Course Information: ECE 353 - Radio Communication Circuits file:///P|/private/EE Courses/ECE 353 Radio Communication Circuits/353.

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ECE 353 - Radio Communication Circuits

Course Directors: S. J. Franke

Design of a radio system for transmission of information; types of receivers, matching techniques, oscillators,
design using 2-port network parameters, receiver and antenna noise, nonlinear effects, frequency synthesis.
Prerequisites: ECE 342, credit or concurrent registration in ECE 350.

Credit: 4 hours or 1 unit

Goals:
The purpose of this course is to teach senior students in elctrical engineering the basic principles of
radio-frequency circuit design and to illustrate how such circuits are used in communication systems.

Topics:
- Receiver systems: modulation schemes; receiver fundamentals; superheterodyne receiver
- Resonant circuits and impedance transformations
- Oscillators: hybrid Pi model for BJT and FET; loop gain analysis; negative resistance analysis
- Impedance matching: L networks, PI and T networks (lossless and attenuating); Smith chart
- High frequency amplifier design: 2 port models - Y, Z, H, S parameters; stability, power gains,
simultaneous conjugate matching
- Noise characterization of systems: introduction to thermal noise characteristics; noise characterization of
linear 2 ports; sensitivity of receiving system; measurement techniques
- Nonlinear effects: 1 dB compression; two-tone response of nonlinear system, third-order intercepts;
dynamic range of receiving system
- Mixers: active mixers; switching type mixers; 4-diode double balanced mixer; conversion loss, nonlinear
effects
- Phase-locked loops and applications: FM detection; frequency synthesis

Computer Usage:
CAD Software (HP Microwave and RF design systems) is used in the laboratory.

Laboratory Projects (including major items of equipment and instrumentation used):

Design, construct, match and test a crystal oscillator and a radio-frequency amplifier operating at
approximately 50 MHz; noise measurements; laboratory notebook required; instrumentation: vector impedance
meter, spectrum analyzer, network analyzer, frequency synthesizers.

Prerequisites by Topic:
- Network theory
- Fourier series
- Electronic circuits
- Smith chart

Texts:
Class notes.

ABET category content as estimated by faculty member who prepared this course description:

1 of 2 6/4/01 3:45 PM
[1-2] There are 8 possible combinations of R, L, and C.(See a~h) So we need to find out which one has
the correct topology.
a) e)

b) f)

c) g)

d) h)

In doing this, the behavior of L and C when f → 0 and f → ∞ is the key: that is,

X C → ∞, X L → 0 as f →0
X C → 0, X L → ∞ as f →∞

In Fig. 1.23, R(f = 0) = 75Ω and X(f = 0) = 0. So we know that this circuit reduces to a resistor at DC,
and that gives the value of R to be 75Ω. Among a) ~ h), only b), c), g), and h) has non-zero but finite

resistance at DC. Also, at the resonant frequency f = 1 / LC , b) and g) will have infinite and zero

impedance, respectively. Furthermore, the impedance of c) goes to infinity as frequency increases.

Thus, the only possible topology is h).
Another way to see this is that Fig. 1.23 looks like some sort of parallel resonance(see Figs. 1.12 and
1.13) with low quality factor(Q). So that gives another reason to believe that the correct one is h).
Now,
(R + jωL ) ⋅ 1 jω C
Z (ω ) = (R + jωL ) ||
1
=
jω C (R + jωL ) + 1
jω C

R + jωL R + j(ωL − ω 3 L2 C − ωR 2 C )
= =
(1 − ω 2 LC ) + jω RC (1 − ω 2 LC ) 2 + ω 2 R 2 C 2

R ωL − ω 3 L2 C − ωR 2 C
= + j
(1 − ω 2 LC ) 2 + ω 2 R 2 C 2 (1 − ω 2 LC ) 2 + ω 2 R 2 C 2
= R(ω ) + jX (ω )

At f = 10MHz, X = 0 → ω 0 L − ω 03 L2 C − ω 0 R 2 C = 0, ω 0 = 2π ⋅ 10 ⋅10 6

1 R2
ω 2
0 = − 2 (1)
LC L
At f = 11.2MHz, R is maximum, which means

{
ω L C + ω 2 (R 2 C 2 − 2 LC ) + 1}= 0
d 4 2 2
dt
4ω 3 L2 C 2 + 2ω (R 2 C 2 − 2 LC ) = 0

1 R2
⇒ ω 12 = − 2 , ω 1 = 2π ⋅ 11.2 ⋅ 10 6 (2)
LC 2 L
Now we have 2 equations (1 and 2) for 2 unknowns(L and C). Subtract (1) from (2) :

R2 R2
ω 12 − ω 02 = ⇒ L= = 1.673 × 10 −6 H
2 L2 2(ω 1 − ω 0 )
2 2

Put this value back to (1) or (2) to get C.

L = 1.67 µH
C = 100 pF
R = 75 Ω

Another way of solving is to use the value of R(f) =247Ω at f = 11.2MHz and solve the equation either
by hand or numerically.

[2-6] S (t ) = A cos(ω c t + θ (t ) )
(a)
dθ 1 dθ
= 2πf D m(t ) ⇒ m(t ) =
dt 2πf D dt

 6 nT ( n + 1)T
f T <t<
 D 2 2
=
− 6 ( n − 1)T nT
 f T <t<
 D 2 2

m(t)

6/fDT

-T/2 T/2 T 3T/2 t

-6/fDT
(b) T = 1ms
ω inst = ω C + 2πf D m(t ) = ω C + ∆ω

6 6
⇒ ∆f = f D ⋅ m(t ) = f D ⋅ =
f DT T

= 6,000 Hz or 6 KHz

(c) Carson’s rule :

∆f max
BW ≅ 2( + 1)W = 2(W + ∆f max )
W
We need W(BW of m(t)) in order to calculate BW. We will choose W that contains at least 90% of the
total power in m(t). To do this, we need Fourier expansion of m(t). For simplicity of analysis, let us
normalize m(t) so that mˆ (t ) , the normalized version of m(t), has amplitude of unity, that is,
 nT (n + 1)T
1 <t<
 2 2
mˆ (t ) = 
− 1 (n − 1)T nT
 <t<
2 2

Then, the Fourier expansion of mˆ (t ) is

 4
∞
− n odd
mˆ (t ) = C n ∑ sin 2πf 0t , C n =  πn
n =1 0
 n even

4 1 1 
or mˆ (t ) = −  sin 2πf 0 t + sin 6πf 0 t + sin 10πf 0 t + K
π 3 5 

So, we need to determine up to which term we should add in our estimate of W. First, the total power in
mˆ (t ) is
1 T 2
T ∫0
Ptot = mˆ (t )dt = 1

Power in the first term(n = 1) is

2 2
1 T  4  1 4 
P1 =
T ∫0
 − sin 2πf 0 t  dt =   ≅ 0.811
 π  2 π 

So the first term alone is not enough. The second term(n = 3) has
 2
1 4 
P3 =   ≅ 0.09
2  3π 

Note that P1 + P3 is more than 90% of Ptot. This means W should be 3f0(that is, up to the second term,
which has frequency 3f0), and

BW ≅ 2(3 f 0 + ∆f max )

If we let f0 = 1KHz and ∆fmax = 6KHz as in (b), then

BW ≅ 18 KHz

The angle modulated signal s(t) is periodic with period 1ms, so we expect the spectrum to be a “line”
spectrum with the lines separated by 1/T = 1kHz, as shown above. Also note that there are an infinite
number of these lines, however the amplitude decay rapidly away from the carrier frequency (30KHz in
this case). For this example, Carson’s rule gives a fairly good estimate of the bandwidth that contains
most of the power in the signal. Finally, note that s(t) can be thought of as a “Frequency Shift Keyed”
signal since the frequency of the signal shifts from fc-6KHz to fc+6KHz and back every 1ms. Note that
the spectrum shown above peaks at 6KHz either side of the carrier.

[2-7]
(a) We know that the carrier component vanishes at zeros of J0(β) where
∆f
β = 5.5201, 8.6537, L
fm

Let us denote ith zero of J0(β) as βi. What we need is to figure out which pair of βi, βi+1 we have
observed: we cannot just assume that the first and second incidence of zeros we saw are β1 and β2
β
because there could be other zeros we did not see. It is known that, by the way, for given i, i +1 is a
βi
known fixed value, e.g.,
β2 β3 β4
≅ 2.3 , ≅ 1.57 , ≅ 1.36 , L
β1 β2 β3

So we can use this knowledge and f m ∝ 1 to figure out what i is. Let us compare two values of fm
β
where carrier vanishes:
f m ,first 10.4 KHz β
= ≅ 2.3 = 2
f m,second 4.53KHz β1

Therefore, fm = 10.4 KHz corresponds to the first zero of J0(β), that is, β = 2.4048, and

∆f max = β ⋅ f m = (2.4048) ⋅ 10.4 KHz = 25 KHz

Or, since fm = 4.53 KHz corresponds to the second zero of J0(β), that is, β = 5.5201, and

∆f max = β ⋅ f m = (5.5201) ⋅ 4.53 KHz = 25 KHz

as well.

