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Earth and Life Science

Quarter 2 – Module 8
Ecosystem: Interaction &
Interdependence
Earth and Life Science – Senior High School
Quarter 2 – Module 8: Ecosystem: Interaction & Interdependence
Second Edition, 2021

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Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio

Development Team of the Module

Compiler/Writer: Mary Jane B. Tura MAEd. Science Ed. (Master Teacher I, SHS
Ramon Duterte Memorial NHS)
Content Editors/Reviewers:
Mrs. Celia C. Gepitulan, Principal I, Regino Mercado Night High School
Mr. Bonnie James Saclolo, Teacher III, Cebu City National Science High School
Mrs. Jocelyn Butanas, Master Teacher I, Talamban National High School
Dr.Rey Kimilat, HT V, Abellana National High School
Language Editor:
Mrs. Roquesa B. Sabejon, PSDS-ND7
Management Team:
Chairperson: Dr. Rhea Mar A. Angtud, Schools Division Superintendent
Dr. Bernadette A. Susvilla, Asst. Schools Division Superintendent
Mrs. Grecia F. Bataluna, CID Chief
Mrs. Vanessa L. Harayo, EPS-LRMS
Dr. Raylene S. Manawatao, EPS-Science

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 What I Need to Know
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
understand the ecosystem, components, interactions, nutrient cycles, energy flow,
biotic potential, environmental resistance & ecological relationships, terrestrial &
aquatic biomes, and human activities that affect the natural ecosystem.
The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course.

The module is divided into four lessons, namely:

• Lesson 1 – The Ecosystem: Components, Interactions, Nutrient Cycles &
Energy Flow
• Lesson 2 – Biotic Potential, Environmental Resistance & Ecological
Relationships
• Lesson 3 – Biomes: Terrestrial & Aquatic
• Lesson 4 – Human Activities that Affect the Natural Ecosystem
Content Standard:
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the principles of the ecosystem,
biotic potential, environmental resistance & ecological relationships, terrestrial &
aquatic ecosystems, and human activities that affect the natural ecosystem
Performance Standard:
The learners shall be able to prepare an action plan containing mitigation
measures to address current environmental concerns & challenges in the
community.
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. describe the main components of the ecosystem;
2. cite and describe the different ecological relationships;
3. differentiate two major ecosystems, terrestrial & aquatic: and
4. categorize the different biotic potential & environmental resistance (e.g.
diseases, availability of food, and predators) that affect population explosion
(S11/12LT-IVhj-29).

What I Know

DIRECTIONS: Write the letter of your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1.Which of the following food chains is found in the forest ecosystem?
A. grass → rabbit → owl C. grass → antelope → lion
B. grass → mouse → snake D. grass → caterpillar → birds
2. In a forest ecosystem, which of the following organisms are directly affected if the
population of plants decreases?
A. carnivores B. decomposers C. herbivores D. predators
3. In which of the layers of the rainforests will you find a sloth?
A. canopy B. emergent C. understory D. forest floor
4. How do forests help in maintaining global climate? Plants in the forest _______.
A. soak up large amounts of rainfall
B. provide a habitat for plants & animals
C. provide materials for constructions & other needs of people
D. absorb carbon dioxide & release oxygen during photosynthesis

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5. Which of the following phrases BEST describe symbiosis? It is a _____.
A. close living relationship between two different species
B. relationship where one species serves as food for another species
C. relationship where one species relies upon another species as food
D. close living relationship between two members of the same species
6. Which of the following examples show commensalism?
A. fish living on corals C. barnacle living on a whale
B. sea urchin eating corals D. clownfish living on sea anemone
7. What are the producers in coral reef ecosystem?
A. algae B. corals C. mangrove D. small fish
8. Which of the following practices is the main source of destruction in the marine
ecosystem?
A. creating fishponds C. using dynamite when fishing
B. building reclamation sites D. constructing man-made sanctuaries
9. How can you help in restoring denuded forests? We can restore denuded forests
by practicing ______.
A. reforestation B. deforestation C. overharvesting D. kaingin system
10. What makes up an ecosystem?
A. biotic components of the environment
B. abiotic components of the environment
C. the energy flow components of an environment
D. the living organisms & the abiotic component of the environment
11. Which of the following is NOT a threat to the survival of large predators’ species
like lions?
A. animal diseases C. loss of other predator species
B. global climate changes D. loss of large wilderness areas
12. What prevents plant growth beneath the trees in a thick forest?
A. The roots of the trees make it difficult for plants to grow.
B. A small amount of water reaches the ground under the trees.
C. The trees limit the amount of sunlight that can reach the ground.
D. The temperature of the soil under the trees does not allow plants to grow.
13. Some ecosystems are declared by the government as protected areas wherein
cutting of trees & hunting are not allowed. What is the goal of the government?
It is for _______.
A. expanding the protected areas
B. increasing the population of trees
C. controlling the extinction of animals
D. maintaining the biodiversity of the area
For questions No.14-15, refer to the simple food web in a grassland community below.

Figure 1: Image of Food Web

Image source: blogspot.com

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14. How many food chains can you identify in the food web?
A. 8 B. 9 C. 10 D. 11
15. What is the apex predator or the top predator in the food web?
A. grass B. hawk C. rabbit D. snake

Lesson 1: THE ECOSYSTEM: COMPONENTS, INTERACTIONS, NUTRIENT

CYCLES & ENERGY FLOW
Ecosystem is an area where plants, animals, organisms and interacting
components work together to form, sustain, and maintain life. These components
include the living and non-living features which make up a community. A community
where different species thrives, interacts, and works to survive in a certain place or
habitat. A habitat that allows variety of animals and plants to grow and reproduce a
new life, especially on Earth. Life on Earth continues through the constant
interaction between living and non-living things.

The illustration below summarizes the components of the Ecosystem.

Image source: takshilalearning.com

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 What’s In

EVOLUTION FLASH BACK!

DIRECTIONS: Copy the puzzle in your paper. Choose from word bank the term
that is described in each item below the puzzle. Write you answer in
the corresponding boxes in each number.

Across
3.When a DNA sequence changes from normal to abnormal either by disease,
chemicals, or natural means
6.If an organism does not adapt to its changing environment it faces.
7. Process of inherited traits changing in organisms over time
Down
1.Process where populations that are best suited to their environment survive &
reproduce.
2.To survive in a changing environment an organism must
4. Scientist who proposed the idea of natural selection
5.Set of instructions inside each living cell

Image Source: www.education.com/worksheets

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 What’s New

SPOT EACH ORGANISM!

