I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem.

I, 2014

4.3. The noun phrase

4.3.1. Definition
A noun phrase is a phrase in which the word which acts as its head is typically a noun or a
pronoun. A noun phrase may minimally consist of a noun (cats), as in [NP Cats] make wonderful
pets preceded or not by a determiner, or of a pronoun (they), as in [NP They] make wonderful pets.
There are cases where the head of a noun phrase is an adjective, especially when the structure
definite article + adjective occurs, as in the soap opera title [NP The young] and [NP the restless].
Other examples include: the poor, the blind, the sick, and so on.

4.3.2. The structure of the noun phrase

The head of a noun phrase may be accompanied by other words or phrases, which provide information
about it. For instance, the noun phrase all indoor cats of different breeds contains a determiner (all), a
premodifier (indoor), the head (cats) and a postmodifier (of different breeds).
[NP [det All] [AdjP indoor] cats [PpP of different breeds]]
The structure of the noun phrase can be represented as follows:
NP
(determiners(s)) + (premodifier(s)) + head + (postmodifier(s))
Notice: The parentheses represent optional elements.
The noun-headed NP structure is illustrated below1:
determiner premodifiers head (noun) postmodifiers
industrially advanced countries
a small wooden box that he owned
a market system that has no imperfections
the new training college for teachers
patterns of industrial development in the United States
Pronoun-headed NP phrases usually do not include a determiner or premodifiers, but they may
have postmodifiers.
determiner premodifiers head (pronoun) postmodifiers
I
she
anyone who is willing to listen
those who take the trouble to register
the big one in town
According to Greenbaum and Nelson (2002) and Swan (2005) certain classes of adjectives do
not modify a noun and are themselves heads for noun phrases2. This is the case for:

1
Examples and comments adapted from Biber, Conrad and Leech, Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English,
p. 264, 2002.
2
The process is called nominalization or substantivization. As Hasselgård, Lysvåg & Johanssonan show, an
“originally verbal process can be expressed by means of a noun phrase (e.g. Columbus discovered America -->
the discovery of America by Columbus was a landmark also in European history), or a quality can be expressed
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem. I, 2014

 some adjectives, particularly superlatives, that function as heads of noun phrases that are
abstract. These noun phrases are singular:
The best is yet to come.
The latest is that our team is winning.
 some set expressions: from the sublime to the ridiculous, out of the ordinary, etc.
Examples:
We have much in common.
I’m leaving for good.
I’ll tell you in private.
The situation went from bad to worse.
 Adjectives normally preceded by the definite article the or by a determiner like many or
more that in this structure designate a group having a characteristic in common:
There are more unemployed than ever before.
 These expressions are normally plural (the dead means „all dead people‟ or „the dead
people‟, but not „the dead person‟) and cannot be used with a possessive ‘s. We say the
problems of the poor or the poor people’s problems, not the poor’s problems.
 Adjectives without the are sometimes used in paired structures with both …and…:
opportunities for both rich and poor.
 A few adjectives of nationality ending in –sh or –ch are used after the without nouns. They
include Irish, Welsh, English, British, Spanish, Dutch, French: The Irish are very proud of
their sense of humour. These expressions are plural; singular equivalents are an Irish woman,
a Welshman (not a Welsh). Where nouns exist, they are preferred to expressions with the
…ish: the Danes or the Turks (not the Danish or the Turkish).
 In a few formal fixed expressions, the + adjective can have a singular meaning. They
include the accused, the undersigned, the deceased, the former and the latter:
The accused was released on bail,
… Mr. Gray and Mrs. Cook: the latter is a well-known designer.
 Adjectives are sometimes used after the to refer to general abstract ideas, especially in
philosophical writing: the beautiful, the supernatural, the unreal. These expressions are
singular:
She’s interested in the supernatural.
 A noun that has already been mentioned or that does not need to be mentioned can be
omitted, when thinking about a choice between two or more different kinds of thing:
Have you got any bread? ~ Do you want white or brown?
 Colour adjectives can sometimes have a plural –s in this situation:
Wash the reds and the blues separately.