(b)
12.5 KHz < f m′ < 20 KHz

25 KHz 25 KHz
⇒ <β< ⇒ 1.2 < β < 2.0
20 KHz 12.5 KHz
Note that now β < 2.4048, the first zero of J0(β). This means that we have not seen the first zero yet. So,
as we increase ∆fmax , β also increases and pass first zero at 2.4048 and second at 5.5201. Since we
know that ∆fmax = 75 KHz at the second zero,

75 KHz
β= = 5.5201 ⇒ f m′ = 13.587 KHz
f m′

(b) Using the value of f’ m in (b) and β = 2.4048 for the first zero,

∆f max
β= ⇒ ∆f max = β ⋅ f m′ = 32.674 KHz
f m′
[3-1]
Background : 3dB bandwidth
3db bandwidth is also called “half-power bandwidth(HPBW)” because it specifies the bandwidth
between the points where the power falls to half(or
P
dB = 10 log10 2
P1
and 10log100.5 = –3.01.

[Fig. 1] 3dB bandwidth

Beware that F(ω) is in terms of voltage, not power. So, 3dB bandwidth in this case is defined by the

frequencies where F (ω 3 dB ) = max F (ω ) 2 . Now let us check if W, the 3dB bandwidth, is really

1.177B for the given F(ω). Note that |F(ω)| is maximum at ω=ωc, and max|F(ωc)| = 1. (See Fig.2)
At ω=ω+ ,
2
 ω −ω 
− + c  1
e  B 
=
2
 ω − ωc 
2
1
⇒  +  = − ln = ln 2
 B  2
⇒ ω + − ω c = B ln 2

Since F(ω) is symmetric around ω=ωc, |ω+ – ωc| is one-half of the HPBW, and

HPBW = 2 B ln 2 = 1.1774 B
 [Fig. 2] 3dB bandwidth of F(ω)

d
(a) We need to calculate max|T(ω)|. We can find ωmax, where T(ω) is maximum, from T (ω ) = 0 or
dt
simply by looking at T(ω) using what we already know about F(ω). Either way gives ωmax = ωc and

G
T (ω ) = at ω = ω c
− AG

Now, say |T ω)| decreases –3dB at ω=ω+, then

GF (ω + ) 1 G
T (ω + ) = = ⋅
1 − AGF (ω + ) 2 1 − AG
⇒ 2 (1 − AG )F (ω + ) = 1 − AGF (ω + )
1
⇒ F (ω + ) =
2 + AG (1 − 2 )
 ω − ωc 
[ ]
2
1
⇒  +  = − ln = ln 2 + AG (1 − 2 )
 B  2 + AG (1 − 2 )
⇒ [
ω + − ω c = B ln 2 + AG (1 − 2 ) ]
Again, since T(ω) is symmetric around ω=ωc, |ω+ – ωc| is one-half of the HPBW. Therefore

[
HPBW = 2 B ln 2 + AG(1 − 2 ) ]
Check that HPBW of T(ω) approaches 0 as AG approaches 1. Also when AG = 0, T(ω) = G⋅F(ω) which
is just a scaled version of F(ω). (See Fig. 3)

[Fig. 3] HPBW vs. AG (B = 1)

(b)

AG = 0.9 ⇒ [ ]
HPBW = 2 B ln 2 + (1 − 2 ) ⋅ 0.9 = 0.403B

AG = 0.99 ⇒ [ ]
HPBW = 2 B ln 2 + (1 − 2 ) ⋅ 0.99 = 0.129 B

[3-6]
Note : In the real world situation, we usually deal with only the positive part of the frequency spectrum.
You can think of the “negative” part of the spectrum as purely mathematical. From the definition of the
Fourier transform, we realize that a “real” signal has both the positive and negative frequency
components, the latter being just a “mirror image” of the positive frequency counterpart. (Look at the
Fourier transform of cos(ωt), for example.)

(a) For given IF and LO frequency pair there are two possible carrier frequencies,

fc1 = fLO + fIF , fc2 = | fLO − fIF |

 [Fig. 4] Triple-conversion receiver

At ¬, fLO = 179.3 MHz, fIF = 10.7 MHz. Therefore, possible carrier frequencies are

fc1 = | 179.3 ± 10.7 | = 190 or 168.6 MHz

Now we can think of fc1 as fIF for the previous stage: that is, at -, fLO = 1410 MHz, fIF = 190 or 168.6
MHz. Therefore, possible carrier frequencies are

fc2 = | 1410 ± 190 | or | 1410 ± 168.6 |= 1600, 1220, 1578.6 or 1241.4 MHz

Similarly, use fc2 as fIF at ®. Then

fc3 = | 1300 ± 1600 | or | 1300 ± 1220 | or | 1300 ± 1578.6 | or | 1300 ± 1241.4 |

= 58.6, 80, 278.6, 300, 2520, 2541.4, 2878.6, 2900 MHz

(b) Since there are 2 possible carrier frequencies for each conversion(i.e., fLO and fIF pair), there would
be in general 2N possible carrier frequencies with N conversions. Thus total of 16 input frequencies
when N is 4.
[3-3]

[Fig. 1] Block Diagram of TV Receiver front-end and IF stage

(a) Let us choose channel 2 for example. Then the spectrum of TV broadcast signal on this channel
would look like [Fig.2].

[Fig. 2] Spectrum of TV signal on channel 2

We know that fLO = 101 MHz and is “high-side LO”. So this is the case of “down-conversion” and

fLO = fIF + fC or fIF = fLO − fC

Thus, the picture carrier at fPC = 55.25 MHz will be converted down to

fIPC = 101 – 55.25 = 45.75 (MHz)

Similarly, the lower edge(i.e., fL = 54 MHz) and the sound carrier at the upper edge(i.e., fSC = 59.75
MHz) of the spectrum will be mixed down to fIL = 47 MHz and fISC = 41.25 MHz, respectively.
So the resulting spectrum is show in [Fig. 3]. Note that the IF spectrum is inverted or “flipped” around
the IF frequency.
 [Fig. 3] IF spectrum of TV signal

(b) and (c)

Recall that for down-conversion and “high-side LO”, the image frequency is

fIM = fC + 2fIF

So, in our case, the image(interference) band is 91.5MHz above the receiving channel. Since the
channel spacing is 6MHz, it is clear that part of (n+14) and (n+15) channel will interfere with the
channel n. (Note : this may not be true for VHF channels because there are frequency “gaps” within the
VHF band and between VHF and UHF TV bands. See Table 1.3 in the lecture note.) A visualization of
this problem is shown in [Fig. 4], where n = 32.

[Fig. 4] Interference mechanism due to image response for channel 32

It can be clearly seen that the interference from (n+14) channel is mainly due to the sound carrier, while
that from (n+15) is due to the picture carrier.
Now let us tackle this problem again in purely mathematical way. Here, we will investigate the
interference from only the picture or sound carrier. Suppose the receiver is tuned to channel n, then

fLO = 45.75 + fPC(n)

Where fPC(n) is the frequency of the picture carrier for channel n.

1) Picture carrier of (n+14) channel

fPC(n +14)= fPC(n) + 84 (MHz)

This is mixed down to

fPC(n +14) − fLO = fPC(n) + 84 − (fPC(n)+ 45.75)

= 38.25 (MHz)

Note that this is out of the IF passband and rejected by the IF filter. Therefore, the picture carrier of
(n+14) channel does not interfere.

2) Sound carrier of (n+14) channel

fSC(n +14)= fSC(n) + 84 (MHz)

Since fSC = fPC + 4.5 (MHz),

fSC(n +14)= fPC(n) + 84 + 4.5 = fPC(n) + 88.5 (MHz)

This is mixed down to

fSC(n +14) − fLO = fPC(n) + 88.5 − (fPC(n)+ 45.75)

= 42.75 (MHz)

which falls within the IF passband and does interfere with channel n.

Similarly for (n+15) channel,

3) Picture carrier of (n+15) channel

fPC(n +15)= fPC(n) + 90 (MHz)

This is mixed down to

fPC(n +15) − fLO = fPC(n) + 90 − (fPC(n)+ 45.75)

= 44.25 (MHz)

or even simpler, this is just 6 MHz higher than that of the channel (n+14) we got before, i.e., 38.25 + 6
= 44.25. Notice this one does interfere.

4) Sound carrier of (n+15) channel

Following the same way as above,
42.75 + 6 = 48.75 (MHz)
Thus no interference.
[3-7]

[Fig. 5] Simplified block diagram of a cellular telephone.

(a) The center frequency of the first IF filter.

Definitely the choice of 1st LO frequency is fc – 45 MHz, where fc is the carrier frequency of the
received signal, because in this case you can use this 1st LO signal as the carrier for the transmitting
signal. Therefore, the 1st IF frequency is 45 MHz, and so is the center frequency of the 1st IF filter.

(b) The maximum bandwidth of the 1st IF filter.

