1

Module No. 4

Flow Measurement in Open Channels Using Weirs

Irrigation water management begins with knowing how much water to apply based on
how much the crop needs. Thus, measuring flow is imperative, which is useful to: (a) check
irrigation efficiency by allowing accurate measurement of water applied; (b) determine
pumping efficiency to allow water to be supplied as inexpensively as possible; and (c) detect
well-pump and other irrigation system problems. These redound to decreased water losses and
improved application efficiency, which can be translated into reduced pumping cost and
hence more profit for the farmers.

There are several methods to measure flow in open channels as part of monitoring and
evaluation of irrigation canal system. These include the use of flow regime variations principle,
that is, by simulating a critical flow created by hydraulic structures known as weirs and flumes.
There are also conventional techniques such as the float method and the velocity head rod
method, which are given as Laboratory Exercise No. 3.

Flow over a sufficiently high obstruction in an open channel is always critical. When
placed intentionally to measure the flow rate, they are called weirs. A weir is a common and
simple hydraulic structure used by hydrologists and engineers to measure the volumetric flow
rate or discharge in small to medium-sized streams and rivers.

Weir is basically a barrier, a miniature dam across the flow path in an open channel,
which alter the flow characteristics of the water and usually results in a change in the depth of
flow. As water passes over the crest and drops downstream, the flow velocity increases. This
acceleration creates a known relationship between the height of water (h) and the flow rate or
discharge (Q).

Aside from measuring Q with relatively high accuracy of +/- 2 percent (Sutherland &
Taylor, 2014), weirs are also used to impound water in order to increase its h and this change in h
can then be used to power waterwheels. In addition, weirs are commonly used to control Q of
rivers during periods of high discharge thus preventing flooding downstream. On larger rivers, a
weir can alter the flow characteristics of the waterway to the point that vessels are able to
navigate areas previously inaccessible due to extreme currents or eddies (Wikipedia, 2018).

In this module, only the flow regimes of different type of weirs as used to measure flow
rate or discharge in open channels are discussed. Flumes will be covered in the next module.

After thorough and diligent study of this module, you should be able to:

a. Distinguish the different types of weir according to crest construction and geometric
shape;
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b. Derive the equation for sharp-crested rectangular weir when the effects of viscosity (Kb)
and surface tension (Kh) are neglected;

c. Determine the rates of flow over sharp-crested rectangular, V-notch and Cipolletti weirs
including broad-crested rectangular weirs; and

d. Summarize the installation, maintenance and operational requirements of weirs.

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I. Types of Weir
There are several types of weir (Figure 1) according to crest construction and geometric
shape. The crest refers to the top of the weir, where the water flows over it. It can be either
sharp-crested (Figure 2), broad-crested (Figure 3), or ogee-shaped (Figure 4). Weirs also come in
different geometric shapes, such as rectangular (Figure 5), triangular (Figure 6), and trapezoidal
(Figure 7). Further, rectangular weirs can be either suppressed or contracted as shown Figure 8.

Figure 1. Types of weir according to crest construction and geometric shape

Source: Bengtson (2010)

Figure 2. Flow over sharp-crested weir

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Source: Bengtson (2010)

Figure 3. Flow over broad-crested weir

Source: The Constructor: Civil Engineering Home (n.d))

Figure 4. Flow over ogee-shaped weir

Source: LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd. (2014)

Figure 5. Rectangular weir

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Source: LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd. (2015)

Figure 6. Triangular or V-notch weir

Source: LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd. (2013)

Figure 7. Trapezoidal or Cipolletti weir

Source: United States Department of Interior – Bureau of Reclamation (1997)

Figure 8. Types of rectangular weir

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The height of water above the crest is called the head over the weir and is shown as
capital letter “H” in Figure 2 and 3, or small letter “h” in Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7 above. According to
Bengtson, H or h is the parameter that is measured and used to determine the flow rate or
discharge (Q). Depending on the crest construction and geometric shape, there are equations
to calculate Q over the weir for a given H or h, and vice versa wherein Q can be experimentally
correlated with H or h (2010).

In sharp-crested weir (see Figure 2), the crest of the weir is very sharp such that the water
will spring clear of the crest. The weir plate is bevelled at the crest edges to obtain necessary
thickness, and should be made of smooth, rust-free metal. Flow over sharp-crested weir is similar
to rectangular weir.

