning signs lowest number of incidents.
d. Adding highway lighting to improve 10. Graphing Choose an appropriate style of
night visibility graph and construct a graph to display the
e. Removing roadside brush so drivers can see information shown in the table. Include a title
the road bette and labels.
8. Plan You are a scientist hired by the ministry to 11. Writing Suppose you are a speechwriter for the
investigate its anti-collision strategies. Choose Mayor of Simcoe County. Write a brief radio
one of the five strategies above. Outline a message aimed at informing people about the
procedure to test how well the strategy works. dangers of collisions with wildlife on the roads
and suggesting ways to avoid them.
Inquiry Project
Investigate how common n
substances affect the
sustainability of aquatic An Issue to Analyze
ecosystems. Identify and reduce
threats to a local
ecosystem.
Why It Matters
All living things, including humans,
rely on the cycles of matter and
energy on Earth. When a natural
process or human activity affects
one of these cycles, the balance of
an ecosystem can be thrown off.
This imbalance can affect all the
organisms in the ecosystem.
Materials
• 27 smooth building blocks,
labelled with environmental
disturbances
Procedure
1. Work in groups of four. Build a tower with nine layers, using three blocks
per layer. Place each layer at right angles to the layer below it.
2. Take turns removing blocks from the lower levels of the tower and using
these blocks to make new three-block layers on top. Keep track of how
many blocks you move.
Questions
1. What did the tower represent in this model? What did the moved blocks
represent?
2. What happened to the tower as more blocks were removed from lower
levels and placed on top?
3. How does this activity model how different disturbances can affect an
ecosystem?
4. How does what happened to the model in this activity differ from what
could happen in a real ecosystem?
Word Study
Word Families
Drawing a word family web can help you figure
out unfamiliar words. The web on the right shows biology
words that all have the prefix bio, from the Greek
word meaning life. Biology, for example, means biologist
biomagnification
the study of life.
bio
Use the Strategy bioaccumulation
biotic
1. Predict and record what you think the
other words in the web mean.
biosphere
2. Check your predictions as you read Chapter 1
or use the Glossary at the end of this textbook.
Learning Check
1. Describe the ways in which the people’s use of trees on Easter
Island was unsustainable.
2. What is the two-part meaning of the word sustain?
larvae
enl
Your Turn
How Can We Help the American Eel? 1. Why is the American eel an important part of the
• Commercial fishers are helping scientists capture ecosystem of the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes?
and tag large eels.
2. Identify different stakeholders affected by the
• Ontario Power Generation is shipping eels down the decline of the American eel (for example, commercial
St. Lawrence and releasing them in Lac St. Pierre in fishers, Aboriginal peoples, workers in the power
Québec, so that the eels do not have to pass through industry). Write a short paragraph to describe the
dam turbines. issue from the point of view of one of the
• The First Nations along the St. Lawrence River have stakeholders.
agreed to stop all harvesting and work with the
3. Create a poster for a campaign to raise public
Department of Fisheries and Oceans and other
awareness about the American eel. Your poster should
agencies to ensure this species is protected.
highlight the importance of the eel to the health of the
• Hydro Québec, New York Power Authority, and Ontario Great Lakes ecosystem and the historical significance
Power Generation have built eel ladders at their St. of the American eel to Aboriginal peoples and Ontario’s
Lawrence River dams to help eels migrate upstream. fishing industry.
Predation
Predation occurs when one organism consumes another organism
for food. The organism that is consumed is called the prey. The
organism that eats the prey is called the predator. The river otter
shown in the photograph is a predator. Its prey includes fish, crabs,
frogs, and turtles. The river otter is also prey for other predators,
such as coyotes. In this way, organisms are linked together through
the food chain. The relationship between predators and their prey
can influence the population of both the predator and the prey, as
well as affect the entire ecosystem in which they live. You will read
more about predation later in this chapter and in Chapter 2.
Competition
Competition occurs when two or more organisms compete for the
same resource, such as food, in the same location at the same time.
The dandelions in the photograph compete with the grass for the
same resources. The dandelions may block out light that the grass
needs to survive. They may also soak up more water or nutrients
from the soil, leaving less for the grass. Competing for resources
takes energy. Energy expended on competition is energy that is
taken away from other important life processes, such as growth
and reproduction. Competition can influence the population size
and success of a group of organisms. Sometimes, one group of
organisms is outcompeted by another group. You will read more
about competition and how it influences populations in Chapter 2.