The object here is to keep the secondary images out of the 1st IF passband. (A secondary image is an
undesired frequency within the 1st IF filter’s passband that could be mixed into the second IF filter
bandwidth.) We can simplify this problem as follow :
Take apart the 1st IF filter and later stages of the receiver. Now we can regard this as a single-
conversion receiver, and think of the 1st IF filter of the overall receiver as the preselector for this new
single-conversion receiver. Then the problem now is to determine the maximum allowable bandwidth
of the preselector without having interference from the images, the frequency of which is determined
by the carrier frequency and IF frequency of this sub-receiver(that is, 1st and 2nd IF frequencies of the
original receiver). Since fIF1 = 45 MHz and fIF2 = 5.5 MHz,

 + for " high − side" LO

f IM2 (secondary image) = f IF ± 2 f IF2 
 − for " low − side" LO

Thus, secondary image is centered at 34 or 56MHz, depending on the choice of LO frequency, with
channel bandwidth of 30KHz. (See [Fig. 6])
If we assume symmetric filter response and signal spectrum, we can just work on either the high-side or
low-side 2nd LO and double the result to get the bandwidth of the 1st IF filter, or simply
 BW = 55.985 – 34.015 = 21.97 MHz.

[Fig. 6] Maximum bandwidth of the 1st IF filter with ideal transfer function

(c) The bandwidth of the 2nd IF filter should be 30 KHz, since in the case of double-or-more conversion,
it is usually the case that the bandwidth of the last IF filter is matched to the signal bandwidth. In other
words, the last IF stage provides channel selectivity.

(d) Recall that the purpose of the preselector in the superheterodyne receiver is to reject the image of
the 1st IF stage. Since fLO1, the 1st LO frequency, varies to tune to a desired channel, so does the image
frequency. For this down-conversion with “low-side LO” case, fIM = fC – 2fIF, and the image frequency
range is 779 ~ 804 MHz. [Fig. 7] shows the separation of signal and image band, and also gives
extreme-case preselector bandwidth.

[Fig. 7] Illustration of preselector bandwidth for image rejection

Note that the simplest preselector would have a high-pass transfer function : this is good enough for
image rejection since the image band is below the frequency band of interest. But in a real world
situation, this may not be a very good choice because the chance is high that a very strong signal will
pass through this preselector and overload the receiver front-end stage. Thus you would like to have a
bandpass filter most of the time, and make its bandwidth as narrow as possible while keeping its cost
and complexity within acceptable range.
Only ideal bandpass transfer functions for extreme(minimum and maximum bandwidth) cases are
shown in [Fig. 7]. (|H(ω)| of the filters are not in scale.)

(e) It is straightforward that the tuning range is {869 ~ 894} – 45 = {824 ~ 849} MHz.

(f) For this down-conversion with “low-side LO” case,

fIM = fC – 2fIF = 875 – 2 × 45 = 785 (MHz)

(g) fm(t) = 3KHz. Using the Carson’s rule,

2(fm + ∆fmax) = 30 KHz ⇒ ∆fmax = 12 KHz

[4-1]
1) Transform the r-L series branch to a parallel form as below :

rP = r (1 + Q 2 )

 1 
X Lp = X Lz  1 + 2 
 Q 
X Ls ωL
Q= =
r r
Note that

 r2  r2
X Lp = X L ⋅ 1 + 2 2  = ωL +
 ω L  ωL

1
Thus, we cannot jump into conclusion that ω 0 = will give us the resonant frequency all the time.
LC
(We need to have the exact equation for ω0, and figure out if some kind of approximation or
assumption can be employed to make things simple.)
Now what we have is

Then

RP C
QP = = RP = RP ⋅ ω 0C where RP = R || rP
ω 0 LP LP

Since we do not know LP(it depends on ω), it is easier to use RP and C to get QP. Still, we need to find
ω0, and we do this by letting XLp + XC = 0, that is,
r2 1
ω0L + =
ω 0 L ω 0C

1 r2 L − C ⋅ r2
⇒ ω0 = − = ≅ 9.1285 × 10 6 ( rad / s )
LC L2 2
LC
Note that
1
ω0 ≅
LC
which is valid only when L >> C⋅r2, or in other words, Q>>1. (Prob. 1-2 is an counter-example of this
case.)

 ω 2 L2   ω 2 L2 
Then, rP = r 1 + 2  ≅ r ⋅  2  = 18.75KΩ , and
 r   r 

Q P = RP ⋅ ω 0C = R || rP ⋅ ω 0 C = 47.63

[4-11]
(a) We can see that these circuits are either parallel or series RLC resonant, so their resonant
frequencies are determined only by L and C. Then from inspection, we find that at resonance both the
circuits A and B are reduced to what is shown below, since the parallel LC becomes an open circuit
while series LC becomes a short at resonance, and it is just a resistive voltage divider.

Thus,
RL 500
VO = VS ⋅ = 10 ⋅ = 5 (V)
RS + RL 1000

(b) The easiest way to get the 3dB bandwidth is to calculate Q of each circuit and use
ω
∆ω = 0
Q
where ω0 = angular resonant frequency.
i) Circuit A is a parallel RLC circuit where RS and RL is in parallel, since the ideal voltage source has
zero internal resistance. Thus,
 RS || RL C 500 × 10 −12
QP = = RS || RL ⋅ = 250 ⋅ = 5.59
ω0L L 10 −6

ω0 1
∴ ∆ω = =
Q P 5.59 ⋅ LC

∆ω
∆f = = 1.273 (MHz)
2π

ii) Circuit B is a series RLC circuit. Thus

L
QS = C = 0.04472
RS + RL

ω0
∆f = = 159.155 (MHz)
2π ⋅ Q P

(c) Since the transfer function H(jω) = VO /VS reaches its maximum value at ω = ω0, we need to find the
ω where |H(jω)| = 0.707|H(jω)|max, or in terms of ω0 and Q

1 1
=
 ω ω0  2
1 + jQ  − 
 ω0 ω 

Since for parallel RLC the transfer function is the same form as that of series RLC except for the
scaling factor, the above is true for both circuits. So let us solve the above equation for ω. Using

a + jb = a 2 + b 2 , it becomes
2
 ω ω0 
1 + Q 2
−  = 2
 ω0 ω 

 ω ω0 
⇒ Q  −  = ±1
 ω0 ω 
ω 0ω
⇒ ω 2 − ω 02 m =0
Q
(Here, + sign of the ±, is for ω3dB > ω0 (i.e. ω3dB on the higher side of ω0), and – sign for ω3dB < ω0.)
ω 1
Now we can solve the above equation for ω since 0 = ∆ω we got in (b) and ω 0 = .
Q LC
i) for Circuit A : f0 = 7.118 MHz and ∆f = 1.273 MHz
In terms of frequency,
f 2 − f o2 m f ⋅ ∆f = 0

± ∆f ± (∆f )2 + 4 f 02
f 3dB =
2
where the first ± tells whether f3dB is on the higher or lower side of f0, and the second ± is for positive or
negative frequency component. (As usual, we need to work on the positive side of the spectrum only.)
Thus,
f3dB,Upper = 7.783 MHz
f3dB,Lower = 6.509 MHz

It checks out that

f3dB,Upper – f3dB,Lower = 1.274 MHz = ∆f

ii) for Circuit B : f0 = 7.118 MHz and ∆f = 159.155 MHz

Following the same steps as in i) above,

f3dB,Upper = 159.473 MHz

f3dB,Lower = 0.3177 MHz

f3dB,Upper – f3dB,Lower = 159.1553 MHz = ∆f

+ Note that f3dB,Upper – f3dB, Lower is always equal to ∆f , since

 ∆f + (∆f )2 + 4 f 02  − ∆f + (∆f )2 + 4 f 02 

f 3dB ,Upper − f 3 dB, Lower = −
 2   2 
   
= ∆f
[4-13]
(a) The aim is to transform the given circuit into a parallel RLC circuit.

Let Q1 be the parallel Q of the R-C2 parallel branch.

R 50Ω
Q1 = = = 10
X C1 5Ω
f = 10 MHz

R 50 50
RS = = ≈ = 0.5 (Ω )
1+ Q 2
1 + 100 100

 1 
C 3 = C1 1 + 2  ≈ C1 = 3183 ( pF )
 Q 
Note that simplification for Q>>1 is used in the above to keep the numbers simple. (The resulting error
for RS or C3 from this approximation is 1% or less in this case.)
Next step is to transform the series C-C-R branch into parallel. Let the series Q of this branch be Q2 .

XS 10
Q2 = = = 20
RS 0.5

RP = RS (1 + Q 2 ) ≈ RS ⋅ Q 2 = 200 (Ω )

 1  C1
X P = X S 1 + 2  ≈ X S ⇒ CP ≈ CS = = 1591.5 ( pF )
 Q  2
Again, the same simplification as before. Then the final parallel representation of the original circuit
becomes

For resonance, XL = XC ⇒ 10 = ωL = 2πfL, f=10 MHz.

1
L= µH = 0.159 µH
2π

(b) At resonance (f=10 MHz), parallel LC looks like an open circuit. Therefore,

Zin(10MHz) = RP = 200Ω

(c)
RP 200
QP = = = 20
XL f =10 MHz
10

+ The solution of same problem without using the simplification for Q>>1 yields L = 0.158µH, Zin =
200.5Ω, and QP = 20.2, which are all within 1% of error.
[6-3]

[Fig. 1] Small signal equivalent circuit of Figure 6.26

(a) There are multiple ways to get the resonant frequency(or potential frequency of oscillation) of the
given circuit. The easiest way is to realize that the potential oscillation frequency is determined by the
parallel RLC resonator between collector and emitter, as can easily be seen in the small signal
equivalent circuit(Fig. 1). This method is essentially the same as taking out the transistor from the
given circuit and determining the resonant frequency of the remaining passive network. (Note that R1,
R2 and RE are just bias resistors and have no effect on the resonant frequency.) In short, the resonant
frequency of this circuit is

1
f0 = = 3,751,318 ( Hz )
2π LC
or 3.75 MHz.