DIRECTIONS: Classify each organism as PRODUCER, CONSUMER &
DECOMPOSER on the image below. Write your answer on a piece of
paper.

Figure 2: Images on Producer, Consumer & Decomposer

Image source: www.pinterest.com

What Is It
Levels of
Organization Ecosystem explores
interactions at all levels of
organization. It starts with the
individual itself being part of a
larger group, up to its
interaction with the non-living
environment. Each level of
organization manifests
complexity of functions in their
interactions within the
community.

Figure 3: Levels of Organization

Image source: Harcourt, Inc.

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 Levels Examples Functions/ Descriptions
1.atoms Oxygen atom, smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down
Carbon atom into anything simpler by chemical means.

2.molecules H2O (water), smallest units of most compounds formed by the

CaO(calcium oxide) chemical bonding of atoms
3.cell nerve cells, red smallest unit of life – collections of living matter
blood cells enclosed by a barrier that separates them from their
surroundings
4.tissue connective tissue, group of similar cells that perform a function
muscle tissue
5.organ brain, skin group of tissues that work together to perform closely
related functions.

6.body system endocrine system, group of organs that work together to perform closely
respiratory system related functions
7.organism snail, rose living thing that grows, adapts, reproduces &
maintains homeostasis

8.population goats in the group of individuals of the same species that live in
grassland, the same area
alligators in the
swamp
9.community grassland group of different populations that live together in a
community defined area at the same time
10.ecosystem freshwater living organisms interacting with the non-living
ecosystem environment in the context of abiotic factors
11.biome marine biome, large group of ecosystems that share a common
terrestrial biome vegetation structure of plants & animals adapted to
their environment

12.biosphere planet Earth zone of the Earth that supports living things that
includes land, water, and air
Source: Refran, Tolentino, Genuino, 2016. (Vibal Group Inc.)

NUTRIENT CYCLE AND ENERGY FLOW

Energy flows through the environment in many forms. A lot of energy is lost
to the environment in the form of heat as the rest is being passed on in the usable
form of chemical energy from one organism to another. All living things require
energy to survive, thus the flow of energy in biological communities depend on the
nutritional relationships between organisms. Organisms are classified into
producers or consumers, based on how they obtain food.
1.Autotrophs or producers are organisms that can produce their own food by
transforming solar energy into chemical energy. The ultimate source of the energy
for life is the sun.
2. Heterotrophs or consumers are not capable of producing their own food and gets
nutrients from producers or other consumers. Further grouped as to how they
acquire energy.
2.1. Herbivores organisms that eat ONLY plants, e.g. rabbits, cows
2.2. Carnivores organisms that eat ONLY animals, e.g. hawks, eagles
2.3. Omnivores organisms that eat BOTH plants and animals, e.g. humans,
chickens
2.4. Scavengers feed on the carcasses of animals, e.g. vultures, hyenas

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2.5. Detritivores organisms that eat detritus, or dead organic matter, e.g.
earthworms, snails, shrimps, crabs & mites whose diet includes detritus
3. Decomposers or microorganisms such as bacteria & fungi that obtain energy
and nutrients by breaking down matter. This process often results in the production
of detritus.

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are capable of harnessing energy

from the sun into forms that can be utilized by other organisms. Energy in the
ecosystem is transferred from one living thing to another in the form of food. Energy
transfer forms a series of organisms that either produce food, eat or are eaten.

Food Chain is a single energy pathway with producers, consumers, and

decomposers. Energy flows in only one direction. The amount of energy remaining in
the final transfer is only a portion of the original as most is given off as heat during
transfer.

Figure 4: Food chain in Grassland Ecosystem

Image source: loving2learn.com
Food web is a combination of two or more food chains. It shows all the
possible routes of feeding at each trophic level in a community and depicts a more
accurate picture as organism usually consume multiple species for their nutritional
needs.

Figure 5: A Food Web in a Grassland Ecosystem

Image source: k8schoollesson.com

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 A trophic level is presented in a diagram in the form of an ecological pyramid
in an ecosystem. An ecological pyramid shows the amount of energy in each trophic
level of a food web or a food chain. Producers belong to the first trophic level. First -
order consumers belong to the second level, second-order consumers to the third
and so on. Producers get energy directly from the sun during photosynthesis. This
energy is used to sustain the life processes of the plant. Thus, there is less energy
left for the herbivores or the primary consumers. As the herbivores use energy to
carry out their activities, even less energy is made available for the carnivores or the
secondary consumers. Therefore, as the trophic level goes higher, the amount of
available energy becomes lesser.

Figure 6: Energy Pyramid/ Ecological Pyramid

Image source: Wikimedia.org
Food chains, food webs, and ecological pyramids are models that illustrate
how energy is transferred along the trophic levels. Matter, in the form of nutrients is
also from producers to consumer. Unlike energy, which is continuously replenished
by the sun’s solar energy, there is only a finite amount of matter in the ecosystem.
Matter is therefore constantly cycled in the ecosystem and helps the organisms to
continually maintain & flourish the surface of the earth.

The Water Cycle

Water is an essential
component of life. The largest
reservoir of water on earth is found
in the oceans. Aquatic living
organisms benefit directly from this
pool. Water evaporates from large
bodies of waters such as the lakes
and the oceans and becomes water
vapor in the air. Water vapor in the
air condenses and forms clouds.

Figure 7: The Water Cycle

Image source: www.encyclopediabritannica

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 Condensation reaches saturation and the clouds precipitate in the form of
dew, rain, hail, or snow. The water comes back down to the Earth’s surface and
accumulates in oceans & lakes where evaporation continues.

Some of the precipitated water lands on the ground. Water returns to the
larger pools by surface runoff & stream flow. Small fraction of water stored in the ice
caps; glaciers & deep ground serves as stored pools of water. Ground water is used
by plants & animals to undergo life processes such as respiration & transpiration.

The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle

involves the processes
of photosynthesis and
respiration. Carbon
dioxide plays an
important role in
photosynthesis. Plants
use energy from light to
split water molecules;
they then use carbon
dioxide to synthesize
carbohydrates. One of
the products of this
reaction is oxygen.