as if it were a thing (e.g. the people were loyal to their leader --> the people's loyalty to their leader was
remarkable.)” (1999/2012).
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem. I, 2014

Much in the same line, Hasselgård, Lysvåg & Johanssonan note that
nominalized adjectives may refer to people, in which case they function as plural-only
nouns, usually with generic reference: The poor need help from the government. The
French are considered gourmets. If reference to one person is required, you need to add
a noun such as person, man, woman after the adjective. Colour adjectives can easily be
nominalized, as in She was dressed in red. Furthermore, adjectives referring to
abstractions may be nominalized (overcome evil with good; the unexpected often
happens; the unknown is usually feared), as well as adjectives in the superlative, also
with reference to abstractions (We'll hope for the best and expect the worst). Both
colour adjectives and nominalized adjectives referring to abstractions function as
singular (uncountable) nouns (1999/2012).
Similarly, certain classes of Romanian adjectives do not modify nouns and instead function as
heads for noun phrases themselves:
 Adjectives preceded by the definite article or by a determiner like cel/cea/cei/cele that in this
structure designate a group having a characteristic in common: Albastrul e preferatul ei, Cei
înalți rămân în spate.
 Adjectives which, after the omission of the nouns they modify, start to behave like nouns: A
fost prins în flagrant (delict), Colectăm (material) plastic, Avem (formulare) tipizate.
All the other parts of speech which can undergo substantivization/ nominalizaton in Romanian
also change their morphological behaviour together with their original class. The following parts
of speech can become heads for noun phrases:3 verbs in the long infinitive (Cele rele să le scrii
pe apa ce curge, iar facerea de bine în piatră să o sapi), verbs in the supine (De vorbit nu-i
greu.), adjectives (Cele bune să s-adune, cele rele să se spele.), verbs in the participle (Tot
pățitu-i priceput.), adverbs (Puţin şi des face mult.), pronouns (”Sunt un gunoi, sunt un nimic”,
by Radu Cîrstea Ratzone), numerals (Miile şi sutele mărită slutele.), interjections (Nu zi hop,
pân-a nu intra în joc), conjunctions (Și-ul acela al lui nu mi-a plăcut, mi s-a părut sarcastic.),
prepositions (Adaugă un pe în fața lui ”care”.).
Determiners/ determinatives are function words that come before the head and before all the other
dependents in a noun phrase and determine or specify “how the reference of a noun phrase is to be
understood. For example, this determines the reference of table in this table: it tells us which or what
table is intended.” (Leech, 2006, p. 33) the author also mentions that “in an older tradition of
grammar, determiners were treated as adjectives, and terms like „demonstrative adjective‟ and
„possessive adjective‟ are still used in some grammars.” (2006, pp. , 33)
The presence of determiners is obligatory before singular count nouns. Notice that, for example,
cat without a determiner cannot be a noun phrase: Cat makes a wonderful pet, unless cat is a
name or a nickname, but in that case it no longer is a count noun.
Determiners can be divided into three classes:
1. predeterminers, e.g. all, both, half, as in [det all] cats, [det both] breeds.
2. central determiners, e.g. a(n), the, those, as in [det a] breed, [det those] cats.

3
In the enumeration, they are ordered according to the frequency of substantivization. Most of the examples
provided above are Romanian proverbs retrieved from (Proverbe românești) and (Proverbe românești 1 n.d.)
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem. I, 2014