Another method is to solve for the small signal loop gain and find the condition for it to have a real
value(or phase angle equal to 0). In our case,

= − g m ⋅ [RC || RL || X L || X C ] = − g m
Vo RP
Al 0 =
Vi  1 
1 + jRP  ωC − 
14442444 ω 3
L
Z ( jω ) of parallel RP , L, C

where RP = [RC || RL ] =
RC RL
.
RC + RL
1
Therefore, in order for Al0 to be real, ω C − = 0 , or in other words, |XL| = |XC|.
ωL
This is what we have seen so many times so far, and

1 1
ω0 = or f0 =
LC 2π LC
as expected.
(b) Since we know that Al0 is largest at f = f0 (or ω = ω0), finding 3dB bandwidth of this amplifier is to
find the frequency where
1
Al 0 ( f ) = Al 0 ( f 0 )
2
Or simply, it can be seen by inspection of the expression for Al0 that the bandwidth of this amplifier is
determined by the 3dB bandwidth of the parallel RLC resonant circuit. Thus,

ω0 ω L (ω ) 2 L ω 0 L
∆ω 3dB = = ω0 ⋅ 0 = 0 =
QP RP RP RP C

∆ω 3dB 2πf 0 L f L
∆f 3dB = = = 0
2π 2π RP C RP C

= 2.122 (MHz)

(c) See Section 6.2 of the class note for description of the hybrid-pi model.
R1
VB = 12 ⋅ = 4 (V)
R1 + R2

VE ≅ VB − 0.7 = 3.3

VE 3.3V
I EQ = = = 1 ( mA )
RE 3.3KΩ
If we assume that β>>1,

ICQ ≅ IEQ = 1 mA

(d)

5 I CQ I CQ
Al 0 ( f 0 ) = − g m ⋅ RP = − g m ⋅ × 10 3 , gm = ≅
6 VT 26 mV

I CQ 5
⇒ Al 0 = − g m ⋅ RP = ⋅ × 10 3 = −32.05 × 10 3 I CQ
−3
26 × 10 6

Use the value of ICQ obtained in (C) to get

Al0 = −32.05
[6-5] Solution in two different ways
i) Small signal loop gain approach
The small signal equivalent circuit, ignoring transistor immittances, is shown in Fig. 2.

[Fig. 2] Small signal equivalent circuit of Figure 6.29

Comparing this equivalent circuit with that it Figure 6.9 and noting that Z3 = L || R, we can obtain the
expression for Alo directly using (6.6.6) to be

 1  gm
g m  2 
 ω C1C 2  ω C1C 2
2
AlO = =
1 1 jωRL ω RL
2 2
 ωR 2 L 1 
+ + + −
jωC1 jωC 2 R + jωL R + ω L
j  
 R + ω L ωC ′ 
2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1
where = + . For this circuit to be an oscillator, Alo should have a real value at the frequency of
C ′ C1 C 2
oscillation. This is essentially the same as

ω0R2 L 1
− =0
R + ω 0 L ω 0C ′
2 2 2

(i.e., the denominator should have a real value since the numerator is real.)
Therefore,

R2 1
ω0 = =
R 2 LC ′ − L2 L2
LC ′ −
R2

ii) Resonant circuit approach

This method uses the fact that ω0 is determined by the remaining passive components when you take
the transistor out of the circuit. When we do this, what we have is a resonant circuit in Fig. 3.
 [Fig. 3] Resonant circuit representation of Figure 6.29

The resonant frequency of this circuit can be shown to be the same as what we have in i). (This is left
for your exercise.)

[6-11]
Let us break the loop at the X mark (in Fig. 4) and terminate the loop.

[Fig. 4] Two-stage oscillator circuit of Figure 6.37

Ignoring transistor immittances and using the simplified transistor model, the equivalent circuit
representation is shown in Fig. 5.

[Fig. 5] Small signal equivalent circuit representation of Figure 6.37

 1 
V ′ = − g mVi ⋅  R1 || 
 jωC 
 Vo = − g mV ′ ⋅ (R2 || jωL )

  1 
= − g m  − g mV i ⋅  R1 ||   ⋅ (R2 || jωL )
  jωC  

 1 
= g m2 Vi ⋅  R1 ||  ⋅ (R2 || jωL )
 jωC 

 1 
Alo = g m2 ⋅  R1 ||  ⋅ (R2 || jωL )
 jωC 

g m2 R1 R2
=
RRC  R 
1 + 1 2 + j  ωCR1 − 2 
L  ωL 

(a) The potential frequency of oscillation is determined by

R2
ωCR1 − =0
ωL
Therefore,
R2
ω0 =
R1 LC

(b) For oscillation to occur, the loop gain Alo must be greater than 1 at the potential frequency of
oscillation.
At ω = ω0
R1 R2
Alo = g m2 >1
R1 R2 C
1+
L
1 C
g m2 > +
R1 R2 L
Thus,

1 C
gm > +
R1 R2 L
[5-2]

[Fig. 1] Circuit for Prob.5-2

(a)
1 2 RL
PL = ⋅ VS ⋅
2 ( R L + RS ) 2 + X S2

Maximum power transfer occurs when ∂PL ∂R L = 0 .

∂PL ∂ RL
=0 ⇒ =0
∂R L ∂R L ( R L + RS ) 2 + X S2
Since
 ∂u   ∂v 
v  − u  
∂ u  ∂x   ∂x 
 =
∂x  v  v 2

above becomes
[( R L ]
+ R S ) 2 + X S2 − R L [2( R L + R S )]
=0
[( R L + RS ) 2 + X S2 ]2

⇒ R S2 − R L2 + X S2 = 0
Therefore,

R L = R S2 + X S2

(b) Substituting RS2 + X S2 for RL in the above equation for PL yields

1 R S2 + X S2
PL = ⋅ VS ⋅
2

2 ( R S2 + X S2 + R S ) 2 + X S2

| V S |2
Since we know that Pavs = , we can rewrite the above equation using Pavs.
8 RS
 R S2 + X S2
PL = 4 RS ⋅ Pavs ⋅
( RS2 + X S2 + RS ) 2 + X S2

R S RS2 + X S2
= 4 Pavs ⋅
2( R S2 + X S2 + R S RS2 + X S2 )

or
RS
PL = 2 Pavs ⋅
R S + RS2 + X S2

[5-4]
(a) We will solve this in two different ways.
First method is to transform the source network into its Thevenin equivalent representation and use the
formula (5.1.7) for Pavs in the class note, that is,
| V |2
Pavs = S
8 RS

[Fig. 2] Voltage equivalent representation of the source

Fig. 2 is the voltage equivalent circuit of the given source. (Everyone must know how to get this by
now!) Therefore,

| V S |2
Pavs = = 0.10625 mW
8R S
or
Pavs = 10 log(0.10625) = −9.74 dBm

Second method utilizes the fact that Pavs is the power delivered from a source to a conjugately matched
load. This means that Pavs is equal to the power dissipated at the load when the load immittance is the
complex conjugate of the source immitance, which is depicted in Fig. 3.
 [Fig. 3] Source terminated with a conjugately matched load

Now it can be clearly seen that

1
Pavs = PL ,matched = ⋅ (0.5mA) 2 ⋅ 850Ω = 0.10625mW = −9.74dBm
2
as before.

(b) The power delivered to the load equals the power available from source times the mismatch factor :

4RS RL
PL = Pavs ⋅
( RS + RL ) 2 + ( X S + X L ) 2

In order to get the mismatch factor, we need the Thevenin equivalent load impedance, which was
obtained in (a). Then
4 ⋅ 11.60 ⋅ 50
PL = Pavs ⋅
(11.60 + 50) 2 + ( −98.63 − 75) 2

= 7.264 × 10 − 3 mW

= −21.39 dBm

Or, since we already know that Pavs = −9.74 dBm, we can rewrite the expression for PL as

PL (dBm) = Pavs (dBm) + Mismatch Factor (dB)

and use Mismatch Factor = −11.65 dB to get

PL = −9.74 − 11.65 = −21.39 (dBm)

as expected.

(c) Let us first make sure that there are indeed four possible solutions. Since the series arm of the L-
network must be connected to the smaller value of R in Figure 5.54 (the load resistor in this case), the
entire circuit including the source, load, and matching L-network would look like Fig. 4. From this, we
can get two solutions.
 [Fig. 4] L-network matching scheme for source admittance and load impedance

Two more solutions are possible only when the magnitude relation of the resistors changes if we
parallel-series transform the source and load into their equivalent form. From transformed
representation in Fig. 5, we see that this time it is the source resistor which must be connected to the
series arm of the L-network, and thus two more solutions are possible.

[Fig. 5] L-network matching scheme for source impedance and load admittance

The first two solutions are obtained from Fig. 4 using absorption method. In this case

850
Q= −1 = 4
50
850
⇒ XP =± = ±212.5 , X S = m50 ⋅ 4 = m200
4
⇒
XP = 68, XS = −125 or XP = 188.9, XS = 275

Two more solutions are from Fig. 5 using the same method :
Q = 3.606

⇒ X P = ±45.06 , X S = m41.84

XP = 31.8, XS = 56.8 or XP = −77.2, XS = 140.5

 [Fig. 6] Possible L-network matching solutions

In summary, the four possible L-networks are depicted in Fig. 6.