Figure 8: The Carbon Cycle

Image source: sites.google.com

Photosynthesis is the major source of oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere. For some

1.5 billion years before green plants were on Earth, algae and bacteria provided the
photosynthesis needed to build Earth’s oxygen levels to the point that respiration of
both plants and animals could occur.
The carbon cycle describes the flow of essential elements from the
environment to living organisms and back to the environment again. It requires the
building of all organic compounds and involves the participation of many of the
earth's key forces. This cycle affects the earth’s history and contributes to major
climatic changes and helps facilitate the evolution of life.

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The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is an
element that is often
a limiting factor for
plant growth.
Although
atmospheric nitrogen
is abundant, it is not
in a form that plants
can readily access.
The nitrogen
molecule found in the
atmosphere must be
split and recombined
with atoms to form
molecules that are
soluble in water. This
is called nitrogen
Figure 9: The Nitrogen Cycle fixation.
Image source: sites.google.com

All living organisms need nitrogen, a chemical element used to form

proteins. Proteins make up the structure of organisms and produce life-sustaining
functions, including development, growth, and reproduction, thus, performing the
process of nitrification. This process is converting ammonia into nitrites (NO 2) and
nitrates (NO3)
Ammonia (NH3) is a form of nitrogen found in soil. Nitrogen enters the soil in
this organic form from decaying plants, animal waste, and lightning striking the
Earth and entering the soil through bacteria in which plants can use.
The atmosphere is a large reservoir of nitrogen with 78 percent nitrogen.
Nitrogen is also stored in watershed in soil, groundwater, ocean water, sediment, and
plant matter (dead and living).
Nitrogen is contained in both inorganic and organic molecules/reservoirs. Organic
reservoirs that contain nitrogen include amino acids, peptides, nucleic acids, and
proteins. Each of these molecules is vital to an organism’s survival which emphasizes
the importance of the nitrogen cycle. Examples of inorganic molecules that contain
nitrogen include man-made fertilizers & ammonia. These molecules are less
important to both the survival of organisms and the nitrogen cycle itself.
When organisms die, decomposers return nitrogen to the soil as ammonia.
The ammonia may be taken up again by producers. Other soil bacteria such as
denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas in a process
called denitrification, as the last step in the nitrogen cycle where the reduction of
soil nitrate to nitrogen-containing gases, such as nitric oxide, nitrous oxide,
and nitrogen gas, takes place. This process of denitrification is vital to the recycling
of nitrogen for soil health, microbial and plant growth, and animal health. This
process releases nitrogen back into atmosphere and the cycle continues.

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The Phosphorus Cycle

Figure 10: The Phosphorus Cycle

Image source: www.encyclopediabritannica
The phosphorus cycle is the process by which phosphorus moves through the
lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Phosphorus is essential for plant and
animal growth, as well as the health of microbes inhabiting the soil, but is gradually
depleted from the soil over time. The main biological function of phosphorus is that
it is required for the formation of nucleotides, which comprise DNA and RNA
molecules. Specifically, the DNA double helix is linked by a phosphate ester bond.
Calcium phosphate is also the primary component of mammalian bones
and teeth, insect exoskeletons, phospholipid membranes of cells, and is used in a
variety of other biological functions. The phosphorus cycle is an extremely slow
process, as various weather conditions (e.g., rain and erosion) help to wash the
phosphorus found in rocks into the soil. In the soil, the organic matter (e.g., plants
and fungi) absorb the phosphorus to be used for various biological processes.

What’s More

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
DIRECTIONS: A.Identify the four (4) biogeochemical cycles in nature being described
below. Then, write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. A cycle in which photosynthesis & cellular respiration participate in the process
for the availabaility & consumption of organisms.
2. A cycle in which a gas in air pass through the atmosphere and turned to usable
forms with the aid of lighthing.
3.This cycle involves transpiration, evaporation, condensation & precipitation.
4.This cycle is dependent on bacteria for nitrogen fixation & denitrification which
are to be made available to the soil.
5. A cycle in which volcanic activity & burning fossil fuels readily accessible for all
living organisms in the atmosphere.

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B. Study the forest food web below, and identify the producers, primary consumers,
secondary consumers and decomposers, write your answer on your paper.

Figure 11: The Forest Food Web

Image source: www.exploringnature.org

A. Producers 1-4
B. Primary consumers 5-8
C. Secondary consumers 9-16
D. Decomposers 17-19

Lesson 2: BIOTIC POTENTIAL, ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE AND

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
Environmental resistance is a process where combined elements or factors
restraining species to grow or spread uncontrollably. It is also the sum of the
environmental factors (such as drought, mineral deficiencies, population growth
and competition) that tend to restrict the biotic potential of organisms and impose
a limit on numerical increase or its potential growth.

What’s In
DIRECTIONS: Match each word in Column A with the description in Column B.
Write only the letter of the correct answer in your paper.
Column A Column B
___1. autotroph a. obtain energy by breaking down dead matter
___2. herbivore b. single energy pathway with producers,
consumers, and decomposers
___3. commensalism c. an organism that makes its own food
___4. predator d. a series of interconnected food chains
___5. carnivore e. relationship that exists bet. an animal that feeds
on the animal where it lives
___6. secondary consumer f. an organism that feeds on plants only

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___7. parasitism g. relationship bet. a tree & an orchid that grows
on its branch
___8. food chain h. an animal that eats animals only
___9. decomposers i. an animal that feeds on its prey
___10. food web j. a consumer that feeds on a primary consume

What’s New

DIRECTIONS: Write TRUE if the statement is true or FALSE if not. Then, write
your answer on your paper.
1. Interactions among organisms in a community are the main limiting factors in
keeping population sizes below the environmental carrying capacity.
2. Organisms have the same or uniform pattern of reproductions regardless of
environmental conditions like drought, climate change, limited resources, and
natural disasters.
3. The exponential growth in population dynamics refers to the availability &
abundance of environmental resources like food, water & space.
4. The basic source of energy in all ecosystems is energy from the Sun. Its’ energy
is used by autotrophic or self-sustaining organisms or capable of the process of
photosynthesis.
5. Population size matters in an ecosystem. When it increases in each area, crowding
happens, and organisms compete for the available resources. Stress occurs among
species which impacts the population and directly affect the population growth.

B.Identify the symbiotic relatioships being shown in the picture below.Follow the number
sequence and answer directly on your paper.

