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8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design
M.V.Ramana Rao
Magnetic Circuit Design
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
•The path of the magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.

M.V.Ramana Rao
• In an electric circuit Ohm‟s law expresses a relationship between
current, emf, and resistance;
•While in a magnetic circuit, a similar relation exists relating flux,
mmf and reluctance.
Reluctance

M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
In parallel circuits, the same mmf is applied to each of the parallel
paths and the total flux divides between the paths in inverse
proportion to their reluctances, as in corresponding electric circuits
or

M.V.Ramana Rao
Dividing by AT, the applied mmf, we get

M.V.Ramana Rao
Non-magnetic materials (like air etc.) have a constant value of
permeability and so the B-‟at‟ curve for them is a straight line
passing through the origin.
For air or any other non-magnetic material, mmf per metre

M.V.Ramana Rao
MAGNETIC LEAKAGE
It is impossible to confine all the magnetic flux to a given path (there
being no magnetic insulator), and therefore the designer‟s problem
becomes that of providing a path of low reluctance to that comparatively
little flux leaks away from the path and then supplying a somewhat
larger mmf to compensate for the flux which leaks away.
This flux which strays away completes its circuit by paths which
prevents its utilization in the functioning of the apparatus or machinery.
For the operation of electric machinery, some air gaps are necessary in
the magnetic paths but these air gaps should be kept to a minimum of
„length and maximum of cross-section so as to reduce their reluctance.

M.V.Ramana Rao
A long air gap of small cross-section would require a large mmf resulting
in large coils of many turns and would also result in a tendency for the
flux to wander away from its main path.
This flux which strays away from the

main path is called the leakage flux.
The leakage flux does not contribute to either transfer or conversion of
energy.
However, the leakage flux affects the performance of rotating machines
and transformers.
The leakage flux affects the excitation demands of salient pole
machines, the leakage reactance of windings on which the performance
of the a.c. machines is primarily based, the forces between windings,
especially under short conditions, voltage regulation of a.c. generation
and transformers, commutation conditions in d.c. machines, stray load
losses, circulating currents in transformer tank walls and several other
performance indices of importance.
M.V.Ramana Rao
For magnetic circuit calculations, a term ‘leakage co-efficient’
is introduced in order to take into account the leakage flux.
The value of this leakage co-efficient is defined as

M.V.Ramana Rao
CALCULATION OF TOTAL mmf IN A MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
•The calculation of total mmf required to establish the requisite flux

in a magnetic circuit involves the knowledge of dimensions and
configuration of the magnetic circuit.
•The magnetic circuit is split up into convenient parts which may
be connected in series or parallel
•The flux density is calculated in every part and mmf per unit length,
„at‟ is found by consulting „B-at‟ curves. The summation of mmf in
series gives the total mmf.
Assumptions

M.V.Ramana Rao
Mmf for Air Gap
Consider the iron surfaces

on the two sides of the air
gap to be smooth as shown
in Fig.
The flux is uniformly
spread over the entire slot
pitch and goes straight
across the air gap.
* 8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design
M.V.Ramana Rao
Smooth armature
If we confine our attention to only
one slot pitch,
The reluctance of air gap
In a slotted armature, however, the effective area of flux path is

substantially decreased resulting in an increase in reluctance of
air gap.

M.V.Ramana Rao
Slotted armature
Consider the case of a slotted
armature with a very small
gap length as shown in Fig.
The flux in this case is only

confined to the tooth width.
Effective or contracted slat pitch
Reluctance of air gap of a slotted armature

M.V.Ramana Rao
There is, however, some fringing of flux around the teeth edges in a
slotted armature. The flux penetrates down the slot as shown in Fig.1
*
Fig.1 Fig.2
*
A simple method to calculate reluctance in this case is to assume
that the air gap flux is uniformly distributed over the whole of slot
pitch except for a fraction of slot width as shown in Fig. 2
M.V.Ramana Rao
.. Effective or contracted slot pitch
Carter’s gap co-efficient
where Kcs is the “Carter‟s gap co-efficient” which depends

upon the ratio : slot width/gap length.