(d) There are a few ways to utilize Smith Chart to verify a matching network design. One possible
method is just to mark the source and load impedance on the chart and see if your matching network
really brings the load impedance to the source impedance. Another possibility : first absorb any source
or load reactance into your matching network and normalize the circuit with the source resistance. Then
you start off from the load resistance which is a point on the horizontal axis and arrive at the origin if
your design is correct. This example is shown below. Similarly you can normalize to your load resistor
and follow from source toward the load, too. Also note that there are no limitation in which value of
impedance you choose for normalization, although you may find it more convenient to use a geometric
mean of source and load resistors when their values are far apart from each other.
[5-21]
(a) Since the series arm of the L-network is connected to the smaller resistor, there is only one possible
solution using high-pass topology, which is shown in Fig. 7.

[Fig. 7] High-pass L-network matching

200
Q= − 1 = 39 = 6.245
5
200
XP = + = 32.03
Q
X S = −5 ⋅ Q = 31.225

(b) Let us derive a general solution for the loss of a high-pass L-network with a lossy inductor when the
source and load impedances are purely resistive.

Suppose RL > RS, and the source and load are matched by a high-pass L network, as shown in Fig. 8.
Then the impedance looking toward the source from the load should be RL since the circuit is matched.
Until now, the matching network is assumed to be lossless. Thus the power delivered to the load is Pavs.

[Fig. 8] High-pass L-network matching with lossless components

Let us now replace the ideal inductor with a lossy inductor with a finite quality factor of QL, where
QL>> 1(i.e., high-Q approximation, usually QL > 10). The resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 9.
 RL
XP =
Q
|XP |
rS =
QL

[Fig. 9] High-pass L-network with a lossy inductor

When we series-parallel transform the lossy inductor branch using high-Q approximation as shown in
Fig. 10 and move the parallel resistance of the inductor out of the L-network, we can replace the
original source and the matching network with an equivalent source, that is, a source with the same Pavs
and source resistance of RL, as depicted in Fig. 11.

RLQL
rP = rS ⋅ Q L2 =
Q

[Fig. 10] Lossy L-network after series-parallel transformation

[Fig. 11] Equivalent source with Pavs

Now we can see that the power coming out of the source and delivered to the equivalent load Req is
simply
PReq = Pavs ⋅ Mismatch Factor(RL, Req)

and the fraction of the total delivered power that is dissipated by RL is

rP
PRL = PReq ⋅
RL + rP
Thus, the ratio of power delivered to the load with lossy inductor to that without the inductor loss is

PRL PReq rP
= ⋅
Pavs Pavs RL + rP

rP
= Mismatch Factor ( RL , Req ) ⋅
RL + rP

rP RL
4 RL ⋅
4 RL Req rP RL + rP rP
= ⋅ = ⋅
(R + Req ) 2
RL + rP  r R 
2
RL + rP
 RL + P L 
L

 RL + rP 
4rP2 RL2 1
= =
(R 2
L + 2 rP RL ) 2
 R
1 + L


2

 2 rP 
or
PRL 1
= 2
Pavs  Q 
1 + 
 2Q L 

(Note: This can be further generalized for sources and loads of arbitrary impedance. The same method
can also be used to derive general solution for the case when the series arm of L network is a lossy
inductor.)

The loss is defined as

loss( dB) = [ Pavs ]dB − [ PRL ]dB

= 10 log( Pavs ) − 10 log( PRL )

P 
= 10 log avs 
 PR 
 L 

Pavs
For our problem where Q = 6.245 and QL = 32, the ratio is 0.83. Therefore, the loss is
PRL

P 
loss = 10 log avs  = 10 log 1  = 0.81 dB
 PR   0.83 
 L 
[7-3]

[Fig. 1] 2-Port for Prob.7-3

I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2
(1)
I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2

(a) Input admittance

I1
Yin =
V1

Note that the voltage across the load admittance YL is

I2
V2 = − (2)
YL
Plugging (2) into (1) yields
I2
I 1 = Y11V1 − Y12 (3)
YL

I2
I 2 = Y21V1 − Y22
YL
(4)
Y Y
⇒ I 2 = 21 L V1
YL + Y22

Plugging (4) back to (3) yields

Y12 Y21Y L
I 1 = Y11V1 − ⋅ V1
Y L Y L + Y 22

 Y Y 
=  Y11 − 12 21  V1
 Y L + Y22 
Thus
Y12Y21
Yin = Y11 −
YL + Y22
* Sanity check : Yin → Y11 as YL → ∞
(b) Voltage gain
V2
Av =
V1
Plugging (4) into (1) yields
Y21Y L
V1 = Y21V1 + Y 22V2
Y L + Y22

 Y Y 
Y 22V2 =  21 L − Y 21  V1
 Y L + Y 22 
Y 21Y22
=− V1
Y L + Y22
Therefore,
V2 Y21
AV = =−
V1 YL + Y22

(C) Operating power gain

Pout
G=
Pin
Note

Re{VI * } = V Re  * 
1 1 2 1 
P=
2 2 Z 

V Re{Y * }= V Re{Y }
1 2 1 2
=
2 2
Then
V1 Re{Yin }
1 2
Pin =
2

V2 Re{YL }
1 2
Pout =
2

Re{YL } 2 Re{Y L }
2
Pout V2
= ⋅ = Av ⋅
Pin V1 Re{Yin } Re{Yin }

Re{YL }
2
Y21
= ⋅
YL + Y22
2
 Y Y 
Re Y11 − 12 21 
 YL + Y22 
Therefore,
 Re{YL }
2
Y21
G= ⋅
YL + Y22
2
 Y Y 
Re Y11 − 12 21 
 YL + Y22 

[7-4]

[Fig. 2] 2-Port for Prob.7-4

Z in − Z 0
1) S11 : Terminate port 2 with Z0 and find input impedance Zin. Then S 11 = .
Z in + Z 0

Note Zin = Z1 in this case. Therefore,

Z1 − Z 0
S11 =
Z1 + Z 0

2V1
2) S12 : Terminate port 1 with Z0 and connect source to port 2. Then S12 = .
VS

Note that V = V1 = 0. Thus

S12 = 0

(This is consistent with the fact that the given 2-port is unilateral.)
 2V2
3) S21 : Terminate port 2 with Z0 and connect source to port 1. Then S 21 = .
VS

Note V2 = −gmV1(Z2||Z0) . But

Z1
V1 = VS ⋅
Z 0 + Z1

Z1 Z Z
⇒ V2 = − g m ⋅ V S ⋅ ⋅ 0 2
Z 0 + Z1 Z 0 + Z 2

Z 0 Z1 Z 2
= − g m ⋅VS ⋅
( Z 0 + Z 1 )( Z 0 + Z 2 )
Therefore,
2 g m Z 0 Z1 Z 2
S 21 = −
( Z 0 + Z 1 )( Z 0 + Z 2 )

Z out − Z 0
4) S22 : Terminate port 1 with Z0 and find output impedance Zout. Then S 22 = .
Z out + Z 0

Note that Zout = Z2 since V = 0, in other words, the current source is off since there is no source on
port 1. Therefore,
Z2 − Z0
S 22 =
Z2 + Z0

 Z1 − Z 0 
[S ]  0 
Z1 + Z 0
= 
− 2 g m Z 0 Z1 Z 2 Z2 − Z0 
 ( Z 0 + Z 1 )( Z 0 + Z 2 ) Z 2 + Z 0 
[7-5]

[Fig. 3] 2-Port for Prob.7-5

Z in − Z 0
1) S11 : Terminate port 2 with Z0 and find input impedance Zin. Then S 11 = .
Z in + Z 0

V2 = − I 2 Z 0

V2
V1 N = 1  − I2Z0  Z0
Z in = =   = 2
I1 − I 2 ⋅ N N 2  − I2  N
Z0
− Z0
2 1− N 2
S11 = N =
Z0 1+ N 2
+ Z 0
N2
Thus
1− N 2
S11 =
1+ N 2

2) S22 : When we terminate port 1 with Z0, everything is the same as in 1) except that the ratio is
1
reversed. So replace N with in the expression for S11 to get
N

N 2 −1
S 22 = 2
N +1
 2V1
3) S12 : Terminate port 1 with Z0 and connect source to port 2. Then S12 = .
VS

Z out N 2Z0 N2
V2 = VS = V = VS
Z 0 + Z out Z 0 + N 2 Z0 1+ N 2
S

2 N2
⋅ V
2V1 2V2 N N 1 + N 2 S 2N
S12 = = = =
VS VS VS 1+ N 2

Thus
2N
S12 =
1+ N 2

4) S21 : Same as the problem in 3) if we replace Zout with Zin and swap subscripts 1 and 2.