Figure 12: The Symbiotic Relationships

Image source: www.pinterest.com
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 What Is It

POPULATION DYNAMICS
Population is a group of individuals that are members of a single species that
live together in a specific area and are likely to interbred. It is a dynamic identity,
changing over time by growing or shrinking depending on the reproductive success
of the members. Population dynamics is a study of how, when, and why these
changes on populations occur. It deals with the changes in population density
(number of individuals in each area) in relation to fluctuating ecological events.
These primary ecological events are birth, death, immigration & emigration.
Any factor that affects the primary ecological events are secondary ecological
events. These factors maybe biotic or abiotic that influence the rate, extent, or length
of the primary ecological events, such as predation & temperature. Thus, secondary
ecological events are regulating factors that prevent a population from reaching its
maximum biotic potential. The collective action of these limiting abiotic factors is
called environmental resistance.

What are the factors affecting Population Growth?

The secondary ecological events, or simply, the limiting factors, that
determine the population density of organisms are classified as either density-
dependent or density-independent. Density-dependent factors have an amplified
effect as the population increases and a diminished effect as the population
decreases, while density-independent factors affect populations indiscriminately. An
example of density-dependent factor is contagious diseases, where a large population
is more likely to acquire it than a small and a sparse population. Density-
independent factors on the other hand, are usually environment related. For
instance, in winter, some organisms will experience a drop in population due to the
harsh conditions, regardless of its initial population density.

The following are the key limiting factors that impact population dynamics:
1.Resource abundance
The availability of environmental resources like food, water & space is critical
determinant of population dynamics. If a population has unlimited access to these
resources, the population will exhibit exponential growth. It is plotted as a J-shaped
curve, showing the slow initial increase because the number of reproducing
individuals is small & then gradually losing its steepness due to the exponential
increase in reproducing individuals. It can continue up to an organisms’ biotic
potential if the environment can provide resources for them to grow indefinitely.
However, if the population size is low, it follows an S-shaped curve. The
population grows exponentially because the birth rates exceed the death rates, but
as the population size increases the environmental resources become limited,
increasing the death rates, and thus slowing the rate of population growth. The
carrying capacity (K) is the upper limit on population size. It is the theoretical
maximum number of individuals of a given species that the environment can sustain
indefinitely. As the population reaches carrying capacity, competition for resources
is intensified, death rates increase, and birth rates decrease.

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Figure 13: Rate of Population Growth Over Time
Source: Refran, James Cesar, Tolentino, Pamela Louise M. & Genuino, Ruth Marian (2016)

2. Life-history patterns
Organisms vary in their reproductive patterns. Some organisms reproduce
rapidly & produce many offspring within a short period of time while others
reproduce slowly & produce few offspring.
The rapid reproduction or rapid life-history pattern is called “r-selection”,
under favorable conditions, encourages production of offspring in a short time. This
strategy is common in species that have a small body size, reproduce early, highly
mobile & have a short life span that do not reach sexual maturity, examples are
mosquitoes. Once environmental conditions change & become unsuitable for the
organism, population density experiences a dramatic drop (“bust”). However, some
of the more resilient individuals survive & undergo growth again when conditions are
favorable, thus avoiding extinction.
On the other hand, slow life-history pattern is called “k-selection”. They have
long life span that reach sexual maturity, larger body-size, reproduce later in life and
produce few offspring. In this pattern, environmental resistance specifically
competition for resources, plays a key role in maintaining the population size near
the carrying capacity.

Figure 14: Positions of r and k- selected species in the population growth curve
Source: Refran, James Cesar, Tolentino, Pamela Louise M. & Genuino, Ruth Marian (2016

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3. Environmental Conditions
Variability in environmental conditions impacts population density.
Population dynamics fluctuate predictably, such as in organism that change in
abundance according to the seasons in a year. The availability of water & light,
favorable climatic conditions, changes in temperature & humidity and natural
disasters like fires and floods are among the factors that alter organism’s growth &
reproduction.
4. Organism interactions
Interactions among organisms in a community are the main limiting factors
in keeping population sizes below the environmental carrying capacity.

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS

Organisms occupy specific roles called niche. It includes the physical space
in which organisms live, how they use the resources that are in space, and how
they interact with other organisms.
The interaction among organisms within or between overlapping niches
characterizes into five types of relationships: competition, predation,
commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism. The interactions between living & non-
living things in an ecosystem greatly affect ecosystems.
Ecology is the study of the interactions that occur among organisms in the
environment. As hundreds or thousands of species live in one habitat.
Not all relationships among organisms involve food. Many organisms live
together & share resources in other ways. Any close relationship between species
is called symbiosis.
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS

Commensalism is a relationship in which

one organism benefits while the other is neither
helped nor harmed. The organism that benefits from
the partnership is called commensal and the other is
the host.
Examples:
1.barnacles that grow on whales
2.orchid plants cling on tree branches
3.remora fish attaches to the shark’s body

Figure 15: An Orchid plant on a tree

Image source: pinterest.com

Parasitism is a relationship in which one

organism benefits and the other organism is harmed,
but not always killed. The organism that benefits is
called the parasite, and the one that is harmed is the
host.
Examples:
1.humans and tapeworms
2.flea on the dog’s body
3.lice on a human’s head
Figure 16: A mosquito sucking blood
Image source: biologywise.com

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 Mutualism is a relationship in which both species
benefit or give-and -take-relationship

Examples:
1.human & his buddy (dog)
2.insects and the flowers
3.sea anemone and the clown fish

Figure 17: A clown fish & sea anemone

Image source: blogspot.com

Predation is when one organism eats another

organism to obtain nutrients. The organism that is
eaten is called the prey and the organism that eats is
the predator.

Examples:
1.owl eats the mice
2.lions eat the gazelles
3.hyena easts the deer

Figure 18: A Bear eating a fish

Image source: animalsake.com
Competition is when individuals or populations
compete for the same resources and occur within or
between species.