M.V.Ramana Rao
The value of Carter‟s co-efficient can be taken from Fig.
Fig. Carter‟s Air Gap Co-efficient.

M.V.Ramana Rao
An empirical formula which gives the value
of Kcs directly is
Another useful relationship which can be used for calculation of
Carter‟s co-efficient Kcs for parallel sided open slots is:
Reluctance of air gap with slotted armature

M.V.Ramana Rao
Let ratio of reluctance of air gap of slotted armature to reluctance
of air gap of smooth armature be Kgs. Therefore,
reluctance of air gap of slotted armature

reluctance of air gap of smooth armature = =
where Kgs is called the gap contraction factor for slots

•Therefore, the reluctance of air gap with slotted armature is Kgs
times that with smooth armature.
Kgs has a value greater than unity.
M.V.Ramana Rao
The provision of radial ventilating
ducts results in contraction of flux
in the axial direction as shown in
Fig.
It is clear that the effective axial
length of the machine is reduced
owing to presence of ducts and
this results in an increase in the
reluctance of air gap.
We can derive a similar expression

for ventilating ducts by treating
stacks of laminations as teeth and
the ducts as slots.
*
Where Kcd Carter‟s co-efficient for ducts.
M.V.Ramana Rao
Let the ratio of reluctance of air gap with ducts to reluctance of
air gap without ducts be Kgd
Kgd is called gap contraction factor for ducts.

M.V.Ramana Rao
*
where Kg is the ratio of reluctance of air gap of a slotted armature

with ducts to reluctance of air gap of a smooth armature without
ducts and is called total gap contraction factor for slots
and ducts.

M.V.Ramana Rao
For induction motors, with slots on both sides of air, it is customary
to calculate gap contraction factors for both rotor and stator slots.

M.V.Ramana Rao
•The reluctance of air gap with slotted armatures is higher than that*
with smooth armatures.
•The ratio of the two reluctances is equal to Kg, the gap contraction
factor.
•In other words, the mmf required for the gap with slotted armatures
is Kg times the mmf required for gap with smooth armatures

M.V.Ramana Rao
mmf per metre for air gap = 800,000 B
(contraction in the air gap area) *

M.V.Ramana Rao
Area of gap per pole
where S = total number of slots and p = number of poles.

Contracted or effective gap area per pole

M.V.Ramana Rao
The above relation may be interpreted as that the length of air gap
is increased Kg times due to the provision of slots and ducts.
*
*
Therefore, Kg in this case is called “gap expansion factor.”

M.V.Ramana Rao
Effect of Saliency.
• In the case of salient pole
machines, the length of air gap is
not constant over the whole pole
pitch.
•* This gives rise to different values

of air gap density over the pole
pitch.
• Thus to know the value of
reluctance of the air gap, it is
necessary to know the distribution
of magnetic field in air gap.
Fig. shows a typical flux distribution

curve for a salient pole machine.
M.V.Ramana Rao
• The flux tubes passing from field to armature
• we have only to know the reluctance of one flux tube and the flux
flowing through it in order to find the mmf required for air gap
mmf required for air gap of salient pole machine :

M.V.Ramana Rao
*
* where Kg = gap contraction factor for a gap length at the

centre of the pole.
M.V.Ramana Rao
•Tha flux tube at the centre of pole is chosen because its actual
length is known.
•The length of the flux tube at the centre of the pole is exactly equal
to the length of air gap there.
•Therefore, the value of Kg is based upon the air gap length lg

M.V.Ramana Rao
Field Form Factor Kf

M.V.Ramana Rao
Problem :
Estimate the effective gap area per pole of a 10 pole, slip ring
induction motor with following data
stator bore =0.65 m, core length = 0.25 m, No. of stator slots = 90
stator slot opening = 3 mm, rotor slots = 120
rotor slot opening = 3 mm, air gap length = 0.95 mm
carter‟s co-efficient for ducts = 0.68,
Carter‟s co-efficient for slots = 0.46
number of ventilating ducts = 3
width of each ventilating duct = 10 mm.
* Effective air gap area per pole =

?
M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
r
8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design ?