Z0
Z in 2 1
V1 = VS = N VS = VS
Z 0 + Z in Z 1+ N 2
Z 0 + 02
N
1
2N ⋅ VS
S 21 =
2V2 2 NV1
= = 1+ N 2 =
2N
VS VS VS 1+ N 2
Thus
2N
S12 =
1+ N 2

1 1 − N 2 2N 
[S ] = 2 
N + 1  2N

N 2 − 1
[7-10]
(a)

ΓL plane stability circle

ΓS plane stability circle

(b) No, since the unstable region of ΓL plane overlaps part of the region inside the unit circle.
[7-15] S11 = 0.6 ∠-100° S12 = 0.06 ∠45°
S21 = 3.50 ∠60° S22 = 0.1 ∠-30°

(a) To check stability, the following conditions are necessary and sufficient :

1− | S11 |2 − | S 22 |2 + | D |2
Rollett stability factor K = >1
2 | S12 || S 21 |
| S12 S 21 | < 1− | S11 |2
(1)
| S12 S 21 | < 1− | S 22 |2

The above is essentially the same as

K>1 , 1 + | S11 |2 − | S22 |2 − | D |2 > 0 (2)
Or even simpler,
K>1 , |D|<1 (3)

In our case,
K = 1.932
| S12 S21 | = 0.175, 1 − | S11 |2 = 0.64, 1 − | S22 |2 = 0.99
1 + | S11 |2 − | S22 |2 − | D |2 = 1.3038
| D | = 0.215
Thus, checking any of the above 3 conditions, (1), (2) or (3), shows that this 2-port is
unconditionally stable.

(b) Yes. Since this 2-port is unconditionally stable, simultaneous conjugate match at both input
and output is possible.
i)

B1 ± B12 − 4 | C1 |2
Γms =
2C1

where
B1 = 1+ | S11 |2 − | S 22 |2 − | D |2 = 1.3038

C1 = S11 − DS 22
*
= 0.584∠ − 101.4°
Thus,
1.3038 ± 0.5794
Γms =
1.168∠ − 101.4°
Choose | Γms | < 1 :
Γms = 0.62∠101.4°
Then
1 + Γms
Z ms = Z 0 = 41.8∠63.2° = 18.9 + j 37.3
1 − Γms

ii)

B2 ± B22 − 4 | C 2 |2
Γml =
2C 2

where
B2 = 1+ | S 22 |2 − | S11 |2 − | D |2 = 0.6038

C 2 = S 22 − DS11* = 0.086∠ − 117.46°

Thus,
0.6038 ± 0.579
Γml =
0.172∠ − 117.46°
Choose | Γml | < 1 :
Γml = 0.1442∠117.46°
Then
1 + Γml
Z ml = Z 0 = 43.9∠14.6° = 42.4 + j11.1
1 − Γml

(c) Since the input and output of the 2-port are conjugately matched, all the available power from
source is delivered to the 2-port and all the available power at the output of this 2-port is
delivered to the load, which means

G = GT = GA = 19.52 = 12.9dB

We also know that when the input and output of a 2-port are conjugately matched,

Pout =
S 21
S12
( )
K − K 2 − 1 Pavs = 19.5 Pavs

or
Pout(dBm) = Pavs(dBm) + 12.9dB
[7-16]

S11 = 0.6 ∠-100° S12 = 0.06 ∠45° S21 = 3.50 ∠60° S22 = 0.1 ∠-30°

(a)
| Vs |2
Pavs = = 0.01125 (W ) = 10.51 ( dBm)
8R s

(b) First, let us calculate ΓS and ΓL .

Z S − Z 0 100 − 50 1
ΓS = = =
Z S + Z 0 100 + 50 3

Z L − Z 0 500 − 50 9
ΓL = = =
Z L + Z 0 500 + 50 11

Then (using | D | = 0.215, M = C1 =0.584∠-101.4°, N = C2 = 0.086∠-117.46° from [7-15])

| S 21 |2 (1− | ΓL |2 )
G=
(1− | S11 |2 )+ | ΓL |2 (| S 22 |2 − | D |2 ) − 2 Re( ΓL N )

= 5.95 ⇒ 7.75 dB

| S 21 |2 (1− | ΓS |2 )(1− | ΓL |2 )
GT = 2
(1 − S11 ΓS )(1 − S 22 ΓL ) − S12 S 21 ΓL ΓS

= 3.73 ⇒ 5.72 dB

| S 21 |2 (1− | ΓS |2 )
GA =
(1− | S 22 |2 ) + | ΓS |2 (| S11 |2 − | D |2 ) − 2 Re( ΓS M )

= 9.88 ⇒ 9.95 dB

(c) Note that

GT Power delivered to 2 − port P
= = in
G Power avaliable from source Pavs
or GT(dB) – G(dB) = Pin(dBm) – Pavs(dBm)

⇒ Pin(dBm) = Pavs(dBm) + GT(dB) – G(dB)

= 10.51 + 5.72 – 7.75
= 8.48 (dBm)
Also,
Pout(dBm) = Pin(dBm) + G(dB) = Pavs(dBm) + GT(dB)
= 16.23 (dBm)

∴ Power delivered to the 2-port = 8.48 dBm

Power delivered to the load = 16.23 dBm

(d) Since output of the 2-port is conjugately matched, Pout = Pavo

Pavo(dBm) = Pavs(dBm) + GA(dB)
= 10.51 + 9.95
= 20.46 (dBm)

∴ Pout = 20.46 dBm

[7-23]

S11 = 0.2 S12 = -0.1 S21 = 5.0 S22 = -0.5

(a) The power delivered to the load, Pout, reaches its maximum value of Pavo when the output of
the 2-port is conjugately matched. Another way to see this to regard the source and the 2-port
together as a new source with available power Pavo and impedance Zout. Then, it is clear that
maximum power transfer is achieved when the new source is terminated with a conjugately
matched load. In other words,
Zout = Z*
or Γout = Γ*
Since ΓS = 0, Γout = S22 or
Γ = S22* = − 0.5

1 + Γ 50
Z = Z0 = ( Ω)
1− Γ 3

(Note that a general way of solving this problem is to find ΓL that maximizes GT, since
Power deliver to load
GT =
Power available from source
Also note that GT = GA when the load is conjugately matched to the output of the 2-port.)

(b) Pout = Pavo = GA ⋅ Pavs , or

Pout (dBm) = Pavs (dBm) + GA (dB)
But since ΓS = 0,
| S 21 |2 100
GA = = ⇒ 15.23 dB
1− | S 22 | 2
3

∴ Pout = −10 dBm + 15.23 dB = 5.23 dBm

(c) The power delivered to the 2-port is maximized when Zin = 50Ω or Γin = 0. But
S S Γ
Γin = S11 + 12 21 L = 0
1 − S 22 ΓL

S12 S 21 ΓL
⇒ = − S11
1 − S 22 ΓL
⇒ ΓL = 0.5

1 + ΓL
⇒ Z = Z0 = 150 Ω
1 − ΓL

∴ Z = 150 Ω

(Note that this problem is to maximize

Power input to 2 - port G P
= T = in ≤ 1
Power available from source G Pavs
The power delivered to the 2-port is maximized when Pin = Pavs, or when the source is conjugately
matched to the input of the 2-port, and GT = G in this case.)
(d) With the 2-port terminated with Z obtained in (c), the power delivered to the 2-port is
Pin = Pavs
Thus, Pout = G ⋅ Pin = G ⋅ Pavs , or
Pout (dBm) = Pavs (dBm) + G (dB)
But

| S 21 |2 (1− | ΓL |2 )
G=
(1− | S11 |2 )+ | ΓL |2 (| S 22 |2 − | D |2 ) − 2 Re( ΓL N )
= 12 ⇒ 10.79 dB

∴ Pout = –10 dBm + 10.79 dB = 0.79 dBm

[7-13]
If S12 = 0(i.e., unilateral), then the expression for transducer gain GT reduces to

(1− | ΓS |2 ) (1− | ΓL |2 )
GTU = ⋅ | S | 2
⋅
| 1 − S11 ΓS |2 | 1 − S 22 ΓL |2
21

This clearly shows the effect of input and output mismatch. We can rewrite GTU as

GTU = GS ⋅ GO ⋅ GL

where GS = gain term representing source mismatch

GO = | S21 |2 = forward insertion voltage gain
GL = gain term representing load mismatch

Note that GS and GL can be either greater than or less than unity depending on the source or load
mismatch, while source and load mismatch factors are always less than or equal to unity. In fact,

(1− | ΓS |2 ) ⋅ (1− | Γin |2 ) 4 RS Rin

Source Mismatch Factor M S = =
| 1 − ΓS Γin | 2
| Z S + Z in |2
and
(1− | ΓL |2 ) ⋅ (1− | Γout |2 ) 4 Rout RL
Load Mismatch Factor M L = =
| 1 − ΓL Γout | 2
| Z out + Z L |2

(Γin = S11 and Γout = S22 when the 2-port is unilateral.)

