True Stress (σT)

True stress is the stress determined by the instantaneous load acting on the
instantaneous cross-sectional area
True stress is related to engineering stress:
Assuming material volume remains constant Aol o = Al
P P Ao P Ao
σT = = * = *
A A Ao Ao A
Ao δ+l δ P
=
l
= o
= + 1 = (1 + ε ) σT = (1 + ε ) = σ (1 + ε )
A lo lo lo Ao
True Strain (εT)
The rate of instantaneous increase in the instantaneous gauge length.
dl  l 
ε T = ∫ l
= ln 
 l o


 l o + ∆l   l ∆l 
ε T

= ln  
 ⇒ ln  o
+ 
 l o   l o l o 
ε T = ln( 1 + ε )
 Strain Hardening Parameter (n)

σ T = Kε T n

Strain hardening parameter

σ dσ 0<n<1
T
n = T

ε T dε T
True Stress-Strain Curve

F l
σ T = ; ε T = ln( )
Ai lo

F l − lo
σ= ;ε=
Ao lo
 Instability in Tension
Necking or localized deformation begins at maximum load, where the increase in stress due to
decrease in the cross-sectional area of the specimen becomes greater than the increase in the
load-carrying ability of the metal due to strain hardening.
This conditions of instability leading to localized deformation is defined by the condition δP = 0.
P = σ A δP = σ T δA + A δσ T = 0 δA δσ T
T − =
A σT
From the constancy-of-volume relationship,
V = Aolo = Ai li δl δA
=− = δεT
l A
so that at the point of tensile instability

δσ T δσ T σT
=σT But σ T = Kε T n
= Knε T = n
n −1
δε T δε T εT
Instability occurs when ε = n
The necking criterion can be expressed more explicitly if engineering strain
is used. δσ T δσ δε δσ δL / Lo δσ  L  δσ
= = =   = (1 + ε ) = σ T
δε T δε δε T δε δL / L δε  LO  δε
δσ σT
=
δε 1+ ε

σT

ε
1
1+ε
 Fracture Behavior
Ductile material – Significant
plastic deformation and
energy absorption
(toughness) before fracture.
Characteristic feature of
ductile material - necking
Brittle material – Little
plastic deformation or energy
absorption before fracture.
Characteristic feature of
brittle materials – fracture
surface perpendicular to the
stress.
Steel
Before and after fracture
Ductile Fracture (Dislocation Mediated): Extensive plastic deformation.
Necking, formation of small cavities, enlargement of cavities, formation
of cup-and-cone. Typical fibrous structure with “dimples”.

Crack grows 90o to applied

stress

(a) Necking,
(b) Cavity Formation,
45O - maximum shear
(c) Cavity coalescence to form a
stress crack,
(d) Crack propagation,
(e) Fracture
Scanning Electron Microscopy:
Fractographic studies at high resolution.
Spherical “dimples” correspond to micro-
cavities that initiate crack formation.
Brittle Fracture (Limited Dislocation Mobility): very little deformation, rapid
crack propagation. Direction of crack propagation perpendicular to applied
load. Crack often propagates by cleavage - breaking of atomic bonds
along specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes).
Brittle fracture in a mild steel
Intergranular fracture: Crack propagation
is along grain boundaries (grain
boundaries are weakened or embrittled
by impurities segregation etc.)

Transgranular fracture: Cracks

pass through grains.
Fracture surface has faceted
texture because of different
orientation of cleavage
planes in grains.
 Stress-Strain Behavior of Ceramics
Flexural Strength: the stress at fracture under the bending tests. It’s
also called Modulus of rupture, fracture strength, or the bend
strength
3-point Bending tests

3F f L
σ fs = 2
2bd
Ff L
σ fs =
πR 3
 Brittle
Ductile