Examples:
1. bunch of deer in a grassland
2. group of monkeys within a tree branch
3. group of hummingbirds on a tree

Figure 19: Two squirrels fighting for food

Image source: weebly.com

What’s More
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
A. Identify the following examples on the levels of organization. Choose your answer
from the box and write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

Atom Ecosystem Organ Organelle Population

Cell Molecule Organism Organ system Tissue
1. uranium 6. muscle tissue
2. liver 7. polar bear
3. grassland 8. zinc chloride
4. mitochondria 9. somatic cell
5. school of fishes 10.digestive system

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Lesson 3: BIOMES: TERRESTRIAL and AQUATIC

Biome is a large group of ecosystems that share a common vegetation

structure & have distinctive plant and animal groups adapted to the environment.
Biomes are ecological communities that are delineated by abiotic factors, the climate
patterns, geological topography, and soil types.
What’s In
WHICH SYMBIOSIS IS IT?
DIRECTIONS: Determine if each organism is helped, harmed, or not harmed/not
helped. Then, give the symbiotic relationship between the two organisms. Write your
answers on a piece of paper.
1.tapeworm & animals. Tapeworms are segmented flatworms that attach
themselves to the insides of the intestines of animals such as cows, pigs &
humans. Tapeworms get food by eating the host’s(animal) partly digested food,
depriving the host(animal) of nutrients.
Organism 1: ______ □helped □harmed □ not harmed/not helped
Organism 2: ______ □helped □harmed □ not harmed/not helped
Symbiotic relationship: ________
2.spider crab & algae. Spider crabs live in shallow areas of the ocean floor, &
greenish-brown algae lives on the crabs’ backs, making the crabs blend in with
their environment & unnoticeable to predators. The algae get a good place to live &
the crab gets camouflage.
Organism 1: _____ □helped □harmed □ not harmed/not helped
Organism 2: _____ □helped □harmed □ not harmed/not helped
Symbiotic relationship: ________
3. dog & the tick. ticks live on dogs & feed off the dog’s blood. They may infect the
dog with a parasite that can cause the dog to become quite sick. Dogs are
sometimes found to be very tired because a large volume of their blood has been
drained.
Organism 1: _____ □helped □harmed □ not harmed/not helped
Organism 2: _____ □helped □harmed □ not harmed/not helped
Symbiotic relationship: _____
4. bee & the flower. Bees fly from flower to flower gathering nectar, which they
make into food. When they land in a flower, the bees get some pollen on their hairy
bodies, & when they land in the next flower, some of the pollen from the first one
rubs off, pollinating the plant.
Organism 1: _____ □helped □harmed □ not harmed/not helped
Organism 2: _____ □helped □harmed □ not harmed/not helped
Symbiotic relationship: _____
5. bacteria (lactobacillus) & the human colon. Bacteria live in the colon of
human & and are able feed off the indigestible food that the human body cannot
break down (cellulose of plants). In the process of breaking down the food, the
bacteria also make much-needed vitamins that the human body in turn can use to
keep healthy.
Organism 1: _____ □helped □harmed □ not harmed/not helped
Organism 2: _____ □helped □harmed □ not harmed/not helped
Symbiotic relationship: _____

20
 What’s New
WORLDBIOMES
DIRECTIONS: Identify the term being described in each item by using the
beginning letter as clues. Write your answer on your paper.
1. W ______ liquid contained in cells of all living organisms
2. O ______ describes a poorly fed body of fresh water
3. R ______ biome that receives great amounts of rainfall
4. L ______ measured in degrees north and south of the equator
5. D ______ trees that drop their leaves in autumn
6. B ______ area populated with various plant and animal life
7. I _______ common standard of measurement for rainfall or other precipitation
8. O ______ a type of marine biome
9. M______ nearness to these areas can change its climate
10. E______ found at a latitude of zero degrees
11. S ______ type of energy used by plants during photosynthesis

What Is It

Biomes maybe divided into aquatic or terrestrial. The aquatic type includes
the marine biomes of the ocean, the estuaries, and the fresh water such as lakes,
rivers, and wetlands. Terrestrial biomes are largely dictated by the differences in
latitude. Biomes on land are composed of the tundra, taiga, desert, grassland &
forest.
AQUATIC BIOMES
Marine biomes cover three quarters of the Earth’s surface. A large portion of
the oceanic biomass is contributed by microorganisms called plankton, which serve
as food for the larger marine animals.
Estuaries form in an area partially enclosed by land wherever a river joins the
ocean, as freshwater & saltwater mix. The salinity of the brackish water is
intermediate between that of seawater & freshwater, depending on the amount of
freshwater that comes in from the river. They are rich in detritus that serves as food
for many organisms.

Figure 20: Marine Biome Figure 21: Estuaries

Image source: start1.org Image source: slideshare.com
Freshwater biomes range from ponds & lakes with still water, wetlands that
support aquatic plants, to the flowing currents of streams & rivers. Ponds & lakes,
the topmost zone is the warmest as it receives the bulk of the sun’s energy & absorbs
it. The next zone is dominated by planktons and the deep-water is cold & less
penetrable by sunlight, limiting growth of organisms. Streams & rivers have flowing
water whose characteristic change as it flows from its estuarine source to the mouth.

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Marshes, swamps, and bogs are wetlands that support a variety of hydrophytes,
plants that are adapted to moist & humid conditions.

Figure 22: Taal Lake in the Philippines Figure 23: Agusan Marsh in the Philippines
Image source: thousandwonders.com Image source: wallup.net

TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
Tundra is a treeless plain near the north pole that has extremely cold climate
& low species diversity. Temperature never rise above freezing for very long & the
ground is permanently frozen called permafrost. The soil is lacking in nutrients and
its cold temperature delays decomposition of nutrients and host small mammals like
weasels, arctic foxes & snowy owls.
Taiga the largest biome and known as the northern coniferous forest with
rows of needleleaf trees fir, hemlock & spruce. It is warmer and wetter, but the
climate is harsh with long, cold winters & short, mild summers. The soil is poor in
nutrients and species are red squirrels, elk & the moose.

Figure 24: Tundra in Norway Figure 25: Taiga in Russia

Image source: revimage.org Image source: blogspot.com
Desert the driest biome with less than 25 cm precipitation(rainfall) annually.
It is an arid region that sustain plants & animals with adaptations to water retention
and tolerance to heat. Vegetation such as shrubs & trees like the cacti, modified for
this habitat with spines & photosynthetic stem called cladodes, that stores water &
thick waxy coating to prevent transpiration.

