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04 - Emg Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation PDF
04 - Emg Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation PDF
109. Lin ZY, Chen JDZ, McCallum RW, Parolisi S, Shifflett J, 126. Dickens EJ, Hirst GD, Tomita T. Identification of rhythmi-
Peura D. The prevalence of electrogastrogram abnormalities cally active cells in guinespig stomach. J Physiol (London)
in patients with non-ulcer and H. pylori infection: results of H. 1999;514:515–531.
pylori eradication. Dig Dis Sci 2001;46(4):739–745. 127. Ordog T, Ward SM, Sanders KM. Interstitial cells of Cajal
110. Stern RM, Koch KL, Leibowitz HW, Lindblad I, Shupert C, generate slow waves in the murine stomach. J Physiol 1999;
Stewart WR. Tachygastria and motion sickness. Aviat 518:257–269.
Space Environ Med 1985;56:1074–1077. 128. Hanani M, Freund HR. Interstitial cells of Cajal—their role
111. Koch KL, Tran TN, Stern RM, Bringaman S, et al.Gastric in pacing and signal transmission in digestive system. Acta
myoelectrical activity in premature and term infants. J Physiol Scand 170;177–190.
Gastrointest Motil 1993;5:41–47. 129. Lin ZY, Sarosiek I, Forster J, McCallum RW. Association
112. Koch KL, Bringaman S, Tran TN, Stern RM. Visceral between baseline parameters of the electrogastrogram and
perceptions and gastric myoelectrical activity in healthy long-term symptom improvement in gastroparetic patients
women and in patients with bulimia nervosa. Neurogastro- treated with gastric electrical stimulation. Neurogastroen-
netrol Motil 1998;10:3–10. terol Motil 2003;15:345–346.
113. Hathaway DK, Abell T, Cardoso S, Heartwig MS, Gebely S,
Gaber AO. Improvement in autonomic and gastric function Reading List
following pancreas-kidney versus kidney-alone transplan-
tation and the correlation with quality of life. Transplanta- Stern RM, Koch KL. Using electrogastrography to study motion
tion 1994;57:816. sickness. In: Chen JDZ, McCallum RW, editors. Electrogastro-
114. Gaber AO, Hathaway DK, Abell T, Cardoso S, Heartwig MS, graphy: Principles and Applications. New York: Raven Press;
Gebely S. Improved autonomic and gastric function in pan- 1994. p 199–218.
creas-kidney vs. kidney-alone transplantation contributes
See also GASTROINTESTINAL
HEMORRHAGE; GRAPHIC RECORDERS.
to quality of life. Transplant Proc 1994;26:515. De Luca, C.J. Electromyography. Encyclopedia of
115. Cashion AK, Holmes SL, Hathaway DK, Gaber AO. Gastro- Medical Devices and Instrumentation, (John G. Webster,
paresis following kidney/pancreas transplant. Clin Trans-
plant 2004;18:306–311.
Ed.) John Wiley Publisher, 98-109, 2006.
116. Levanon D, Chen JDZ. Electrogastrography: its role in
managing gastric disorders. (Invited Review). J Pediatr ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETER. See
Copyright© 2006 John G. Webster.
Gastroenterol Nutr 1998;27:431–443. F
“This material,isELECTROMAGNETIC
LOWMETERS . of John Wiley & Sons, Inc."
used by permission
117. Chen JDZ, Co E, Liang J, Pan J, Sutphen J, Torres-Pinedo
RB, Orr WC. Patterns of gastric myoelectrical activity in
human subjects of different ages. Am J Physiol 1997;272:
G1022–G1027. ELECTROMYOGRAPHY
118. Liang J, Co E, Zhang M, Pineda J, Chen JDZ. Development
of gastric slow waves in preterm infants measured by elec-
CARLO DE LUCA
trogastrography. Am J Physiol (Gastrointest Liver Physiol)
Boston University
1998;37:G503–G508.