M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
Problem :
A 175 MVA, 20 pole water wheel generator has a core of length
1.72 m and a diameter of 6.5 m. The stator slots (open) have a
width of 22 mm, the slot pitch being 64 mm and the air gap length
at the centre of the pole is 30 mm. There are 41 radial ventilating
ducts each 6 mm wide. The total mmf per pole is 27000 A. The mmf
required for the air gap is 87% of the total mmf per pole. Estimate
the average flux density in the air gap if the field form factor is 0.7.
8/8/2014 10:29 AM
? Electrical Machine Design
M.V.Ramana Rao
2
Carter‟s co-efficient for slots

M.V.Ramana Rao
*

M.V.Ramana Rao
Net Length of Iron
The cores of magnetic circuits are built up with laminated steel
plates wherever required. These laminations or stampings are
insulated from each other by paper, stuck to one side of the
lamination, Kaolin clay or enamel.
It is clear that whole of the length is not occupied by iron ;

some part of the length is taken up by ventilating ducts and some
part by insulation between steel laminations and air spaces created
by irregularities in thickness of laminations.
It is usual to define iron space factor, called stacking factor,

as the ratio of actual length of iron in a stack of assembled core
plates to total axial length of stack.

M.V.Ramana Rao
where Ki = stacking factor for iron which largely
depends upon thickness of plates and the type of insulating material
employed.
The manufacturers specify the stacking factor for a single
lamination.
The stacking factor for built up cores is smaller and an average
value of 0.9 may be assumed for all practical purposes.
M.V.Ramana Rao
Mmf for Teeth
Tapered Teeth.
The mmf required for teeth can be easily calculated whatever may be
their shape, if the flux going down the slot is neglected. The
correction, to take slot flux into account, can be incorporated later on.
Following are the methods usually employed for the calculation of

mmf required for tapered teeth.
(a) Graphical Method.
(b) Three ordinate Method (Simpson‟s rule).

M.V.Ramana Rao
notes
(a) Graphical Method.
The mmf per metre (H or „at‟)
for the whole length of tooth is
not uniform as the flux density
is not the same everywhere.
Therefore, to obtain correctly

the value of total mmf, it is
necessary to construct a graph
showing the manner in which
„at‟ varies over the length of the
tooth. The mean ordinate of this
graph gives the equivalent „at‟
for the whole of the tooth.

M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
(b) Three ordinate Method (Simpson‟s rule).
This method can be applied to teeth of
very simple form and of a small taper
and is based upon the assumption that
the curve relating „at‟ with flux
density, is a parabola.
In this method, values of „at‟ are
obtained at three equidistant points,
the ends of the tooth and its centre.

M.V.Ramana Rao
This method is applied to teeth of small taper and is based upon the
assumption that value of „at‟ obtained for flux density at a section
1/3 of tooth height from the narrow end is the mean of „at‟ for whole
of the tooth.
This method is the most simple of all the methods and results are
sufficiently accurate if the teeth are worked at low saturation.

M.V.Ramana Rao
Real and Apparent Flux Densities
The real flux passing through the
teeth is always less than the total
or apparent flux. As a result, the
„real flux density‟ in the teeth is
always less than the „apparent flux
density‟.

M.V.Ramana Rao
In an actual machine, taking the flux over one slot pitch, there are
two parallel paths.
1. Iron path.
2. Air path.