Figure 26: A desert Figure 27: Grassland in Australia

Image source: gamepedia.com Image source: animals.about.com

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 Grassland is dominated by grasses with trees & large shrubs. Tropical
grasslands called savannas have only few scattered trees per hectare. Savannas are
found in the warm climate of Africa, Australia, India, & South America. The grass
roots enlarge every after winter & form an underground mat called sod. This biome
is used as farming lands for cereal grains oats, rye & wheat, and herds of grazing
animals like jackrabbits, bunch of deer and elks.
Temperate Forests or deciduous forests characterize by its leaf-shedding,
broad-leaved hardwood trees & its seasonal climate, winter, spring, summer &
autumn. Foliage of trees change color & recover in spring such as maple, oak, birch,
elm & ash. Animals thrive here are squirrels, mice, rabbits, bunch of deer, and bears.

Figure 28: Deciduous Forest in North America Figure 29: Tropical Rain Forest in the Philippines
Image source: stateofthebirds.org Image source: wallpapertag.com

Rain Forests or Tropical rain forests sustain the most species of organisms
compared to other biomes on Earth. It receives ample amount of water from rainfall
or fog and found in South America, New Zealand, & Australia. Found at regions
nearer the equator with warmer & wetter conditions and receives about 200 cm
precipitation annually. Turnover of organic material is high, recycling of nutrients &
decomposition of organic matter provides good habitat for plant & animal species to
thrive.

What’s More

DIRECTIONS: Read the short selection below on biomes of the world. Supply the
missing terms by choosing from choices provided below (just follow the number
sequence). Then, write the letter of the correct answer on your paper.

For life to exist, there are four basic requirements. Nutrients, such as1. __,
are needed to make living cells. Energy must also be available, either from the sun
or from 2. __ energy stored in the tissues of other organisms. The third requirement
is3. __ The final requirement for life is a range of 4. __ that allow chemical reactions
to take place. In different areas of the Earth these basic requirements are more, or
less, available. The overall availability of these requirements in a region result in that
region being a certain type of 5. __, or a region with characteristic plants & animals.
An area’s average weather, or 6. __, is affected by many environmental factors.
Elevation & nearness to 7. __ can help determine the temperature & rainfall of a
particular region.8. __, or location north & south of the equator, is another factor
that contributes to climate. Places close to the 9. __, which has a latitude of zero
degrees, are very hot & wet. These environmental & geographical factors determine
a biome’s10. __

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1.A. salt & sand B. ice & fire C. water & air D. calcium & nitrogen
2.A. chemical B. electrical C. ocean D. solar
3.A.oil B. oxygen C. salt D. water
4.A. plants B. animals C. temperatures D. weather pattern
5.A. biomes B. countries C. hemispheres D. precipitation
6.A. climate B. elevation C. forecast D. latitude
7.A. towns & cities B. plants & animals C. mountains & oceans D. none of the above
8.A. elevation B. latitude C. longitude D. temperatures
9.A. desert B. equator C. grassland D. sun
10.A. weather B. plant life C. animal life D. all of the above
Source: AIMS,2002

Lesson 4: HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE NATURAL

ECOSYSTEM
Biological diversity or biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, within
and between all species of animals, plants, in the context of the ecosystems where
they live. Biodiversity of living organisms offer a range of benefits such as expanding
the interdependent relations of living organisms to increase the chances of survival.
It also provides invaluable ecological services and economic value.

What’s In

DIRECTIONS: Look for 10 words related to Biomes. Write your answer on a separate
piece of paper.

Source: AIMS, 2002

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 What’s New

DIRECTIONS: Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right. Write
the letter of your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

Source: islcollective.com

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 What Is It
Biodiversity keeps ecosystems
stable. The variety of species in
each area interacts with the
biotic and abiotic features that
balances survival among
organisms.

Likewise, it contributes to the

existence of human such as
provision of food due to diverse
availability of fruits, vegetables,
root crops and other forms of
vegetation. It contributes
significant biological services
like humid climate, soil-rich
nutrients, cycles in nature that
balances gases, nutrients and
other air particles which regulates the condition of the climate.
However, many human activities act as disturbances that tip the delicate
balance of biodiversity.

OVERHARVESTING/ OVERHUNTING
Excessive harvesting of plants or animals brings drastic changes in an
ecosystem. The increasing demand for food compels fishermen to increase their
catch. Some of them resort to dynamite & cyanide fishing. These practices do not
only affect the fish but also a wide variety of marine organisms like giant clams
(Tridacna) and dugong (Dugong dugon) or seacow.

Likewise, the increasing demand for wood as a building material & for making
furniture has caused some hardwood species like narra, kamagong, yakal &
mahogany to become very rare.

Over exploitation of target species like sharks which are hunted for their fins
for the “shark fin” delicacies. After finning, they are left to die in the ocean.
Muro-ami fishing is a fishing technique employed on coral reefs in Southeast
Asia. It uses an encircling net together with pounding devices. These devices usually
comprise large stones fitted on ropes that are pounded into the coral reefs. They
consist of large heavy blocks of cement that are suspended above the sea by a crane
fitted to the vessel. The pounding devices are repeatedly and violently lowered into
the area encircled by the net, literally smashing the coral in that area into small
fragments to scare the fish out of their coral refuges. The "crushing" effect of the
pounding process on the coral heads has been described as having long-lasting and
practically totally destructive to the coral reef’s ecosystem.
This fishing technique allows overharvesting and destroys the coral reefs
(nursery grounds for hatching, spawning, feeding) of smaller fishes which limit the
growth and its abundance.

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HABITAT DESTRUCTION

The process of clearing the land for farming, grazing, mining, drilling, and
urbanization as well as construction of dams, bridges, roads, mining camps & other
infrastructures. These different activities damage the natural habitat of species and
increase the vulnerability to natural disaster like flood, drought, common diseases,
water contamination and food shortage.

INTRODUCTION OF INVASIVE SPECIES

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) describes invasive alien species

as “plants, animals, pathogens and other organisms that are nonnative to an
ecosystem, and which may cause economic or environmental harm or adversely
affect human health. They impact adversely upon biodiversity, including decline or
elimination of native species—through competition, predation, or transmission of
pathogens—and the disruption of local ecosystems.

Example is the introduction of water hyacinth, a native tropical plant of South

America known for its broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves. Its green, leafy, free-floating
aquatic plants over vast water bodies add aesthetic value to nature’s serenity.
However, this plant rises above the surface by as much a meter in height and can
cause flooding in nearby areas and affects the mobility of people traveling via boats,
including fishers whose livelihoods are severely affected by its adverse environmental
impact. Unlike kangkong, or water spinach, a nutritious vegetable Filipinos eat,
water hyacinth is not edible.