Procedure
1. Design a symbol or an image to represent the world’s
current environmental problems.
Making a Difference
In Grade 9, Yvonne Su discovered that her Newmarket school was not
recycling because it lacked the resources. Yvonne felt a responsibility
to do something. She and her friends, with the help of some teachers,
decided to tackle the recycling themselves, so they started a recycling
and environmental club. Yvonne has been involved in environmental
activities ever since.
“As Grade 9s, my friends and I didn’t know where to turn to learn more
about our planet. After speaking to some teachers, we found out that our
greatest resources were right in front of us—our science classes.”
The more Yvonne and her friends learned, the more they wanted to
share their knowledge. They organized campaigns about environmental
issues at their school. Then they took their campaigns to schools across
Canada. Yvonne was named one of Canada’s Top 20 Under 20 in 2007.
She is now studying environmental science at the University of Guelph.
What changes would you suggest making at your school to help
the environment?
Light
Plants and other organisms The amount of light that an
need light for photosynthesis, ecosystem receives can vary.
a life process in which Plants near the floor of a forest
organisms produce their own may be shaded by taller trees.
food. Light in an aquatic ecosystem
can be affected by the amount of
sediment in run-off.
Nutrients
Plants and animals need Nutrient levels in an ecosystem
nutrients, such as nitrogen can become unbalanced as a result
and phosphorus, to grow. of human activities.
Soil
Soil provides nutrients for Top layers of soil, which contain
plants and a habitat for many the most nutrients, can be washed
micro-organisms. away if there is heavy rain or if too
many trees have been cut down.
At any time, matter can occupy one of the four spheres that make up
Earth. The hard part of Earth’s surface is the lithosphere, from the Greek
word for stone. The salt water in the oceans and the fresh water on the lithosphere the hard part of
continents form the hydrosphere. The Greek word hydro- means water. Earth’s surface
The layer of air above Earth’s surface is the atmosphere, from the Greek hydrosphere all the water
word atmos-, which means vapour. found on Earth, including
lakes, oceans, and ground
Figure 1.3 shows the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. In this
water
image of North Africa and Europe, the lithosphere is best represented
atmosphere the layer of
by Earth’s largest desert, the Sahara. The North Atlantic Ocean and the gases above Earth’s surface
Mediterranean Sea represent the hydrosphere, and the light from the Sun
shows the thin layer of gases that make up the atmosphere.
Earth’s Biosphere
The lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere are abiotic spheres that
are found on other planets, as well as Earth. Mars has all three spheres,
although its hydrosphere is mostly ice and its atmosphere has very little
oxygen. There is a fourth sphere at Earth’s surface, however, that no other
planet in the solar system is known to have—a biosphere.
The biosphere is the living surface of Earth, but it is not separate from biosphere the regions of
the abiotic spheres. After all, many life forms are found underground, in Earth where living organisms
exist
both fresh water and salt water, and in the atmosphere as well.
atmosphere
hydrosphere
condensation precipitation
evaporation
ter
wa
und
gro
ocean water
run-off
Figure 1.4 Water continually cycles through the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere,
and biosphere through the processes of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.
A Air contains carbon in the form B Organisms break down sugar C Burning fossil fuels
of carbon dioxide gas. Plants and molecules made by plants and and wood releases
algae use carbon dioxide to make algae to obtain energy for life carbon dioxide into
sugars, which are energy-rich, and growth. Carbon dioxide is the atmosphere.
carbon-containing compounds. released as a waste.
A
C
D When organisms die, their carbon-containing E Under certain conditions, the remains of
molecules become part of the soil. These some dead organisms may gradually be
molecules are broken down by fungi, bacteria, changed into fossil fuels, such as coal, gas,
and other decomposers. During this decay and oil. These carbon compounds are
process, carbon dioxide is released into the air. energy rich.
lightning
N2
run-off
fertilizer
N2 application
decaying plant and N2
animal waste NH +, NO —
4 3
dissolved
uptake NH4+, NO3—
dissolved
by plants
NH4+, NO3— posers
NH4+ decomposers com uptake
de
nitrogen-fixing by plants
cyanobacteria NH4+
plant sewage and
NH4+ NO3—
NO3— uptake fertilizer run-off
bacteria in
soil convert bacteria convert
N2 to NH4+ bacteria NO3— to N2 oceans
soil
sedimentation
uptake by
terrestrial organisms plant and leaching and fertilizer
animal waste run-off application
leaching
and run-off
phosphate dissolved PO43— leaching
in soil into soil
decomposers decomposers mining
phosphate
dissolving rock
weathering
excess
phosphorus 1 Fertilizer runs off from farmland into water. 2 Algae bloom.