Note also that in general

GT Pout
= ≤1
G A Pavo

The equality holds when the load is conjugately matched to the output of the 2-port. In other
words, GT is always less than GA when there is a mismatch between the load and the output of the
2-port since not all of the power available at the output of the 2-port is delivered to the load. Thus

GT (dB) = GA (dB) + ML (dB)

Another way to see this is that since the 2-port is unilateral, the available power at the output of
the 2-port would not change no matter what the load impedance would be. Then the source and
the 2-port together can be considered as a new source with Pavs equal to Pavo at the output of the 2-
port and impedance equal to the output impedance of the 2-port. We know that in this case all of
the available power will be delivered to the load when the load is conjugately matched, otherwise
it is reduced by the mismatch factor.
Then
Γout = S 22

1 + Γout
⇒ Z out = = 450 (Ω) = Rout
1 − Γout

and the output mismatch factor is

4 Rout RL
= 0.595 = −2.255 (dB )
( Rout + RL ) 2
Thus
GA = GT − ( −2.255 ) = 14.255 (dB)

[7-22]

S11 = 0.35 S12 = 0.1 S21 = 3.0 S22 = 0.5

(a)
1000 − 50 19
ΓL = =
1000 + 50 21

Note that the “load” the first 2-port sees is the input impedance of the second 2-port. Thus

S12 S 21 ΓL
Γin ( 2 ) = S11 + = 0.8457
1 − S 22 ΓL
and
 S12 S 21 Γin ( 2)
Γin (1) = S11 + = 0.7896
1 − S 22 Γin ( 2 )

⇒ Z in (1) = 425.265

From this, we can get Pin. in two different ways.

i) Note that

G(1) Pavs
=
GT (1) Pin (1)

or in dB’s
Pin(1) (dBm) = Pavs (dBm) – G(1) (dB) + GT(1) (dB)
where
Power delivered to the second 2 - port
G(1) =
Power delivered to the first 2 - port

| S 21 |2 (1− | Γin ( 2 ) |2 )
=
(1− | S11 |2 )+ | Γin ( 2 ) |2 (| S 22 |2 − | D |2 ) − 2 Re( Γin ( 2 ) N )

= 13.1 dB
and
Power delivered to the second 2 - port
GT (1) =
Power available from source
| S 21 |2 (1− | ΓS |2 )(1− | Γin ( 2 ) |2 )
= 2
(1 − S11 ΓS )(1 − S 22 Γin ( 2 ) ) − S12 S 21 Γin ( 2) ΓS

= 8.86 dB

Therefore,
Pin(1) = –10 (dBm) – 13.1 + 8.86 = –14.24 (dBm)

ii) Note that input mismatch factor is

4 RS Rin (1)
= 0.3765 = −4.24 ( dB)
( RS + Rin (1) ) 2

Therefore
Pin(1) = –10 + (–4.24) = –14.24 (dBm)
(b) From part i) of (a), the power delivered to the second 2-port is

Pin(2) (dBm) = Pavs (dBm) + GT(1) (dB)

= –10 dBm + 8.86 dB

Pin(2) = –1.14 (dBm)

(c) The power delivered to the load, PL

Note that
Power delivered to the load
G( 2 ) =
Power delivered to the second 2 - port

| S 21 |2 (1− | ΓL |2 )
=
(1− | S11 |2 )+ | ΓL |2 (| S 22 |2 − | D |2 ) − 2 Re( ΓL N )
= 12.81 dB
Therefore,
PL (dBm) = Pin(2) (dBm) + G(2) (dB)
= –1.14 dBm + 12.81 dB

PL = 11.67 (dBm)

(d) The transducer gain for the cascaded 2-port, GT

Power delivered to the load

GT =
Power available from the source
or
GT (dB)= PL (dBm) – Pavs (dBm) = 21.67 (dB)

Alternatively,
GT (dB) = GT(1) (dB) + G(2) (dB) = 8.86 + 12.81 = 21.67 (dB)

(e) The available gain of the cascaded 2-port, GA

Power available from the second 2 - port

GA =
Power available from the source
 Power available from the first 2 - port Power available from the second 2 - port
= ⋅
Power available from the source Power available from the first 2 - port
= G A(1) ⋅ G A( 2 )

∴ GA (dB) = GA(1) (dB) + GA(2) (dB) = 10.79 + 12.68 = 23.47 (dB)

(f) The operating gain of the cascaded 2-port, G

Power delivered to the load

G=
Power delivered to the first 2 - port
⇒
G (dB) = PL (dBm) − Pin(1) (dBm) = 25.91 dB

Alternatively,
G (dB) = G1 (dB) + G2 (dB) = 13.1 + 12.81 = 25.91 dB

(g) Since
1− | S11 |2 − | S 22 |2 + | D |2
K= = 1.072 > 1
2 | S12 S 21 |
and
| D | = | S11 S 22 − S12 S 21 | < 1

it is possible to provide a simultaneous conjugate match at the input with Γms and output with Γml ,
respectively, where

B1 ± B12 − 4 | C1 |2
Γms =
2C1

B2 ± B22 − 4 | C2 |2
Γml =
2C2

B1 = 1+ | S11 |2 − | S 22 |2 − | D |2

C1 = S11 − DS 22
*

B2 = 1+ | S22 |2 − | S11 |2 − | D |2

C2 = S22 − DS11*
We know that in this case,

G = GT = GA = GA,max

and this is the case for both 2-ports. Thus, we can calculate the gain using Γms and Γml , or simply

G A,max =
S 21
S12
( )
K − K 2 − 1 = 13.134 dB

Then
Pout (dBm) = Pavo(1) (dBm) + GA,max (dB)
= (Pavs(1) + GA,max) + GA,max
= −10 + 2 × 13.134 = 16.27 (dBm)

∴ Pout (dBm) = 16.27 (dBm)

(h) Terminate the output of the cascaded 2-port with Z0 and find Γin(1) .

S12 S 21 ΓL
Γin ( 2 ) = S11 + = S11 = 0.35
1 − S 22 ΓL

S12 S 21 Γin ( 2 )
Γin (1) = S11 + = 0.35 + 0.127 = 0.477
1 − S 22 Γin ( 2 )

∴ S11 = Γin (1) = 0.477

[8-5] Transfer function of a Butterworth lowpass filter is

1
S 21 ( jω ) =
2
2n
ω 
1 +  
 ωC 

Let us normalize the frequency to ωC. Then

ω
ω =
ωC

1
S 21 ( jω ) =
2

1 + ω 2n

Note now that at ω = 1 ,

1
S 21 ( jω ) = = −3 dB
2

2
At ω = ω 0 = ω 0 / ω C ,
1
≥ −0.5 dB = 0.89125
1 + ω0
2n

⇒ 1 + ω 0 2n ≤ 1.122

⇒ ω0 ≤ 0.122
2n
(1)

Also, at ω = 2ω 0 = 2ω 0 / ω C ,
1
≤ −30 dB = 0.001
1 + (2ω 0 )
2n

⇒ 1 + (2ω 0 ) ≥ 1000
2n

⇒ 2 2 n ⋅ ω 0 2n ≥ 999 ( 2)

Dividing (2) by (1) would not change the inequality. Then

2 2 n ≥ 8187.3

⇒ n ≥ 6.5
Thus, the smallest possible filter order is
n=7

Let us go back to (1) and (2).

 ⇒ ω 0 ≤ 0.122
14
(1)
1
⇒ ω 0 ≤ (0.122) 14
= 0.8605

ω0 f
⇒ = 0 ≤ 0.8605
ωC fC
Thus
fC ≥ 17.43 MHz (3)

⇒ 214 ⋅ ω 0 ≥ 999
14
( 2)

⇒ ω 0 ≥ 0.06097
14

ω0
⇒ ω = ≥ 0.8189
ωC
Thus
fC ≤ 18.32 MHz (4)

From (3) and (4), therefore, the –3dB cutoff frequency of the filter should be

17.43 ≤ fC ≤ 18.32 MHz

Corresponding passband and stopband responses are

Cutoff frequency Attenuation at f0 Attenuation at 2f0

17.43 MHz −0.5 dB* −33.02 dB
18.32 MHz −0.257 dB −30 dB*
* denotes design target.
1.
s (t ) = 10 cos1 [
2π4
(10
44
8
−2
t4 4 2
104t4 − 44
)4 π
3 ]
ω t + θ (t )
c

ω inst =
∂
∂t
[
[ωC t + θ (t )] = ∂ 2π (108 t − 104 t 2 ) − 4π
∂t
]
= 2π (108 − 2 ⋅ 104 t ) ( rad / s )

ω inst
∴ f inst = = 10 8 − 2 ⋅ 10 4 t ( Hz ) = (100 − 0.02t ) MHz
2π

2. Break loop and terminate.

Vout = Vin ⋅ e − (α + jβ ) L

(a) Since the transmission line is terminated with its characteristic impedance(Z0 = 50Ω), we should see
50Ω when looking into it. In that case,
50 AV
Vin = AV ⋅ =
50 + 50 2
AV −(α + jβ ) L
Vout = ⋅e
2
and the voltage gain is
Vout A −(α + jβ ) L
VG = = ⋅e
V 2
For oscillation to occur, VG must have a real value at the potential frequency of oscillation. Thus,

A 
Im  ⋅ e −(α + jβ ) L  = 0
2 

Let us rewrite the expression for voltage gain as below:

A −αL − jβL
VG = ⋅ e{ ⋅e
2 loss { phase
Note that now we have separated the magnitude and phase terms, and this gives us a better insight. The
e −αL term accounts for the loss within the transmission line of length L, and e − jβL term accounts for the
phase change.
It is now clear that for VG to be real, e jβL = 1∠0 or

βL = 2nπ
2πf
where n is integer. Since β = ,
vp
vp
f0 = ⋅n
L

vp
Note that since the guided wavelength(wavelength in the transmission line) is λ g = , we can rewrite
f
the above expression as
L = n λg

In other words, this circuit will oscillate at the frequency where the electrical length of the transmission
line is a multiple of the wavelength.