Boston, Massachusetts
119. Levy J, Harris J, Chen J, Sapoznikov D, Riley B, De La Nuez
W, Khaskeberg A. Electrogastrographic norms in children:
toward the development of standard methods, reproducible INTRODUCTION
results, and reliable normative data. J Pediatr Gastroen-
terol Nutr 2001;33(4):455–461. Electromyography is the discipline that deals with the
120. Cucchiara S, Riezzo G, Minella R, et al. Electrogastrography detection, analysis, and use of the electrical signal that
in non-ulcer dyspepsia. Arch Disease Childhood 1992;67(5): emanates from contracting muscles.
613–617. This signal is referred to as the electromyographic
121. Ravelli AM, Ledermann SE, Bisset WM, Trompeter RS, (EMG) signal, a term that was more appropriate in the
Barratt TM, Milla PJ. Gastric antral myoelectrical activity past than in the present. In days past, the only way to
in children wit chronic renal failure. In: Chen JDZ,
capture the signal for subsequent study was to obtain a
McCallum RW, editors. Electrogastrography: Principles
‘‘graphic’’ representation. Today, of course, it is possible to
and Applications. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p 411–
418. store the signal on magnetic tape, disks, and electronics
122. Devane SP, Ravelli AM, Bisset WM, Smith VV, Lake BD, components. Even more means will become available in the
Milla PJ. Gastric antral dysrhythmias in children wit near future. This evolution has made the graphics aspect of
chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudoobstruction. Gut 1992; the nomenclature a limited descriptor. Although a growing
33:1477–1481. number of practitioners choose to use the term ‘‘myoelectric
123. Forster J, Damjanov I, Lin ZY, Sarosiek I, Wetzel P, McCal- (ME) signal’’, the term ‘‘EMG’’ still commands dominant
lum RW. Absence of the interstitial cells of Cajal in patients usage, especially in clinical environments.
with gastroparesis and correlation with clinical findings. An example of the EMG signal can be seen in Fig. 1.
J Gastrointest Sur 2005;9:102–108.
Here the signal begins with a low amplitude, which when
124. Lin ZY, Chen JDZ. Advances in electrical stimulation of the
expanded reveals the individual action potentials asso-
gastrointestinal tract. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 2002;30(4–6):
419–457. ciated with the contractile activity of individual (or a small
125. Abell T, McCallum RW, Hocking M, Koch K, Abrahamssion group) of muscle fibers. As the force output of the muscle
H, LeBlang I, Lindberg G, Konturek J, Nowak T, contraction increases, more muscle fivers are activated and
Quigley EMM, Tougas G, Starkebaum W. Gastric electrical the firing rate of the fibers increases. Correspondingly, the
stimulation for medically refractory gastroparesis. Gastro- amplitude of the signal increases taking on the appearance
enterology 2003;125:421–428. and characteristics of a Gaussian distributed variable.
ELECTROMYOGRAPHY 99
..
INTERMEDIATE
. .
DETERMINISTIC
NUMBER
.
..
DIFF. ELECTRODE ACTIVE MU
ELECTRODE:
-CONFIGURATION
.. . FILTER
DETECTION . MU FORCE
.
TWITCH
. .
-MOTOR POINT VOLUME MUSCLE FIBER MUSCLE
..
-MUSCLE EDGE INTERACTIONS
.
FORCE
. . .
-FIBER ORIENT. SUPERPOSITION MU FIRING (FORCE-NET
RATE
.
TORQUE)
.
-TENDON
.
AMPLITUDE
.
NUMBER
DETECTED MU (RMS/ARV)
. .
INTRINSIC SIGNAL
MUSCLE
NUMBER ACTIVE MU CROSSTALK
ACTIVATION
. .
MUAP (ON/OFF)
. .
MU FIRING RATE AMPLITUDE
. ..
(SYNCHRONIZATION)
..
MU FORCE TWITCH CONDUCTION
.
VELOCITY MUAP MUSCLE
FIBER TYPE
LACTIC ACID (pH)
BLOOD FLOW
.. . . . DURATION
MUAP . SPECTRAL
VARIABLES
(MEDIAN
FATIGUE
.
SPATIAL SHAPE /MEAN FREQ.) MUSCLE
FIBER DIAMETER FILTERING BIOCHEM.
..