Broad-crested weirs (see Figure 3) are constructed in rectangular shape only and are
suitable for larger flows. Head loss is small.

Generally, ogee-shaped weirs (see Figure 4) are provided for the spillway of a storage
dam. The crest slightly rises and falls into parabolic form. Flow over ogee weir is similar to flow
over broad-crested rectangular weir thus only the latter is discussed.

II. Sharp-crested Rectangular Weir

A rectangular weir (see Figure 5) is a standard shape of weir. When sizing a rectangular
weir, a minimum crest length or width of notch of 0.3 m (1 ft) should be considered. The top
edge of the weir can be sharp-crested or broad-crested. It is generally suitable for larger flowing
channels (Adkins, 2006). To find the discharge over rectangular weirs, the Kindsvater-Carter
rectangular weir equation is used (LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd., 2014):

(Eq. 1)

where: Q Discharge or flow rate, m3/sec

Ce Discharge coefficient and is influenced by b/B and h/P (see Figure 9),
where P is the height from bottom of channel to bottom of weir (see
Figures 5, 6 and 7)
g Gravitational acceleration = 9.8 m/sec2
b Width of opening or notch, m (see Figure 5)
h Head, m (see Figure 5)
Kb Accounts for effect of viscosity and is a function of b/B (Figure 10), m
Kh Accounts for effect of surface tension = 0.001 m
b+Kb Effective width, m
h+Kh Effective head, m

The International Standards Organization (1980), American Society for Testing and
Materials (1993) and United States Department of Interior – Bureau of Reclamation (1997) all
recommend using the Kindsvater-Carter method (Eq. 1) for all rectangular weirs.
 7

Source: LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd. (2014)

Figure 9. Discharge coefficient (Ce) of rectangular weir as functions of b/B and h/P

Source: LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd. (2014)

Figure 10. Effect of viscosity (Kb) for rectangular weir as a function of b/B

Head (h) should be measured upstream from the weir at a distance of 4 to 5 times the
maximum head. The weir crest should be between 1 and 2 mm thick in the opening or notch
(see b in Figure 2). Water surface downstream of the weir should be at least 0.06 m below the
weir crest or below the bottom of the notch.
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The measured head (h) should be ≥ 0.03 m. The height from bottom of channel to
bottom of weir (P) is measured from the upstream channel and should be ≥ 0.1 m. The notch
width (b, see Figure 2) and channel width (B, see Figures 5, 6 and 7) should be ≥ 0.15 m. If b < B
(see Figure 8a, contracted weir), then (B-b) ≥ 0.2 m.

Example 1 – Determining discharge of sharp-crested rectangular weir

Problem: A sharp-crested rectangular weir (Kh = 0.001 m) is installed across a

rectangular open channel with 2 m bottom width. The notch width is
1.8 m set at 0.5 m above the channel bottom. What is the discharge
when the nappe is 0.625 m?

Let us identify the givens in relation to Equation 1 and Figure 5 (not

drawn to scale):

Solution:

Since the discharge b/B = 1.8 m / 2.0 m = 0.90

coefficient (Ce) is a
function b/B and h/P = 0.625 m / 0.5 m = 1.25
h/P, solve for these
ratios, thus:

From Figure 9, find With b/B = 0.9 and h/P = 1.25,

the value of
discharge Ce = (see dotted arrow) 0.675
coefficient (Ce):

From Figure 10, find With b/B = 0.9,

the value that
accounts for the Kb = 3 mm
effect of viscosity
and surface tension or 0.003 m
(Kb):

Solve for discharge Substitute values in the formula:

or flow rate (Q) using
Equation 1, thus:
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Q = 0.675 (2/3) √ [2 (9.8 m/sec2](1.8 m + 1.78 m3/sec

0.003 m)(0.625 m + 0.001 m)3/2 =

Therefore, the flow rate over the 1.8 m sharp-crested rectangular weir is 1.78 m3/sec when the
head is 0.625 m above the crest bottom.

III. Sharp-crested Triangular Weir

Since the shape of a triangular weir resembles the letter “V”, it is also called V-notch weir
(see Figure 6). It has reasonable accuracy for flows of up to 0.3 m3/sec and very accurate in
measuring flows less than 0.03 m3/sec.