3. postdeterminers, e.g. other, two, first, as in [det two] cats, [det other] breeds.
Premodifiers are modifiers placed before the head. They are normally realised by adjectives
(indoor cats), participial premodifiers (broken heart, breaking news) but can sometimes be
realized by nouns (church roof) or other types of phrases. An example proposed by Biber et al.
shows a prepositional phrase that premodifies a noun.
It probably fell out of the sky after an [PpP in-flight] explosion. (Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad,
& Finegan, 1999)
The head governs concord, that is, the agreement in grammatical form between elements in a
clause or a phrase. It may be preceded by determiners and premodifiers and followed by
postmodifiers.
The postmodifiers incorporate all the elements placed after the head and typically consist of
prepositional phrases (cats [PpP of different breeds]), relative clauses (cats [that-Cl that stay
indoors]) and non-finite clauses (cats [ing-Cl staying on the sofa]). Appositive clauses can also be
embedded in noun phrases quite often, as in [NP the fact [app-Cl that she was his worst nightmare]].
Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, pp. , 266) distinguish between clausal postmodifiers and
phrasal postmodifiers.
Clausal postmodifiers can be finite (relative clauses) or non-finite (to-clauses, ing-clauses, and
ed-clauses).
Phrasal postmodifiers consist of two main types: prepositional phrases and appositive noun
phrases, but adjective phrases can also occur, less commonly, as in President Bush will reiterate
he wants a smooth transition and will cooperate in [any way possible]4.
Occasionally adverbs can also be premodifiers or postmodifiers in noun phrases:
a. adverb as premodifier: the nearby guards
b. adverb as postmodifier: a block behind
Relative clauses are a common type of postmodifier. In the clause He has two cats that stay indoors,
the relative clause is embedded in the noun phrase. In order to highlight the process of embedding,
we should try to recreate previous stages, starting from two independent clauses and moving towards
the embedded relative clause provided above:
He has two cats. The cats stay indoors.
The next step connects the two clauses into a sentence, by replacing cat (which is object in the
former and subject in the latter) with the relative pronoun that:
He has two cats that stay indoors.
In the sentence we obtained, the first clause is the main clause, and the second the relative clause.
That preserves its syntactic function of subject in the dependent clause and the whole relative is
embedded in the noun phrase [NP cats [that-Cl that stay indoors]].
The same procedure can be used for embedded non-finite clauses:

4
Examples and comments adapted from Biber, Conrad and Leech, Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English,
p. 266, 2002.
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem. I, 2014

He caressed two cats. The cats were staying on the sofa.

He caressed the two cats that were staying on the sofa.
He caressed the two cats staying on the sofa.
Appositive clauses embedded in a noun phrase are introduced by the conjunction that: the fact that he
caressed the two cats staying on the sofa
We can distinguish between the conjunction that in appositive clauses and the relative that by
noticing that, as a conjunction, that does not have a function within its clause, while as a relative
pronoun it is realised at subject of its clause. Consequently, that can be omitted in the appositive
clause (that he caressed the two cats staying on the sofa) but not in the relative clause (cats stay
indoors).
A copular relation can be identified between the appositive clause and the head of the phrase in
which it is embedded: the fact that he caressed the two cats staying on the sofa can be converted
into a finite clause by inserting be: the fact is that he caressed the two cats staying on the sofa.
The issue can be further clarified if we consider Leech's definition of the apposition:
A relation between two constituents such that the following statements normally apply:
(a) apposition exists between two noun phrases; (b) the two constituents in apposition
are in a relationship which could be expressed by the verb be; (c) the two constituents are
juxtaposed and combined in a single noun phrase, which can act, for example, as subject
or object of a sentence. Examples of apposition are: George Washington, first President
of the USA; My neighbour Mrs Randall; tequila, a powerful Mexican drink. By extension,
the term apposition can apply to a noun phrase next to a coreferential nominal clause
(for example, the idea/hope that the White House would change its policy can become a
sentence with be: The idea/hope was that the White House would change its policy). An
of-phrase in which of links coreferential expressions may also be termed appositive: the
city of Beirut; the disgrace of losing the contest. (2006, p. 12)
In conclusion, appositive relationships appear between two noun phrases or between a noun
phrase and an appositive clause which have identical reference. It would be useful for the
Romanian speaker of English to note that both types of apposition correspond to the Romanian
atribut, which in the approach of this course is not recognized as a clause element together with
the subject, verbal, object, complement, and adverbial, but rather as a phrase element.
To sum it up, modifiers are optional elements that are dependent on the head. Premodifiers and
postmodifiers can appear in the following combinations in the structure of noun phrases:
noun phrase structure example
head Cats
determiner + head those cats
premodifier + head white cats
determiner + premodifier + head some white cats
head + postmodifier cats on the sofa
determiner + head + postmodifier some cats on the sofa
premodifier + head + postmodifier white cats on the sofa
determiner+premodifier+head+postmodifier some white cats on the sofa
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem. I, 2014