ELECTRODE RECRUITMENT
FIBER LOCATION STABILITY
SUBCUTANEOUS
TISSUE
CJ DeLuca
OTHER FACTORS
Figure 2. Relationship among the various factors that affect the EMG signal. [Reproduced with
Permission from C. J. De Luca, ‘‘The Use of Surface Electromyography in Biomechanics.’’ In the
Journal of Applied Biomechanics, Vol. 13(No 2): p 139, Fig. 1.]
systematic measurements of the muscle fiber conduction influenced by one or more of the causative factors and in
velocity for measuring the severity of the Duchenne Dys- turn influence the deterministic factors that represent
trophy (17); the analysis of motor unit action potential delay physical characteristics of the action potentials. For
for locating the origin, the ending and the innervation zone further details see De Luca (26).
of muscle fibers (18); and the application of time–frequency In order to understand the EMG signal, it is necessary to
analysis of the EMG signal to the field of laryngology (19). appreciate some fundamental aspects of physiology. Mus-
New and exciting developments are on the horizon. For cle fibers are innervated in groups called motor units,
example, the use of large-scale multichannel detection of which when activated generate a motor unit action poten-
EMG signals for locating sources of muscle fiber abnorm- tial. The activation from the central nervous system is
ality (20); application of neural networks to provide greater repeated continuously for as long as the muscle is required
degrees of freedom for the control of myoelectric prostheses to generate force. This continued activation generates
(21), and for the analysis of EMG sensors data for assessing motor unit action potential trains. These trains from the
the motor activities and performance of sound subjects (22) concurrently active motor units superimpose to form the
and Stroke patients (23). Yet another interesting develop- EMG signal. As the excitation from the Central Nervous
ment is the emerging use of sophisticated Artificial Intelli- System increases to generate greater force in the muscle, a
gence techniques for the decomposing the EMG signal (24). greater number of motor units are activated (or recruited)
The reader who is interested in more historical and factual and the firing rates of all the active motor units increases.
details is referred to the book Muscles Alive (25).
Motor Unit Action Potential
DESCRIPTION OF THE EMG SIGNAL The most fundamental functional unit of a muscle is called
the motor unit. It consists of an a-motoneuron and all the
The EMG signal is the electrical manifestation of the muscle fibers that are innervated by the motoneuron’s
neuromuscular activation associated with a contracting axonal branches. The electrical signal that emanates from
muscle. The signal represents the current generated by the activation of the muscle fibers of a motor unit that are
the ionic flow across the membrane of the muscle fibers in the detectable vicinity of an electrode is called the motor
that propagates through the intervening tissues to reach unit action potential (MUAP). This constitutes the funda-
the detection surface of an electrode located in the envir- mental unit of the EMG signal. A schematic representation
onment. It is a complicated signal that is affected by the of the genesis of a MUAP is presented in Fig. 3. Note the
anatomical and physiological properties of muscles and the many factors that influence the shape of the MUAP. Some
control scheme of the nervous system, as well as the of these are (1) the relative geometrical relationship of the
characteristics of the instrumentation used to detect and detection surfaces of the electrode and the muscles fibers of
observe it. Some of the complexity is presented in Fig. 2 the motor unit in its vicinity; (2) the relative position of the
that depicts a schematic diagram of the main physiological, detection surfaces to the innervation zone, that is, the
anatomical and biochemical factors that affect the EMG region where the nerve branches contact the muscle fibers;
signal. The connecting lines in the diagram show the (3) the size of the muscle fibers (because the amplitude of
interaction among three classes of factors that influence the individual action potential is proportional to the dia-
the EMG signal. The causative factors have a basic or meter of the fiber); and (4) the number of muscle fibers of an
elemental effect on the signal. The intermediate factors individual motor unit in the detectable vicinity of the
represent physical and physiological phenomena that are electrode.
ELECTROMYOGRAPHY 101
1 d (t − tk )
+ u(t )
h(t )
2
tk t
+ Xt
i P
Detection
site +
FOURIER TRANSFORM
n
α Motoneuron =
Muscle fiber
h(t )
× =
Geometrical Tissue
arrangement and
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
of electrodes electrode Superposition
and filter of
Figure 4. Model for a motor unit action potential train (MUAPT)
active functions action
fibers and the corresponding Fourier transform of the interpulse inter-
potentials
vals (IPIs), the motor unit actions potentials (MUAP), and the
MUAPT.