(b)
Let α = Kf. Then
A − KfL − jβL
VG = ⋅e ⋅e
2
vp
Note that the lowest non-zero frequency of oscillation is f 01 = (i.e., n = 1), and the second one is
L
2v p
f 02 = . In order for this circuit to oscillate only at f = f01 and not at any higher potential frequencies,
L
VG shoud satisfy the following conditions:
Kv p
A − ⋅L
VG > 1 for n = 1 ⇒ ⋅e L
>1
2
2 Kv p
A − ⋅L
VG < 1 for n ≥ 2 ⇒ ⋅ e L
<1
2
Thus,

< A < 2e
Kv p 2 Kv p
2e
3.

(a) For down-conversion with

high-side LO1 : fLO1 = [140 ~ 170] + 45 = 185 ~ 215 (MHz)
low-side LO1 : fLO1 = [140 ~ 170] − 45 = 95 ~ 125 (MHz)

(b) For high-side LO2 fLO2 = 45 + 5.5 = 50.5 (MHz)

low-side LO2 fLO2 = 45 − 5.5 = 39.5 (MHz)

(c) fc = 160 MHz

for high-side LO1 : fLO1 = fc + fIF1 = 205 (MHz), fIM = fc + 2fIF1 = 250 (MHz)
for low-side LO1 : fLO1 = fc − fIF1 = 115 (MHz), fIM = |fc − 2fIF1| = 70 (MHz)

(d) For double-or-more conversion, it is usually the case that the bandwidth of the last IF filter is
matched to the signal bandwidth. In other words, the last IF stage provides channel selectivity.
Therefore, the bandwidth of the 2nd IF filter should be 5 KHz,

(e) The maximum bandwidth of the 1st IF filter for the rejection of secondary images.

 + for " high − side" LO

f IM 2 (secondary image) = f IF 1 ± 2 f IF 2 
 − for " low − side" LO

Since fIF1 = 45 MHz and fIF2 = 5.5 MHz, secondary image is centered at 34 or 56MHz, depending on the
choice of LO frequency, with channel bandwidth of 5KHz.
 1 1
∴ BW = 56 MHz − ⋅ 5KHz − (34 + ⋅ 5KHz ) = 22 MHz − 5KHz = 21.995MHz
2 2

(f) No, the preselector does not have to be tunable since the images(obtained in a.) always lie outside
the frequency band of interest. A fixed band-pass filter will do the job.

4. (a)

(b) f3dB = 5 MHz

ω0 f 20 X ω L
QS = = 0 = =4= L 0
∆ω ∆f 5 R R

Since R = RS + RL = 100Ω,

400 400 10
L= = = ⋅ 10 −6 ( H ) = 3.183 µH
ω 0 2π ⋅ 20 ⋅ 10 6
π

1 1 1
C= = = ⋅ 10 −9 ( F ) = 19.9 pF
ω 0 L 4π ⋅ 400 ⋅ 10
2 7
16π

(c)

At 20MHz, L and C cancels each other out. Thus without inductor loss

V S2 1 1 V2
PL = ⋅ ⋅ = S
2 50 + 50 2 400
With the introduction of rL = XL / QL ,

1 50
PRL = V S2 2
2  X 
100 + L 
 QL 
PRL
Attenuation = 10 log > −2
PL

4 ⋅ 50 2
2
−
⇒ 2
> 10 10
= 0.631
 X 
100 + L 
 QL 

XL 100 XL
⇒ 100 + < ⇒ < 25.9
QL 0.631 QL

∴ QL > 15.4

v Note : below is a general derivation of the above problem.

At the resonant frequency, the series L and C cancels each other out. Without rL which represents loss
in the inductor, the source and load are matched(i.e., RS = RL), and the power delivered to the load RL is

1 V S2 1 V S2
PL = ⋅ ⋅ =
2 R L + RS 2 8 RS

With the introduction of rL = XL / QL , let Req = RL + rL. Then

Req VS
V Req = V S and IS =
R S + Req RS + Req

1 1 Req
⇒ PReq = V Req ⋅ I S = VS2
2 2 (R S + Req )2
Power delivered to RL is then

RL 1 2 RL
PRL = PReq ⋅ = VS
Req 2 (R S + Req )2
Thus,
PRL 4RS RL 4 R L2
= =
PL (R S + Req )
2
(2 R L + rL )2
1 1
= 2
= 2
 2 R L + rL   r 
  1 + L 
 2RL   2RL 
1
= 2
 QS 
1 + 
 QL 

Notice that the attenuation due to a lossy inductor can be expressed in terms of quality factors QS and
QL only, where QS and QL are the quality factor of series L-C and of an inductor L, respectively.
 ECE 353 - Fall 2000 - HE2 Answers
2 (1−0.752 )2
1a. ΓS = ΓL = 0.75, so GT = 3(1−0.6 0.75)2
= 5.695 → 7.55 dB, so Pout = 7.55 dBm.

1b. Since S12 = 0, ΓIN = S11 = 0.0 → ZIN = 50 Ω.

∗ ∗
1c. Since S12 = 0, ΓM S = S11 = 0.0 and ΓM L = S22 = 0.6. Use ΓM S , ΓM L in
expression for GT to find that GT = 14.06 → 11.5 dB, so Pout = 11.5 dBm.

1d. From part c. we know ΓM S , ΓM L , from which ZM S = 50 Ω and ZM L = 200 may

be obtained.

2a. The only solution is XS = −2000 Ω and XP = −500 Ω.

2b. If ZL → 2 + j404 then the mismatch factor at the output of the matching network
4∗2∗2 1
is M F = (2+2)2 +(400−404) 2 = 2 → −3 dB.

1
3a. |S21 |2 = 1+ω 2
.

3b. One LHP pole at s=-1.

1 1 ±1 ±1 ±1
3c. |S21 |2 = S21 (s)S21 (−s) = 1+( sj )2
= 1−s2
= 1+s 1−s
, so S21 (s) = 1+s
. Note, only
the upper sign is relevant here.

1
3d. Two different networks can realize S21 (jω) = 1+jω , one of them consists of a se-
ries inductor, the other is a shunt capacitor. The inductance is found to be L = 2 H and the
capacitor is C = 2 F. After scaling for Zo = 50 Ω and ωc = 2π107 → L0 = 1.59 µH and
C 0 = 636.6 pF.

1
3e. The transducer power gain for the scaled filter is |S21 |2 = 1+( ff )2
with fc =
c
1 1
10 MHz. So, at f = 100 MHz the transducer power gain is 1+( 100 )2
= 101
→ −20 dB.
10

1
ECE 353 Lab #1 Summary Fall 1999

ECE 353 Name:

Lab #1 Summary Score: /15

All check points are worth 1 point except where otherwise noted. The total is divided by 4 to get your final score.

Probe Characteristics

Show the equivalent circuit for the VIM probe.

Derive Equation (1.2) of the laboratory notes.

Measure the open and short circuit impedance of the probe at 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 MHz.

(2 pts) Derive the values for R, L, and C as calculated at 8 MHz.

(2 pts) Compare impedance values measured at 2, 4, -, 16, 32 and 64 MHz with those predicted by the model.

Conclusion.

Capacitors

Measure and plot X vs frequency for the two capacitors.

Find the series resonant frequency of each capacitor.

(2 pts) Find the approximate values of L and C from very high and very low frequency measurements.

Are the values of L reasonable? Estimate the values of L from the lead lengths.

(2 pts) For any one frequency measurement, calculate the value of a capacitor taking the probe into consideration.

Conclusion.

Inductors

Measure and plot X vs. frequency for the two inductors.

Describe the inductors (physical makeup, equation to find the number of turns required, etc.).

Specify the parallel resonant frequency.

(2 pts) Find the approximate values of L and C from very high and very low frequency measurements.

(2 pts) For any one frequency measurement, calculate the value of an inductor taking the probe into consideration.

Conclusion.

Resistors

Measure and plot Rs and Xs vs. frequency for the 50Ω resistor.

Estimate Ls for the 50Ω resistor.

(2 pts) Measure and plot Rp and Cp vs. frequency for the 10KΩ resistor.

Discuss and explain the results. Why are large resistors modeled as parallel RC circuits?

(2 pts) Derive Equation (1.1) of the laboratory notes.

(2 pts) For any one frequency measurement, calculate the value of a resistor taking the probe into consideration.

Conclusion.

1
ECE 353 Lab #1 Summary Fall 1999

Black Box

Include the following plots: R vs. f , X vs. f , |Z| vs. f and ∠Z vs. f .

Make a DC measurement.

(3 pts) Construct a model and explain your reasoning...conclude no other model will fit the data as well.

(3 pts) Derive the component values fo your model, explicitly describing your assumptions.

(4 pts) Simulate your model using ADS.

(2 pts) Compare simulation with the measured values.

Conclusion.

General Lab Procedure.

All work done in a notebook.

Figures attached and labeled.

Good organization; procedure sequenced in order.

Diagrams of setups.

Entries and notes legible.

Show calculations where appropriate.

Good introductions and conclusions where appropriate.

(2 pts) Show individual thinking.

Lab attendance...unexcused tardiness and absenteeism.

(2 pts) Lab preparation.