All the NPs in the table above can have the same function in a clause; they can all realise, for
example, subjects, as in Cats/those cats/ white cats/ some white cats/ cats on the sofa/ some cats on
the sofa/ white cats on the sofa/ some white cats on the sofa are asleep, or objects, as in He liked
cats/those cats/ white cats/ some white cats/ cats on the sofa/ some cats on the sofa/ white cats on the
sofa/ some white cats on the sofa.
There can be more than one premodifier or postmodifier in a noun phrase: nice white cats, cats
on the sofa which require my attention
Both the two premodifiers in the first example and the two in the second separately modify the
head word, cats. Consequently, the two examples can be re-written as follows:
nice white cats
nice cats white cats

cats on the sofa which require my attention

cats on the sofa cats which require my attention

Another characteristic of the modifier is that it may itself be modified by the addition of adverb
phrases, as in a very nice cat.
Kies proposes the following diagram of the functional components of a noun phrase:
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem. I, 2014

He explains that, depending on the context of the situation, determiners and modifiers are chosen
according to our needs in identifying and specifying the referent of the NP. The diagram is one
way to represent the dual nature of a phrase, seen as a merger of both form and function.

4.3.3. Coordination
Noun phrases can be linked together with the conjunctions and or or, as in the white cats and
their owner. The same applies to premodifiers or postmodifiers, which can also be coordinated.
Especially for the non-native speakers of English, this possibility can pose certain problems of
understanding who/ what the modifiers refer to. For example, in a situation where two adjectives
coordinated by and premodify a noun in the singular, it is clear that the noun has both of the
attributes expressed by the two adjectives. In a polite and friendly person, it is easy to understand
that the person is both polite and friendly. The difficulty appears when two adjectives modify a
head noun in the plural, as in literate and religious inhabitants, because the phrase can be
interpreted in two ways: inhabitants that are both literate and religious, but also literate
inhabitants and religious inhabitants. The same is true, for instance, about young men and
women, because it is not clear whether both categories share the attribute „young‟.
Similar examples can be provided for postmodifiers: a dessert of chocolate and cream means „a
dessert that consists of both chocolate and cream‟, while desserts of chocolate and cream can
mean „desserts that consist of both chocolate and cream‟, as well as „desserts that consist of
chocolate and desserts that consist of cream.‟
Determiners can also apply to two or more nouns or modified nouns, as in her sister and two
brothers meaning 'her sister and her two brothers'. Consequently, there are ambiguous situations
involving determiners as well; their cats and other pets can be understood as either „their cats
and their other pets‟ or „other pets and their cats‟.

4.3.4. Noun phrase complexity

In 4.3.2. and 4.3.3., we saw that noun phrases become more complex by embedding and
coordination for the following reasons:
 a noun phrase may contain more than one premodifier or postmodifier
 a modifier may itself be modified by the addition of adverb phrases
 like noun phrases, premodifiers and postmodifiers can also be coordinated.
One-word modifiers, especially adjectives and nouns, are typically placed before the head, i.e. a
white cat, a white Siamese cat, their white Siamese cat, while multi-word modifiers generally
occur after the head, i.e. the cat of the man, the cat that the man loves, the cat of the man that she
loves best.
An exception to the general rule that governs the ordering of NP dependents is; for example, the fact
that the genitive phrase, which is a multi-word modifier, always precedes the head, as in my friend's
car.
Leech (2006, 74) provides a noun phrase to demonstrate that, as a result of the combination of
modifiers in one noun phrase, long sequences can be built up: the recent unrest in Ruritania,
which has led to a cautious measure of liberalization in a regime that up to recently has been a
byword for totally inflexible authoritarianism.
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem. I, 2014