Figure 3. Schematic representation of the generation of the
motor unit action potential.
ELECTRODES
Surface Electrodes
There are two categories of surface electrode: passive and
Figure 5. An EMG signal formed by adding (superimposing) 25
active. Passive electrode consists of conductive (usually
mathematically generated MUAPTs. metal) detection surface that senses the current on the
skin through its skin electrode interface. Active electrodes
contain a high input impedance electronics amplifier in the
same housing as the detection surfaces. This arrangement
The EMG Signal
renders it less sensitive to the impedance (and therefore
The EMG signal may be synthesized by linearly summing quality) of the electrode–skin interface. The current trend
the MUAPTs. This approach is expressed in the equation is towards active electrodes.
p The simplest form of passive electrode consists of silver
X
mðt; FÞ ¼ ui ðt; FÞ disks that adhere to the skin. Electrical contact is greatly
i¼1 improved by introducing a conductive gel or paste between
the electrode and skin. The impedance can be further
and is displayed in Fig. 5, where 25 mathematically gen-
reduced by removing the dead surface layer of the skin
erated MUAPTs were added to yield the signal at the
along with its protective oils; this is best done by light
bottom. This composite signal bears striking similarity
abrasion of the skin.
to the real EMG signal.
The lack of chemical equilibrium at the metal electrolyte
From this concept, it is possible to derive expressions for
junction sets up a polarization potential that may vary with
commonly used parameters: mean rectified value, root-
temperature fluctuations, sweat accumulation, changes in
mean-squared (rms) value, and variance of the rectified
electrolyte concentration of the paste or gel, relative move-
EMG signal. The interested reader is referred to Muscles
ment of the metal and skin, as well as the amount of
Alive (25).
current flowing into the electrode. It is important to note
Continuing with the evolution of the model, it is possible
that the polarization potential has both a direct current
to derive an expression for the power density spectrum of
(dc) and an alternating current (ac) component. The ac
the EMG signal:
component is greatly reduced by providing a reversible
2 3
pðFÞ qðFÞ
chloride exchange interface with the metal of the electrode.
6 X X 7 Such an arrangement is found in the silver–silver chloride
Sm ðv; t; FÞ ¼ Rðv; dÞ4 Sui ðv; tÞ þ Sui uj ðv; tÞ5
i¼1 i; j¼1
electrodes. This type of electrode has become highly pop-
i6¼j
ular in electromyography because of its light mass (0.25 g),
where Rðv; dÞ ¼ K sin2 ðvd=2yÞ is the bipolar electrode fil- small size (< 10 mm diameter), and high reliability and
ter function; d is the distance between detection surfaces of durability. The dc component of the polarization potential
the electrode; is the angular frequency; y is the conduction is nullified by ac amplification when the electrodes are used
velocity along the muscle fibers; Sui ðvÞ is the power density in pairs. This point is elaborated upon in later sections of
of the MUAPT, ui ðtÞ; Sui uj ðvÞ is the cross-power density this article.
spectrum MUAPTs ui ðtÞ and uj ðtÞ; p is the total number of The active surface electrodes have been developed to
MUAPTs that constitute the signal; and q is the number of eliminate the need for skin preparation and conducting
MUAPTs with correlated discharges. medium. They are often referred to as ‘‘dry’’ or ‘‘pasteless’’
Lindstrom (8), using a dipole model, arrived at another electrodes. These electrodes may be either resistively or
expression for the power density spectrum: capacitively coupled to the skin. Although the capacitively
h i coupled electrodes have the advantage of not requiring a
Sm ðv; t; FÞ ¼ Rðv; dÞ 1y2 ðt; FÞGðvd2yðt; FÞÞ conductive medium, they have a higher inherent noise
level. Also, these electrodes do not have long term relia-
This representation explicitly denotes the interconnection bility because their dielectric properties are susceptible to
between the spectrum of the EMG signal and the conduc- change with the presence of perspiration and the erosion of
tion velocity of the muscle fibers. Such a relationship is the dielectric substance. For these reasons, they have not
implicit in the previously presented modeling approach yet found a place in electromyography.