3 Submerged plants die due to reduced light. 4 Algae and other plants die.
5 Bacteria use oxygen during decomposition. 6 Oxygen levels in the water drop
too low for fish to survive.
Figure 1.9 When nutrients that are normally limited are added in excess
amounts, the balance in an aquatic ecosystem is upset by eutrophication.
Section Summary
• Sustainable ecosystems endure, and they sustain • Human activities that increase the amount of
the organisms that live within them. nutrients reaching a terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem
• Matter, including nutrients such as nitrogen, can upset the nutrient balance in the ecosystem.
constantly moves through Earth’s spheres. • Decisions and actions that are taken to protect the
health of ecosystems may involve international
agreements and court decisions.
Review Questions
K/U 1. What is a sustainable ecosystem?
30
nutrient pollution of aquatic
25
ecosystems. List positive actions
20
that each group could take.
15
A 8. Use the data in the graph on the 10
right to describe how phosphorus 5
levels in the Central Basin of Lake 0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Erie have changed over the last Year
30 years.
The graph shows the average amount of phosphorus
during the months of June, July, and August in the
Central Basin of Lake Erie for a 30-year period.
glucose
oxygen oxygen
(C6H12O6)
(O2) (O2)
carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide (CO2)
(CO2)
Figure 1.13 Without light
energy, photosynthesis
cannot occur.
chlorophyll
in leaves
water (H2O)
70
60
Percent
re al
er d
na
re e
re al
an e
ra
rie er
es an
fo erat
sl at
ea
fo pic
fo ore
nd
go th
st
st
st
s
n
as er
oc
va
te l o
i-d t
tu
tro
b
m er
gr mp
sa
ca al
se es
te
te
d
phytoplankton
Ecosystem
Figure 1.14 In A, the dark blue bars represent the percentage of Earth’s surface area
that each ecosystem covers. For example, the oceans cover about 70 percent of Earth.
The light blue bars represent the percentage of photosynthesis in each ecosystem.
B shows phytoplankton, which carry out photosynthesis in aquatic ecosystems.
Learning Check
1. What is chlorophyll?
decomposers
Figure 1.15 Matter moves through the biosphere by travelling from one trophic
level to the next in a cycle.
secondary consumers
(carnivores) long-tailed weasel
10 energy units
primary consumers
(herbivores)
jackrabbit
100 energy units
primary
producers grass
1000 energy units
Food pyramid
Figure 1.16 Energy that is stored in biomass at one trophic level moves to the next
trophic level through a food chain.
Trophic Efficiency
Biomass is the mass of living cells and tissues that has been assembled
biomass the total mass of
by organisms using solar energy. Leaves, stems, wood, roots, and flower living organisms in a defined
nectar are all packed with chemical energy that has been converted from group or area
solar energy. Animals indirectly rely on solar energy too, by eating plants trophic efficiency a
or other animals that eat plants. measure of the amount
Trophic efficiency is a measure of how much of the energy in of energy or biomass
transferred from one trophic
organisms at one trophic level is transferred to the next higher trophic
level to the next higher
level. This percentage is always less than 100 percent because organisms trophic level
use much of the energy from the biomass they consume for their life
functions, and they produce wastes as well. In fact, trophic efficiencies
are usually quite inefficient—only about 10 percent.
Figure 1.16 shows a sample food chain from a primary producer,
grass, to a tertiary consumer, the great horned owl. Suppose that the
grass biomass contains 1000 units of energy. If only 10 percent of this
energy is transferred to the jackrabbit, only 100 units of energy will reach
the jackrabbit. Of these 100 units, only 10 will be transferred from the
jackrabbit to the long-tailed weasel. Of the 10 units that reach the weasel,
only 1 unit of energy will reach the great horned owl.
There are several reasons why biomass decreases from one trophic
level to the next. Herbivores may not eat all the parts of a plant; for
example, they may eat only the tops of the plants and leave the roots.
Not everything that is eaten is digested; for example, fur may not be
digested. Also, at every level, energy is lost as heat from the bodies of
organisms. Because of the inefficiency of energy transfer among trophic
levels, there are usually fewer carnivores than herbivores, and fewer
herbivores than plants.
Section Summary
• The biosphere relies on a constant source of • Most of the stored energy in one trophic level
solar energy. does not move to the next trophic level.