Even more elaborate examples and comments are provided by Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 455).
The following structure is an example of a pronominal head (something) which has as postmodifier a
single finite relative clause, some of whose elements are realised more than once.5
The other night, on television, I saw something [which reminded me of the Spaniards [going into
South America + and advancing over the mountains + and terrifying the population with terrible
new weapons, + cannon + and the horse [which nobody [in their world] had ever seen]]].
The next sentence uses a different organisation of successive post-modification. Each of the two NPs,
every student and a grant, is post-modified by three coordinated units:
a. in the case of the first, AdjP + PpP + non-restrictive relative clause
b. in the case of the second, PpP + two relative clauses.
Virtually every student [AdjP normally resident in England or Wales], [AdjP with specified minimum
qualifications], [relative-Cl who is admitted to a full-time degree, [PpP at a university [PpP in the UK]]] is
entitled to a grant [PpP from his/ her Local Education Authority], [relative-Cl which is intended to cover
his/ her tuition fees and maintenance [PpP for the duration [PpP of the course] [relative-Cl and which also
includes an element [PpP towards his/her vacation maintenance.]]
Three of these six modifiers contain embedded units of their own.
Under certain circumstances, complex noun phrases may be split up, as in the following examples6:
A rumour spread through the camp that a relieving force from Dinapur had been cut to pieces on
the way to Krishnapur.
The time was coming for me to leave Frisco or I would go crazy.
In this chapter a description will be given of the food assistance programs that address the needs of
the family.
This arrangement is in agreement with general principles for the ordering of elements within the
clause. The principal syntactic means are:
 word order
 the passive
 existential there
 dislocation
 clefting
Choices also vary according to register, reflecting differences in communicative needs and stylistic
norms. In registers where use of language is the focus, as in in fiction and journalism, choices may
sometimes simply be due to a desire to achieve stylistic variation.
As these examples show, noun phrases can display considerable structural complexity generated by
combinations of different kinds of modifiers and through embedding noun phrases, appositional
structures and clauses.

5
Embedding is indicated by a bracket, and coordination by „+‟:
6
Examples and comments adapted from Biber, Johansson, et al. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English,
1999, p. 99, 886)
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem. I, 2014

4.3.5. Syntactic functions of noun phrases

As we have already seen in 3., 4.2., 4.3., noun phrases can have various syntactic functions both
in the clause and at phrase level. They are illustrated with examples in the table below.
in the syntactic function example
clause 1. subject His friends were preparing a surprise party.
2. direct object His friends were preparing a surprise party.
3. indirect object His friends were preparing a surprise party for him.
4. subject complement That was a special surprise party.
5. object complement They called him party boy.
6. adverbial They'll have the party next week.
in the 1. complement of preposition in PpP a surprise party of his own
phrase 2. premodifier of a noun or NP a surprise party of his own
3. apposition to another NP the surprise party, their gift for him
4. premodifier in AdjP the two weeks old baby
5. premodifier in AdvP one month earlier than expected
In addition to the functions above, noun phrases can also be used as peripheral elements in the clause. Biber,
Johansson, et al. enumerate and illustrate them as follows (1999, pp. , pp.134-10):
a. detached predicatives are similar to subject complements in form and meaning, „but
unlike the latter, they can be used independently of the type of verb. They are loosely
attached to the core of the clause, usually at the beginning or the end, and
characteristically take the form of a noun phrase or an adjective phrase which describes
the subject referent” (1999, pp. , 134):
A republican, he recognized the authority of Victor Emmanuel.
b. parenthetical elements7 are mainly used in writing and are signalled typographically by
parentheses, dashes, or some other typographic device. They give additional information
which is related to, but not part of, the main message of the clause. They mostly consist
of noun phrases or numeral phrases, and sometimes of complete independent clauses.
At precisely 11.07 (Earth time), a message flashed up on the ITN screen.
The first thing we notice about the rocks of the Grand Canyon is a pronounced layering, or
stratification (Figure 2-6).
One of the first to make it in modern times (some Greeks had known it long before) was
Leonardi da Vinci.
c. Preface/left dislocation is typical of speech. It consists of a noun phrase, with a
coreferent pronoun (marked here with [I) following in the core of the clause:
This woman, [she]'s ninety odd.
Mark - will [he] be first to finish? ( c o ~ v )
d. Tags/ right dislocations are short structures which can be added at the end of the clause in
conversation or in written representations of speech to clarify or underline the reference of