because any change in the conduction velocity would An adequately large input impedance is achieved when
directly manifest itself in a change in the time duration resistance is on the order of 10 TV and capacitance is small
ELECTROMYOGRAPHY 103
e
Figure 6. Examples of active surface electrode in bipolar config-
urations from Delsys Inc. The spacing between the bars is 10 mm,
the length of the bars is 10 mm and the thickness is 1 mm. These f
electrodes do not require any skin preparation or conductive paste
or gels.
g
m1 + n m2 + n Electrically
Observable Recorder Amplifier unrelated
EMG signal (bandpass filter) (bandpass filter) Muscle tissue
Figure 9. Block diagram of all the major aspects of the signal (b)
acquisition procedure. Note the variety of physical properties that
act as filters to the EMG signal before it can be observed. The term Figure 10. (a) Monopolar detection arrangement. (b) Bipolar
‘‘physiological EMG signal’’ refers to the collection of signals that detection arrangement. Note that in the bipolar detection arrange-
emanate from the surface of the muscle fibers. These are not ment, the EMG signals are considered to be different, whereas the
observable. noise is similar.
106 ELECTROMYOGRAPHY
difference of the two signals, thus eliminating any ‘‘com- 4. An interdetection surface spacing of 1.0 cm is recom-
mon mode’’ components in the two signals. Signals ema- mended for surface electrodes.
nating from the muscle tissue of interest near the detection
surface will be dissimilar at each detection surface because Amplifier Characteristics
of the localized electrochemical events occurring in the 1. These should be designed and/or set for values that
contracting muscle fibers, whereas ‘‘ac noise’’ signals ori- will minimally distort the EMG signal detected by
ginating from a more distant source (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz the electrodes.
electromagnetic signals radiating from power cords, out-
2. The leads to the input of the amplifier (actually, the
lets, and electrical devices) and ‘‘dc noise’’ signals (e.g.,
first stage of the amplification) should be as short as
polarization potentials in the metal electrolyte junction)
possible and should not be susceptible to movement.
will be detected with an essentially similar amplitude at
This may be accomplished by building the first stage
both detection surfaces. Therefore, they will be subtracted,
of the amplifier (the preamplifier) in a small config-
but not necessarily nullified prior to being amplified. The
uration which should be located near (within 10 cm)
measure bf the ability of the differential amplifier to elim-
the electrode. For surface EMG amplifiers the
inate the common mode signal is called the common mode
first stage is often located in the housing of the
rejection ratio.
electrodes.
3. The following are typical specifications that can be
Spatial Filtering attained by modern day electronics. It is worth noting
1. As the signal propagates through the tissues, the that the values below will improve as more advanced
amplitude decreases as a function of distance. The electronics components become available in the
amplitude of the EMG signal decreases to approxi- future.
mately 25% within 100 mm. Thus, an indwelling
electrode will detect only signals from nearby muscle (a) Common-mode input impedance: As large as possible
fibers. (typically > 1015 V in parallel with < 7 pF).
2. The filtering characteristic of the muscle tissues is a (b) Common mode rejection ratio: > 85 dB.
function of the distance between the active muscle (c) Input bias current: as low as possible (typically < 5 fA).
fibers and the detection surface(s) of the electrode. In (d) Noise (shorted inputs) < 1.5 mV rms for 20–500 Hz
the case of surface electrodes, the thickness of the bandwidth.
fatty and skin tissues must also be considered. The
(e) Bandwidth in hertz (3 dB points for 12 dB/octave or
tissues behaves as a low pass filter whose bandwidth
more rolloff):
and gain decrease as the distance increases.
3. The muscle tissue is anisotropic. Therefore, the orien-
tation of the detection surfaces of the electrode with Surface electrodes 20–500
respect to the length of the muscle fibers is critical. Wire electrodes 20–2,000
Monopolar and bipolar 20–5,000
Electrode Electrolyte Interface needle electrodes for general use
Needle electrodes for signal 1,000–10,000
1. The contact layer between the metallic detection decomposition
surface of the electrode and the conductive tissue Single fiber electrode 1,000–10,000
forms an electrochemical junction that behaves as a Macroelectrode 20–5,000
high pass filter.