Member of Task Force Water Hyacinth & DENR personnel remove water hyacinth from the
Pasig River near Aroceros Park in Manila
Source:https://businessmirror.com.ph/invasive-alien-species-a-serious-threatto-ecosystem
Human beings deliberately alter the environment of a wide variety of
organisms by introducing foreign species to the ecosystem. These species harm the
environment, affect other species inhabiting the place and harm the human health.
They make the environment unstable due to low nutrients and making the soil
unhealthy and unproductive. They prevent the normal flow of energy in the balance
of nature and eventually reducing their growth and reproduction. They affect human
health by bringing problems such as erosion, poor nutrient availability to staple foods
such as rice, roots crops and other vegetation.

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POLLUTION

Pollutants such as herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers, industrial effluents, toxic

emissions, and human wastes contaminate the air, land & water. The widespread
use of plastic products which are non-biodegradable adversely affects the ecosystem.
They litter the land & bodies of water & give off toxic fumes when burned. The
accumulation of different greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to the continuous
& extensive use of fossil fuels results in a higher atmospheric temperature or global
warming.
GLOBAL WARMING

The gradual heating of Earth's surface, oceans and atmosphere, is caused by

human activity, primarily the burning of fossil fuels that pump carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The effects of global
warming on the Earth's ecosystems are expected to be deep and widespread. Many
species of plants and animals are already moving their range northward or to higher
altitudes because of warming temperatures, according to a report from the National
Academy of Sciences.

Agricultural systems are dealing with a crippling blow. Though growing

seasons in some areas expand, the combined impacts of drought, severe weather,
lack of accumulated snowmelt, greater number and diversity of pests, lower
groundwater tables and a loss of arable land cause severe crop failures, poor
vegetation production and livestock shortages worldwide.

MAINTAINING THE BALANCE OF NATURE

We depend so much on the Earth’s

resources. As human population increases, the need
for resources also rises. As we uncontrollably use
these resources, many species become endangered,
thus, balance of nature is disrupted. Before, total
depletion of resources happens, everyone has the
responsibility to protect & preserve them. To be
effective stewards of the Earth’s resources, we must
know and understand seven environmental
principles.

Seven Environmental Principles

1.Nature knows best.
Allowing the natural processes in the environment to take place to ensure a
steady & continuous supply of resources. For example, when farm wastes can
decompose, most of the organic compounds are restored back to the soil, making it
fertile.
2.All forms of life are important.
Each organism has its own niche or role in nature to perform. It includes all
the interactions with the abiotic & biotic parts of its habitat. Allowing these species
to function their specific occupations, widespread of species happen, thus, balance
of nature takes place.

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3.Everything is connected to everything else.
Common environmental problems happen all over the world. These problems
create chain of reactions, adverse effects, and drastic changes in the ecosystem not
just in a certain nation but worldwide.
4.Everything changes.
Organisms change but change must occur naturally and not through artificial
induction or chemically added substances. These unnatural methods yield negative
effects to the environment, to the organisms and to the human beings.
5.Everything must go somewhere.
Everything we throw on Earth comes back to us. Like disposing our waste into
bodies water which fish ingest the toxins and we consume them. Poisoning our Earth
is like we are poisoning ourselves.
6.This is a finite Earth.
An awareness of the Earth’s limited resources leads to a conscious effort to
become responsible consumers of these resources. Reduce, reuse & recycle are some
of the ways of protecting and saving our Earth.
7.People should be stewards of nature.
People are gifted with intelligence, skill & reasoning. All of us take the
responsibility to take care of our Earth for the benefit of everyone and for the sake of
future generations.
Source: Padpad, Evelyn C. (2017). The New Science Links

What’s More

DIRECTIONS. Write the name of the major environmental problems, and then
write below on how you prevent the problem.

Image source: clipart panda.com

1.Name the environmental problem: ____ 2. Name the environmental problem: _____
Ways to prevent: _______ Ways to prevent: _______

29
 What I Have Learned

Let’s have an overview of the Ecosystem!

1. Ecosystem- the constant interchange among living things & non-living
things
2. Biosphere-life-supporting environments with all the organisms inhabiting
them
3. Habitat- the place where organisms live
4. Environment- the complete range of external conditions under which
organisms live, including physical, chemical, & biological factors
5. Ecology-focuses on the relationships of living organisms with each other
and with their environment
6. Ecological backlash- natures’ reaction or counterattack to drastic changes
and damages
7. Overpopulation- the human population size has increased rapidly and
yearly as revealed in the National Statistics Office (NSO)
8. Air pollution- pollutants in the air which is unfit for breathing
9. Acid rain-the rain becomes acidic due to the presence of pollutants and
chemicals from the factories
10. Deforestation- an act of clearing out the forest
11. Succession- gradual changes in the environment like after an eruption,
through the years of the land being barren, small plants start to grow and the
place becomes ideal for plant growth and more
12. Eutrophication- known as fish kill due to large amount of sulfur, nitrates
and phosphates in the pond, lake, or river
13. Community- includes different interacting populations living in the same
area as a pond community which consists of frogs, fish, plants, snails, and
many more
14. Biodiversity – the variety and extent of differences of living things in a
habitat or ecosystem
15. Ecological niche- the functional role of an organism in a community. It
is the sum of all relationships between an organism and its environment
16. Population – the number of organisms or living things of a particular kind
that live in a particular place at a particular time
17. Natural community- composed of different plant and animal populations
that interact with one another

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 What I Can Do

SAVE THE WORLD

DIRECTIONS: Let us help save the world in our own little ways. Use only should or shouldn’t
to complete the lines in saving our world. Write the complete sentence on a separate sheet of
paper.