The V-notch design causes small changes in discharge to have a large change in depth
allowing more accurate head measurement than with a rectangular weir. A V-notch weir is well
suitable for measuring discharge over small flows. The discharge of a triangular weir is estimated
using the Kindsvater-Shen equation (LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd., 2014):

(Eq. 2)

where: Q Discharge or flow rate, cfs

C Discharge coefficient
= 0.607165052 – 0.000874466963 θ + 6.10393334 x 10-6 θ2
θ Notch angle, degrees
h Head, ft
k Head correction factor, ft
= 0.0144902648 – 0.00033955535 θ + 3.29819003 x 10-6 θ2 –
1.06215442 x 10-8 θ3

The International Standards Organization (1980), American Society for Testing and
Materials (1993), and United States Department of Interior – Bureau of Reclamation (1997) all
suggest using the Kindsvater-Shen method (Eq. 2), wherein Q should be in cfs and heights in ft
units.

In using Equation 2, the head (h) should be measured at a distance of at least 4h

upstream of the weir. The weir should be between 0.8 to 2 mm thick in the V. Water surface
downstream of the weir should be at least 0.06 m below the bottom of the V to allow a free
flowing waterfall. Measured head (h) should be greater than 0.6 m due to potential
measurement error at such small heads and the fact that the nappe may cling to the weir.

The equations have been developed for h < 0.38 m and h/P < 2.4, and h/B should be ≤
0.2. The average width of the approach channel (B) should be > 0.91 m. The bottom of the V
should be at least 0.45 m above the bottom of the upstream channel.
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Example 2 – Determining discharge of sharp-crested triangular weir

Problem: A sharp-crested 900 notch is installed across a canal. What is the

discharge when the height of flow is 0.25 m?

Let us identify the givens in relation to Equation 2 and Figure 6 (not

drawn to scale):

Solution:

Since the h = 0.25 m x 3.28 ft/1 m = 0.82 ft

Kindsvater-Shen
equation requires
English units,
convert head (h)
in ft, thus:

Solve for discharge C = 0.607165052 – 0.000874466963 θ +

coefficient (C), 6.10393334 x 10-6 θ2
thus: C = 0.607165052 – 0.000874466963 (90)
+ 6.10393334 x 10-6 (90)2 = 0.5779048854

Solve for head k = 0.0144902648 – 0.00033955535 θ +

correction factor 3.29819003 x 10-6 θ2 –
(k): 1.06215442 x 10-8 θ3
k = 0.0144902648 – 0.00033955535 (90) +
3.29819003 x 10-6 (90)2 –
1.06215442 x 10-8 (90)3 = 0.002902516818 ft

Solve for discharge Substitute values in the formula:

or flow rate (Q)
using Equation 2,
thus:

Q = 4.28 (0.5779048854) tan (90/2)

(0.82 + 0.002902516818)5/2 = 1.52 cfs

Convert ft3/sec to Q = 1.52 ft3/sec x 1 m3/(3.28 ft)3 = 0.043 m3/sec

m3/sec:
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Therefore, the flow rate over the 900 sharp-crested triangular weir is 0.043 m3/sec when the
head is 0.25 m.

IV. Sharp-crested Trapezoidal Weir

A trapezoidal weir is also called Cipolletti weir (see Figure 7). It is relatively less accurate
than V-notch and rectangular weirs and is commonly used to measure high flows.

The sides are inclined outwards with a slope of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical. Both sides of a
Cipolletti weir should have equal slope. To find the discharge, the following equation is used
(LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd., 2013):

(Eq. 3)

where: Q Discharge or flow rate, cfs

L Length of the crest bottom (not along the top water surface of
nappe), ft
h Head, ft

The head (h) should be measured at a distance of at least 4h upstream of the weir. The
weir should be between 0.8 to 2 mm thick in the opening or notch. Water surface downstream
of the Cipolletti weir should be at least 0.06 m below the weir crest or below the bottom of the
opening.

Measured head (h) should be greater than 0.06 m but less than L/3. P is measured from
the bottom of the upstream channel and should be greater than 2hmax, where hmax is the
maximum expected head. b should be greater than 2hmax. Note that this b is not the crest
bottom width of a rectangular weir (see Figure 5) but the distance of the top opening of
trapezoidal weir from the sides of the channel (see Figure 7).
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Example 3 – Determining discharge of sharp-crested trapezoidal weir

Problem: A 1.5 m sharp-crested Cipolletti weir is installed across a stream.

What is the discharge when the height of flow is 0.4 m?