2. The gain and bandwidth will be a function of the area
of the detection surfaces and any chemical electrical An example of an eight-channel modern surface EMG
alteration of the junction. amplifier is presented in Fig. 11. Such systems are
available in configurations of various channels up to 32, but The preceding expression will provide only one value
8 and 16 channel versions are most common. over the time window T ¼ tj ti . To obtain the time varying
average of a complete record of a signal, it is necessary to
Recording Characteristics move the time window T duration along the record. This
operation is referred to as moving average.
The effective or actual bandwidth of the device or algorithm
that is used to record or store the signal must be greater Z tþT
than that of the amplifiers. jmðtÞj ¼ 1T jmðtÞjdt
t
Other Considerations Like the equivalent operation in the analogue sense, this
operation introduces a lag; that is, T time must pass before
1. It is preferable to have the subject, the electrode, and the value of the average of the T time interval can be
the recording equipment in an electromagnetically obtained. In most cases, this outcome does not present a
quiet environment. If all the procedures and cautions serious restriction, especially if the value of T is chosen
discussed in this article are followed and heeded, wisely. For typical applications, values ranging from 100 to
high quality recordings will be obtained in the elec- 200 ms are suggested. It should be noted that shorter time
tromagnetic environments found in most institu- windows, T, yield less smooth time dependent average
tions, including hospitals. (mean) of the rectified signal.
2. In the use of indwelling electrodes, great caution
should be taken to minimize (eliminate, if possible) Integration
any relative movement between the detection sur-
faces of the electrodes and the muscle fibers. Relative The most commonly used and abused data reduction pro-
movements of 0.1 mm may dramatically alter the cedure in electromyography is integration. The literature
characteristics of the detected EMG signal and may of the past three decades is swamped with improper usage
possibly cause the electrode to detect a different of this term, although happily within the past decade it is
motor unit population. possible to find increasing numbers of proper usage. When
applied to a procedure for processing a signal, the temp
integration has a well-defined meaning that is expressed in
SIGNAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES a mathematical sense. It applies to a calculation that
obtains the area under a signal or a curve. The units of
The EMG signal is a time and force (and possibly other this parameter are volt seconds (V
s). It is apparent that an
parameters) dependent signal whose amplitude varies in a observed EMG signal with an average value of zero will
random nature above and below the zero value. Thus, also have a total area (integrated value) of zero. Therefore,
simple average aging of the signal will not provide any the concept of integration may be applied only to the
useful information. rectified value of the EMG signal.
Z tþT
Rectification
IfjmðtÞjg ¼ jmðtÞjdt
A simple method that is commonly used to overcome the t
above restriction is to rectify the signal before performing Note that the operation is a subset of the procedure of
mode pertinent analysis. The process of rectification obtaining the average rectified value. Since the rectified
involves the concept of rendering only positive deflections value is always positive, the integrated rectified value will
of the signal. This may be accomplished either by eliminat- increase continuously as a function of time. The only
ing the negative values (half-wave rectification) or by difference between the integrated rectified value and
inverting the negative values (full-wave rectification). the average rectified value is that in the latter case the
The latter is the preferred procedure because it retains value is divided by T, the time over which the average is
all the energy of the signal. calculated. If a sufficiently long integration time T is
chosen, the integrated rectified value will provide a
Averages or Means of Rectified Signals smoothly varying measure of the signal as a function of
time. There is no additional information in the integrated
The equivalent operation to smoothing in a digital sense is
rectified value.
averaging. By taking the average of randomly varying
values of a signal, the larger fluctuations are removed,
thus achieving the same results as the analog smoothing Root-Mean-Square (rms) Value
operation. The mathematical expression for the average or Mathematical derivations of the time and force dependent
mean of the rectified EMG signal is parameters indicate that the rms value provides more a
Z tj more rigorous measure of the information content of the
jmðtÞjtj ti ¼ 1tj ti jmðtÞjdt signal because it measures the energy of the signal. Its use
ti
in electromyography, however, has been sparse in the past.
where ti and tj are the points in time over which the The recent increase is due possibly to the availability of
integration and, hence, the averaging is performed. The analog chips that perform the rms operation and to
shorter the time interval, the less smooth the averaged the increased technical competence in electromyography.
value will be. The time-varying rms value is obtained by performing the
108 ELECTROMYOGRAPHY
operations described by the term in reverse order; that is, larly useful when a signal is obtained during low level
!1=2 contractions where the signal to-noise ratio may be < 6.