M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
*

M.V.Ramana Rao
*

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*

M.V.Ramana Rao
Apparent flux density
*

M.V.Ramana Rao
Problem :

M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
Problem :

M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
Problem :

M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
8/8/2014 10:29 AM
Electrical Machine Design
M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
ARMATURE LEAKAGE 1. Slot leakage flux.
The term “Armature” means the member which carries distributed d.c.
or a.c windings.
The leakage flux in armature of rotating machines is superimposed
upon the mutual (useful) flux in the air gap region. The distribution of
the air gap flux is modified on account of existence of leakage flux.
The distribution of total
flux in air gap region is
shown in Fig. (a).
However, the leakage
flux in the overhang has
a separate identity.
Fig.(b) shows its
arbitrary two
components, the mutual
(useful) flux and the
leakage flux.
M.V.Ramana Rao
2. Tooth top leakage flux.
This leakage flux passes from top of one tooth to the top of another
tooth. This leakage flux is quite important in machines having large
gap lengths like d.c. machines and synchronous machines while in
induction machines, it is normally negligible. Fig. shows the tooth
top leakage flux.

M.V.Ramana Rao
3. Zigzag leakage flux
This flux passes from one tooth to another in a zigzag fashion
across the air gap (Fig. The magnitude of this flux depends upon
the length of air gap and the relative positions of tips of teeth.

M.V.Ramana Rao
4. Overhang leakage flux.
The overhang portion of armature windings produces a separate
leakage flux. Its magnitude depends upon the arrangement of
overhang and the proximity metal masses, such as core stiffness and
end covers having conducting and magnetic properties. Fig. shows
the overhang leakage flux. It is clear that this leakage flux has
distinct separate identity and does not modify the value and
distribution of the total flux.

M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao
The iron surfaces around the air gap are not smooth and so the
calculation of mmf for the air gap by ordinary methods gives
wrong results. The problem is complicated by the fact that
1. One or both of the iron surfaces around the air gap may be
slotted so that the flux tends to concentrate on the teeth rather than
distributing itself uniformly over the air gap.
2. There are radial ventilating ducts in the machine for cooling

purposes which affect in a similar manner as above.
3. In salient pole machines, the gap dimensions are not constant

over whole of the pole pitch.
Back
M.V.Ramana Rao
The calculation of mmf necessary to maintain the flux in the teeth
is difficult owing to the following complex problems
1. The teeth are wedge-shaped or tapered when parallel sided slots

are used. This means that the area presented to the path of flux is
not constant and this gives different values of flux density over the
length of teeth.
2. The slot provides another parallel path for the flux, shunting the
tooth. The teeth are normally worked in the saturation region and
therefore their permeability is low, and as a result an appreciable
portion of the flux goes down the depth of the slots. The presence
of two parallel paths, the reluctance of one part depending upon the
degree of saturation in the other, makes the problem intricate.
8/8/2014 10:29 AM
Electrical Machine Design back
M.V.Ramana Rao
Anyone who stops learning is old,
whether at twenty or eighty.
Anyone who keeps learning stays young.
The greatest thing in life is to keep your
mind young.

M.V.Ramana Rao
M.V.Ramana Rao

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8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

This flux which strays away from the

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

•The calculation of total mmf required to establish the requisite flux

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

Consider the iron surfaces

In a slotted armature, however, the effective area of flux path is

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

The flux in this case is only

Effective or contracted slat pitch

Reluctance of air gap of a slotted armature

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

Carter’s gap co-efficient

where Kcs is the “Carter‟s gap co-efficient” which depends

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

Fig. Carter‟s Air Gap Co-efficient.

Reluctance of air gap with slotted armature

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

reluctance of air gap of slotted armature

where Kgs is called the gap contraction factor for slots

We can derive a similar expression

Kgd is called gap contraction factor for ducts.

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

where Kg is the ratio of reluctance of air gap of a slotted armature

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

(contraction in the air gap area) *

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

where S = total number of slots and p = number of poles.

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

•* This gives rise to different values

Fig. shows a typical flux distribution

mmf required for air gap of salient pole machine :

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

* where Kg = gap contraction factor for a gap length at the

•Therefore, the value of Kg is based upon the air gap length lg

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

* Effective air gap area per pole =

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design ?

Carter‟s co-efficient for slots

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

It is clear that whole of the length is not occupied by iron ;

It is usual to define iron space factor, called stacking factor,

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

Following are the methods usually employed for the calculation of

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

Therefore, to obtain correctly

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design

8/8/2014 10:29 AM Electrical Machine Design