7
The term is used here for elements which cannot be assigned to a more specific category.
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem. I, 2014

the noun phrase. They take either the form of a noun phrase or of an interrogative or
declarative clause. Noun phrase tags examples:
Oh [he] was a, [he] was a lovely man, wasn't [he], Doctor Jones?
[It] makes you wonder, you know, all this unemployment.
[It] was a good book this.
e. Vocatives take the form of noun phrases (very often proper names) and are used to single
out the addressee of a message:
Are you singing mate?
Mum, I'm making such a big sandwich.

EXERCISES

Exercise 4.1 The noun phrase

Indicate whether each underlined noun phrase contains a pre-modifier, a postmodifier, or both.
1. The umbrella originated in Mesopotamia over 3000 years ago.
2. It was an emblem of rank and distinction.
3. It protected Mesopotamians from the harsh sun.
4. For centuries, umbrellas served primarily as a protection from the sun.
5. The Greeks and Romans regarded the umbrella as effeminate and ridiculed men who carried
umbrellas.

*Exercise 4.2 The noun phrase

Bracket the noun phrases in each sentence below. Some sentences may have more than one noun
phrase. If a noun phrase contains another noun phrase within it, bracket the embedded noun
phrase a further time.
For example: [Microwave cooking] is [an absolutely new method for [the preparation of [food]]].
1. Fire is not used in microwave cooking.
2. Electromagnetic energy agitates the water molecules in the food.
3. The agitation produces sufficient heat for cooking.
4. The electronic tube that produces microwave energy is called a magnetron.
5. The magnetron was in use a decade before the birth of the microwave oven.

*Exercise 4.3 Relative clauses

Combine the (a) and (b) sentences in each set below by turning one of the sentences into a
relative clause.
la. The drugs inevitably damage a patient‟s healthy cells as well.
b. The drugs are used for chemotherapy.
2a. Human infants pass through a critical period.
b. The period lasts a few years.
3a. It was a mystery.
b. They could not solve the mystery.
4a. The fundraising campaign has recruited a core of graduates.
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 2 sem. I, 2014

b. They in turn contact more graduates.

Exercise 4.4 Appositive clauses

Indicate whether each underlined clause is a relative clause or an appositive clause.
1. The manager lacked the experience that would have helped him overcome the crisis.
2. You have undermined my conviction that a nuclear war is inevitable.
3. She has heard the news that all the passengers and crew escaped unhurt.
4. I cannot dispute the fact that you have won the support of most members.

Exercise 4.5 Apposition

In the sentences below, underline the noun phrases that are in apposition.
1. The accelerator hurled ions of carbon and neon at a foil target of bismuth, a metal related to
lead.
2. Helena Bonham-Carter was in it, the actress who played Ophelia in Hamlet.
3. UK drug authorities have asked for more data on the company‟s anti-migraine drug, Imigran.
4. Wood can supply 5 per cent of our energy needs, leaving 95 per cent that must come from
other sources – solar, wind, coal, nuclear, biomass.

Exercise 4.6 Coordination

The coordinated noun phrases below are ambiguous. Rewrite the phrases unambiguously to
show the different meanings.
1. my friends and good neighbours
2. aged cheese and wine
3. their properties and other businesses

Exercise 4.8 Functions of noun phrases

Identify the function of each underlined noun phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in
the brackets after it: S (subject) oC (object complement) dO (direct object) cp (complement of
preposition) iO (indirect object) pm (pre-modifier of a noun or noun phrase) sC (subject
complement) A (adverbial)
1. The great fire of 1174 ( ) did not affect the nave, but it gutted the choir ( ).
2. The book offers a vivid picture of Poland and its people ( ).
3. The whole Dickens ( ) family went to stay with Mrs Roylance in Little College Street ( ).
4. Last April ( ), security staff ( ) spotted an intruder ( ) on the White House lawn ( ).