Z tþT The above discussion on frequency spectrum parameters
rms fmðtÞg ¼ 1T m2 ðtÞdt removes temporal information from the calculated para-
t
meters. This approach is appropriate for analyzing signals
This parameter is recommended above the others. that are stationary or nearly stationary, such as those
emanating from isometric, constant-force contractions.
Zero Crossings and Turns Counting Measurement of frequency parameters during dynamic con-
tractions requires techniques that retain the temporal infor-
This method consists of counting the number of times per
mation. During the past decade time–frequency analyses
unit time that the amplitude of the signal contains either a
techniques have evolved in the field of Electromyography, as
peak or crosses a zero value of the signal. It was popular-
they have in the realm of other biosignals such as ECG and
ized in electromyography by Williston (32). The relative
EEG. Early among the researchers to apply these techni-
ease with which these measurements could be obtained
ques to the EMG signal were Contable et al. (35) who
quickly made this technique popular among clinicians.
investigated the change in the frequency content of EMG
Extensive clinical applications have been reported, some
signals during high jumps, and Roark et al. (19) who inves-
indicating that discrimination may be made between myo-
tigated the movement of the thyroarytenoid muscles during
pathic and normal muscle; however, such distinctions are
vocalization. In both these applications, the time–frequency
usually drawn on a statistical basis.
techniques were essential because they investigated mus-
This technique is not recommended for measuring the
cles that contracted dynamically and briefly.
behavior of the signal as a function of force (when recruit-
Much of the work presented here is adapted, with
ment or derecruitment of motor units occurs) or as a
permission, from Refs. 25, pp. 38, 58, 68, 74, and 81. The
function of time during a sustained contraction. Lindström
author thanks Williams & Wilkens for permission to
et al. (33) showed that the relationship between the turns
extract this material.
or zeros and the number of MUAPTs is linear for low level
contractions. But as the contraction level increases, the
additionally recruited motor units contribute MUAPTs to BIBLIOGRAPHY
the EMG signal. When the signal amplitude attains the
character of Gaussian random noise, the linear proportion- Cited References
ality no longer holds.
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2. Galvani L. De Viribus Electricitatis. (R. Green, Transl.)
Frequency Domain Analysis London and New York: Cambridge University Press; 1953.
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2nd P. Berlin: Verlag von G. Reimer; 1849.
involves measurements and parameters that describe spe-
4. Adrian ED, Bronk DW. J Physiol (London) 1929;67:19.
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Fourier transform techniques are commonly available and 1944;26:1.
are convenient for obtaining the power density spectrum of 6. De Luca CJ. MS [dissertation]. University of New Brunswick;
the signal. 1968.
Three parameters of the power density spectrum may be 7. De Luca CJ. Biol Cybernet 1975;19:159.
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power density spectrum, have been used by some investi-
1975;5:252.
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equations: 1982;29:149.
Z fmed Z 1 12. McGill KC, Cummins KL, Dorfman LJ. IEEE Trans Biomed
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405–414.
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ELECTRONEUROGRAPHY 109
20. Zwarts MJ, Stegeman DF. Muscle Nerve 2003;28(1):1–17. centric needle electrodes or surface electrodes. The poten-
21. Light CM, Chappell PH, Hudgins B, Engelhart K. Med Eng tials can be derived from purely sensory nerve, from
Technol 2002;26(4):139–146. sensory components of mixed nerve, or from motor nerves
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Med Biol Soc; San Francisco; 2004. p 979–982.