• Chlorophyll in primary producers converts • Bioaccumulation and biomagnification can result
solar energy to chemical energy through in unhealthy levels of pollutants in organisms.
photosynthesis.
Review Questions
K/U 1. Explain the process of photosynthesis.
CO2 O2 Photosynthesis
light (day)
glucose
H2O
energy
Figure 1.19 Plants and algae undergo both photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration makes energy available to cells by consuming oxygen and producing
water and carbon dioxide.
A Carbon Dioxide Concentration vs. Year B Change in Global Temperature Over Time
Concentration of Carbon Dioxide (ppm)
380
0.8
370
Difference from Average
0.6
360
Temperature (˚C)
350 0.4
340 0.2
330
0
320
-0.2
310
300 -0.4
290 -0.6
280
-0.8
0 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year
<280 pre-industrial carbon dioxide Year
concentration (<280 ppm)
Sources: Climatic Research Unit and Hadley Centre, 2008
Figure 1.21 A Since the Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide levels have risen steadily.
B Earth’s average surface temperature has also increased by about 0.74°C.
Action Description
Learning Check
1. Explain the process of cellular respiration.
landfill
Acid Precipitation
Since fossil fuels come from ancient organisms, they contain the same
nutrients that are found in living things. Although these nutrients are vital
for the health of living things, they can be released in undesirable forms
when fossil fuels are burned. Figure 1.23 shows how nitrogen oxide and
sulfur dioxide are produced when fossil fuels are burned. When these acid precipitation rain,
gases combine with water in the atmosphere, nitric acid and sulfuric snow, or fog that is
acid are produced. These acids can travel great distances in the wind, unnaturally acidic (pH less
eventually descending to Earth’s surface in rain, sleet, or snow. The pH than 5.6) due to gases in the
atmosphere that react with
of the precipitation is lowered, and the precipitation becomes acidic.
water to form acids
This phenomenon is called acid precipitation.
sulfur nitrogen
dioxide oxide
(NOx) NOx + H2O nitric acid (HNO3)
(SO2)
SO2 + H20 sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
SO2
and acid particles
and gases acid rain
NOx
acid snow
Figure 1.23 Acids from burning fossil fuels combine with water in the atmosphere
to form acid precipitation. Acid precipitation may fall locally or hundreds of kilometres
downwind, far from the source.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
lowest pH
of acid precipitation
Trout
Bass
Perch
Frogs
Salamanders
Clams
Crayfish
Snails
Mayflies
Figure 1.26 The bars in this chart extend out to the pH that an organism can no longer
tolerate. For example, trout cannot survive if the pH of the water drops below 5.
Kilotonnes per Year of Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides in Ontario and Canada
Canada
(kilotonnes per year)
3500 Ontario
3000
Emissions
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
Figure 1.27 Canada has made progress in reducing its emissions of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides.
Section Summary
• Organisms use cellular respiration and • Acid precipitation is caused by burning fossil
fermentation to extract the energy stored in the fuels. It can have negative effects on terrestrial and
glucose produced by photosynthesis. aquatic ecosystems.
• Burning fossil fuels has dramatically increased the • Increased awareness and improved technology
concentration of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse have led to a decrease in acid precipitation since
gas, in the atmosphere. the 1980s.
Review Questions
K/U 1. Identify two processes that organisms use to extract the energy
stored in the glucose produced by photosynthesis.
K/U 2. What gas must be present for the aerobic breakdown of glucose
to occur?
C 3. Draw a flowchart to show how methane gas can be collected
from a landfill site and used to produce electricity.
K/U 4. Write two or three sentences to explain the following statement:
“In the last 200 years, humans have ‘suddenly’ released
previously stored carbon dioxide.”
K/U 5. What substances that are responsible for acid precipitation are
released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels?
T/I 6. Certain types of aquatic organisms, such as clams and crayfish, Acid Neutralization and
are negatively affected when the pH of the water drops below the pH of Lake Water
of the water drops below 5.0. Use the graph on the right to high
determine whether any of these organisms can survive if a lake
becomes acidic.
T/I 7. Suppose that you have a choice between two products of equal
quality. You look at the labels of the two products to see where acidic
low damaged healthy
they were made. You have a list of countries that are committed,
under an international agreement, to requiring industries to
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
become more efficient by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. pH
You see that the more expensive product is from a country on
your list, but the less expensive product is not. Which product
would you buy? Explain your choice.