Source: www.englishsheets.com

31
 Assessment

DIRECTIONS: Write the letter of your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1.How does the human population affect the ecosystem? The human population
affect the ecosystem when____.
A. animals are conserved
B. plants & animals remain in the ecosystem
C. plants are used for the needs of the people
D. forests are cleared to give way to build residential houses
2. During your field trip, your tour guide explained that the forest has the highest
biodiversity compared to other terrestrial ecosystems. She defined biodiversity to
the group. What definition could she have given? Biodiversity refers to the ______.
A. number of layers in the forest C. variety of species in the forest
B. number of organisms in the forest D. variety of habitats in the forest
3. You heard about a plan to convert the nearby mangrove swamp to commercial
area. Your neighbor agrees with the plan because they believed that the mangrove
swamp has no economic value. After searching, you want to discuss the issue with
your neighbor. Which statement could possibly convey to your neighbor not to
agree with the plan? Mangrove swamps _____.
A. provide shelter for animals such smaller fishes
B. are beautiful ecosystems with crabs inhabiting it
C. filter pollutants from water or other form of particulates
D. protect the coastal community from waves & provide food & business for
the people
4. The fishermen in the barangay use dynamite to catch plenty of fishes. If this
practice continues, what do you think will happen to the marine resources?
A. Corals will multiply.
B. The fishes will multiply fast.
C. There will be an increase in marine life
D. A decrease in marine life will take place.
5. Why are coral reefs important to the environment? They are important because
they__.
A. are tourist attractions
B. make the water shallow
C. are colorful rocklike deposits under water
D. serve as the habitat, hatchery & nursery of different marine animals
6. Why do mangrove plants can survive in brackish water while other plants cannot?
Mangroves can survive in brackish water while other plants cannot because they_.
A. have strong trunk & roots
B. are adapted to filter seawater
C. have roots that are often exposed to above water
D. have roots that can filter salt water & excrete salt in their leaves
7. Which of the following does NOT suggest ways of conserving & protecting wildlife?
A. protecting marine sanctuaries
B. supporting projects in protecting wildlife
C. joining organizations about wildlife conservation
D. using products made from body parts of animals, such as furs & horns

32
8. Why are forests called “lungs of the earth”? Forests are called lungs of the earth
because they ______.
A. supply the earth with oxygen
B. get their energy directly from the sun
C. supply the earth with carbon dioxide
D. are the source of food for other organisms
9. Which of the following statements describe the role of producers in the ecosystem?
Producers ______.
A. feed on dead organisms C. decompose dead organisms
B. eat other living organisms D. use energy from the sun to make food

For questions 10-12, refer to the table below.

DESTRUCTION OF WILDLIFE HABITAT IN SOME COUNTRIES

Country Main type of Natural Former Extent in Current Extent in

Area Hectares Hectares
Burma rainforests 775,000 226,000
Indonesia rainforests 1,446,000 747,000
Netherlands wetlands 222,000 100,000
Philippines mangrove forests 160,000 38,000
Sweden wetlands 151,000 137,000
United Sates wetlands 570,000 500,000

Source: Padpad, Evelyn C. (2017). The New Science Links

10. Which of the following countries has the diverse wildlife habitat?
A. Burma B. Indonesia C. Philippines D. Netherlan
11. Which countries have the same area of habitat destruction?
A. Burma & Indonesia C. Philippines & Indonesia
B. Sweden & United Sates D. Netherlands & Philippines
12.Which wildlife habitat is mostly destroyed?
A. wetlands C. rainforests
B. mangrove forests D. wetlands & mangrove forests

For questions 13-15, refer to the food web below.

Image source: blog.littlelives.com

33
13. In a food web above, what are the examples of autotrophs?
A. carrots, grasses & grains
B. rabbits, grasses, birds & mice
C. grains, owls, birds & grasshoppers
D. grasshoppers, rabbits, owls & foxes
14.Which of the organisms belong to the first order- consumer?
A. carrots, rabbits & birds
B. foxes, owls, birds & rabbits
C. rabbits, grasshopper, birds & mice
D. grasshoppers, rabbits, owls & foxes
15. In the food web above, which of the following organisms is called the final or top
predator?
A. birds B. foxes C. rabbits D. owls

References

Books:

AIMS. (2002). AIMS Multimedia. Biologically Speaking: Biomes of the World.

Emsley, J. (1980). The Phosphorus Cycle. The Natural Environment and the Biogeochemical
Felicerta Corazon N. & Pinar, Leticia B. (2018). Breaking Through Science 7, Second Edition. Published by C & E
Publishing, Inc. ISBN: 978-971-98-1040-7 Cycles: Chapter in the Handbook of Environmental Chemistry: pp:147-
167.
Nguyen, David H. Seattlepi. Education Science. Five types of Ecological Relationships Retrieved from:
https://education.seattlepi.com/five-types-ecological-relationships- 4019.html
Mu D., Ruan R., Addy M.,Mack S., Chen P., Zhou Y., (2017). Life Cycle Assessment and Nutrient Analysis of Various
Processing Pathways in Algal Biofuel Production. Bioresour Technol. 230:33-42
Padpad, Evelyn C. (2017). The New Science Links. Worktext in Science & Technology.Enhanced Revised Edition. Rex
Bookstore. 856 Nicanor Reyes, Sr.Inc. Manila, Philippines. www.rexpublishing.com.ph
Refran, James Cesar, Tolentino, Pamela Louise M. & Genuino, Ruth Marian (2016). Earth and Life Science. Vibal
Group Inc., 1253 G. Araneta Avenue, Quezon City

Online Sources:
Biology dictionary. net Editors.” Phosphorus Cycle”. Biology Dictionary, Biologydictionary.net, 05 Jun.2017.
Retrieved from: https://biologydictionary.net/phosphorus-cycle/.
Bradford, Alina (August 12,2017). Effects of Global Warming. LiveScience. NASA: Global Climate Change.
Retrieved from: https: www.livescience.com/37057- global-warming-effects-html.
Ecological Pyramid, Retrieved from: https://www.meriam-webster.com/
Environmental Resistance Retrieved from: https: // www. Britannica.com
Mayuga, Jonathan L. (July 15,2019). Invasive alien species: A serious threat to ecosystems, biodiversity.
https://businessmirror.com.ph/invasive-alien-species-a-serious-threat to-ecosystem
Mr. Holmquest (2003). IBSS. Energy Flow and Matter. Retrieved from: https: sites.google.com/site Nitrogen cycle.
Retrieved from: https://wikimedia.org.
Principles of Ecology. Retrieved from: https: //nios.ac.in./media/documents/333courseE/4.pdf
Principles of Ecology. Chapter 13. Retrieved from: https:// images.pcmac.org. /Documents Categories/Documents/Ecology
Notes…. PDF file

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For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:

Department of Education – Division of Cebu City

Office Address: New Imus Road, Barangay Day-as, Cebu City
Telephone No.: (032) 253 2559
E-mail Address: cebu.city@deped.gov.ph

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