nerves in general has been shown to be of considerable
23. Roy SH, Cheng MS, De Luca CJ. Boston: ISEK Congress;
2004. value in diagnosing peripheral nerve disorders. For an
24. Nawab SH, Wotiz R, Hochstein L, De Luca CJ. Proceedings of indebt description of the ENG in clinical neurophysiology
the Second Joint Meeting of the IEEE Eng Med and Biol Soc see Ref. 4. Several studies pertain to the use of sensory
and the Biomed Eng Soc; Houston: 2002. p 36–36. signals as feedback information to control neuroprosthetic
25. Basmajian JV, De Luca CJ. Muscles Alive. 5th ed. Baltimore: devices. Studies (5) have shown that the application of
Williams & Wilkins; 1985. closed-loop control techniques can improve the regulation
26. De Luca CJ. Muscle Nerve 1993;16:210–216. of the muscle activation. Techniques using an electrical
27. LeFever RS, De Luca CJ. Proc Annu Conf Eng Med Biol interface to nerves innervating natural sensors (6–12),
1976;18:56. such as those found in the skin, muscles, tendons, and
28. Lago P, Jones NB. Med Biol Eng Comput 1977;15:648.
joints are an attractive alternative to artificial sensors.
29. Buchthal F, Guld C, Rosenfalck P. Acta Physiol Scand
1957;39:83. Since these natural sensors are present throughout the
30. De Luca CJ, Forrest WJ. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng BME body, remain functional after injury, and are optimally
1972;19:367. placed through evolution to provide information for nat-
31. Basmajian JV, Stecko GA. J Appl Physiol 1962;17:849. ural feedback control, a rich source of information that
32. Willison RG. J Physiol (London) 1963;168:35. could be used to control future FES devices exists as long as
33. Lindstrom LR, Broman H, Magnusson R, Petersen I. a method can be found to access them.
Neurophysiology 1973;7:801. Interestingly, much of the peripheral sensory apparatus
34. Stulen FB, De Luca CJ. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng BME in spinal and brain-injured human individuals is viable.
1981;28:515. This means that the natural sensors are transmitting
35. Constable R, Thornhill RJ, Carpenter RR. Biomed Sci
relevant nerve signals through the peripheral nervous
Instrum 1994;30:69.
system. Therefore, if the body’s natural sensors are to
See also ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; REHABILITATION AND MUSCLE TESTING.
provide a suitable feedback signal for the control of FES
systems in paralyzed subjects, the challenge is to be able to
extract reliable and relevant information from the nerve
innervating the sensors over extended periods.
The nerve cuff electrode still has an unrivaled position
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY. See MICROSCOPY, as a tool for recording ENG signals from peripheral nerves
ELECTRON. in chronic experiments (13,14) and as means to provide
information to be used in neural prosthesis systems
(9,15,16). Other kinds of electrodes are to challenge the
cuff electrode, such as intra-fascicular electrodes (6,10,18)
or multisite electrodes with hundreds of contacts within a
ELECTRONEUROGRAPHY few cubic millimeters (2,10,11,17–19). These types of
nerve-interface provide advantages with respect to selec-
THOMAS SINKJÆR
tivity and number of sensors.
KEN YOSHIDA This article describes the characteristics of the periph-
WINNIE JENSEN eral nerve signals, principals of neural recordings, and the
VEIT SCHNABEL signals obtained with different electrodes in long-term
Aalborg University implants. An essential part in the success of recording
Aalborg, Denmark peripheral neural signals or activating peripheral neural
tissue is the neural interface.
INTRODUCTION
Recording techniques developed over the past three dec- THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
ades have made it possible to study the peripheral and
central nervous system (CNS) in detail and often during A peripheral nerve contains thousands of nerve fibers, each
unconstrained conditions. There have been many studies of them transmitting information, either from the periph-
using the ElectroNeuroGram (ENG) to investigate the ery to the CNS or from the CNS to the periphery. The
physiology of the neuromuscular system, in particular, efferent fibers transmit information to actuators; mainly
chronic studies in freely moving animals (1,2). Other stu- muscles, whereas afferent fibers transmit sensory infor-
dies relate to monitoring the state of the nerve (e.g., in mation about the state of organs and events (e.g., muscle
relation to axotomized nerves and regeneration of nerve length, touch, skin temperature, joint angles, nociception,
fibers). Clinically, the ENG is used to measure the conduc- and several other modalities of sensory information). Most
tion velocities and latencies in peripheral nerves by stimu- of the peripheral nerves contain both afferent and efferent
lating a nerve at different points along the nerve. fibers, and the peripheral nerve can thus be seen as a
Extracellular potentials can be recorded by either con- bidirectional information channel.