A 8. Many Ontario residents commute thousands of kilometres each
year by car between home and work. How may their commuting
be connected to the death of trees?
✓ Communicating Question
How does fertilizer affect algae growth?
Safety Precautions
Plan and Conduct
1. Brainstorm how you could test the effects of fertilizer on algae
• To avoid skin irritation, use growth.
rubber gloves when handling
2. Determine what your independent variable will be. What will
the fertilizer.
your dependent variable be? Will you have a control group?
• Follow your teacher’s
directions when disposing of 3. Make a table for recording your data. How often will you make
the fertilizer. observations?
• Clean any spills immediately, 4. Ask your teacher to approve your investigation procedure, data
and inform your teacher. table, and safety precautions.
5. Carry out your investigation.
Suggested Materials
• balance Analyze and Interpret
• scoop 1. What was your independent variable? What was your dependent
• 50 mL graduated cylinder variable?
• small funnel 2. Describe the changes you observed in the dependent variable, and
• five 250 mL beakers propose an explanation.
• liquid fertilizer that contains
Conclude and Communicate
nitrogen and phosphorus
3. Suppose that a large quantity of fertilizer was added to a lake
• algae culture
ecosystem. Suggest what might happen to the populations of
• distilled water
a. producers b. consumers c. decomposers
• adhesive labels
4. Think about the tools, techniques, and processes that you used to
• marker
gather evidence. What improvements could you make?
Question
• Follow your teacher’s How can you demonstrate that plants absorb carbon dioxide?
directions for safe conduct.
• Wear appropriate safety
equipment in the laboratory.
• Never taste or eat any
materials in the laboratory.
• Clean any spills immediately.
Materials
• 250 mL beaker
• water
• bromothymol solution
• drinking straw
The contents of both test tubes are the same. What variable does the
• 2 test tubes with stoppers
black paper control?
• test-tube rack
• 2 freshwater plant sprigs
(Elodea or a similar species)
• black paper
• masking tape
Science Skills
Go to Science Skills
Toolkit 11 for
information about
conducting research.
5. Tape a piece of black paper around one of the 8. Research Write a brief report about the
test tubes so that no light can enter. contributions of one of the following scientists
to our understanding of photosynthesis:
6. Place both test tubes back in the test-tube rack.
• Jan Baptista van Helmont (1577–1644)
Place the test-tube rack in bright sunlight for
several hours. • Jan Ingenhousz (1730–1799)
• Joseph Priestley (1733–1804)
7. Remove the paper from the test tube. Record
your observations of both test tubes. • Jean Senebier (1742–1809)
• Nicolas de Saussure (1767–1845)
Analyze and Interpret • Julius von Sachs (1832–1897)
1. What gas did you add to the solution using the
straw?
2. Why did this gas produce a colour change in
the indicator?
3. Describe what colour change you observed in
each test tube.
4. Explain your observations, with reference to the
equation for photosynthesis in Section 1.2.
Question
Safety Precautions
How does the acidity of rainwater influence the fertility of soil?
Materials
How are plants affected by acid rain?
• 5 small plastic or paper cups
• pencil Procedure
• marker 1. With a pencil tip, poke a hole in the bottom of each cup for
• tray drainage.
• potting soil 2. Label each cup with your name(s) and the level of pH (pH 3,
• seeds (such as beans, radish, pH 4, pH 5, pH 6, pH 7, respectively).
or Brassica)
3. Place the cups on the tray.
• 50 mL graduated cylinder
4. Add soil to each cup until the cup is three quarters full.
• 5 stoppered Erlenmeyer flasks,
containing solutions with pH 5. Place a bean, or another seed, about 3 cm below the surface of the
levels of 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 soil in each cup. Cover the seed with soil.
• ruler 6. Using the graduated cylinder, water the seed in each numbered
• grow light (optional) cup with 10 mL of water from the Erlenmeyer flask with the
matching pH number. Be sure to rinse the graduated cylinder
Math Skills after you water each seed.
Go to Math Skills
Toolkit 3 for
information about
constructing graphs.
1.1 Sustainability
Key Concepts
• Sustainable ecosystems endure, and they sustain the • Decisions and actions that are taken to
organisms that live within them. protect the health of ecosystems may
• Matter, including nutrients such as nitrogen, are constantly involve international agreements and
moving through Earth’s spheres. court decisions.
Is Energy
Communication C
Absorbed or
21. Ecosystems are dynamic and have the Released?