Let us identify the givens in relation to Equation 3 and Figure 7 (not

drawn to scale):

Solution:

Since Equation 3 h = 0.4 m x 3.28 ft/1 m = 1.31 ft

requires English units,
convert head (h) L = 1.5 m x 3.28 ft/1 m = 4.92 ft
and length (L) in ft,
thus:

Solve for discharge Substituting values in the formula:

or flow rate (Q) using
Equation 3, thus:

Q = 3.367 (4.92 ft)(1.31 ft)3/2 = 24.84 cfs

Convert ft3/sec to Q = 24.84 ft3/sec x 1 m3/(3.28 ft)3 = 0.70 m3/sec

m3/sec:

Therefore, the flow rate over the sharp-crested Cipolletti weir is 0.70 m3/sec when the head
is 0.4 m and bottom width is 1.5 m.

V. Broad-crested Rectangular Weir

Broad crested weirs (see Figure 3) are robust structures that are generally constructed
from reinforced concrete and which usually span the full width of the channel. They are used to
measure the discharge as well as to regulate the water level of rivers. Additionally, by virtue of
being a critical depth meter, the broad-crested weir has the advantage that it operates
effectively with higher downstream water levels than a sharp crested weir.
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A solid broad-crested weir works on the principle that the flow over the weir must go
through the critical depth as shown in Figure 11. Critical depth is the height of a weir that
determines whether or not the flow goes critical.

Source: Kay (1998)

Figure 11. Critical depth of flow over broad-crested weir

As there is drawdown close to the weir, the head must be measured a few meters
upstream where the water level is unaffected by the weir. Downstream of the weir, a hydraulic
jump occurs. Once critical flow and hydraulic jump happen, a formula for discharge can be
developed using the concept of specific energy and the special conditions that occur at the
critical depth. The following formula relates the channel discharge with the upstream water
depth measured above the weir crest (Claydon, 2011):

Q = CLh1.5 (Eq. 4)

where: Q Discharge or flow rate, m3/sec

C Coefficient of discharge (see Table 1 for appropriate equation to use)
L Length of the crest bottom (not along the water surface), m
h Head, m

Since Equation 4 is based on critical depth, it is not dependent on the shape of the weir.
Therefore, Equation 4 can be used for any critical depth weir and not just for broad-crested
weirs. Only the value of C changes to take account of the different geometric shapes of the
weir. Other geometric shapes of critical depth weir is shown in Figure 12.
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Table 1. Equations for coefficient of discharge (C) in broad-crested rectangular weir

Equation for C Condition Researcher(s)
C = 0.913 + 0.049 (h/L) 0.1 < h/L < 0.35
With viscosity effect
(Eq. 5)
Muralidhar & Govinda-Roa
C = 0.971 (h/L)0.022 0.1 < h/L < 0.35 (1963)
Without viscosity effect
(Eq. 6)

C = 0.9 + 0.147 [h / (h + P)] 0.1 < h/L < 0.4 Azimi & Rajaratnam (2009)
Broad-crested weir with
(Eq. 7) rounded entrance

Source: Salmasi, Poorescandar, Dalir & Zadeh (2012)

Source: Claydon (2011)

Figure 12. Other designs of critical depth weir

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Example 4 – Determining discharge of broad-crested rectangular weir

Problem: A broad-crested rectangular weir is installed across a river with the

following characteristics: height of flow = 1.5 m; and length of weir = 8
m. The height of the crest is 0.75 m. Estimate the discharge under the
following conditions:

a. with viscosity effect;

b. without viscosity effect; and
c. with rounded entrance.

Deduce conclusions based on the results.

Solution:

Check whether h/L = 1.5 m / 8 m = 0.19

the condition on
h/L is met or not: Therefore, the condition that h/L should be
between 0.1 and 0.35 to 0.4 is met.

Solve for For with viscosity effect:

coefficients of
discharge (C) C = 0.913 + 0.049 (h/L)
under the three C = 0.913 + 0.049 (0.19) = 0.92231
given conditions
using Equations 5, For without viscosity effect:
6 and 7,
respectively, thus: C = 0.971 (h/L)0.022
C = 0.971 (0.19)0.022 = 0.9361637256

For with rounded entrance:

C = 0.9 + 0.147 [h / (h + P)]

C = 0.9 + 0.147 [(1.5 m) / (1.5 m + 0.75 m)] = 0.998

Solve for discharge For with viscosity effect:

(Q) under the
three conditions Q = CLh1.5
using Equation 4, Q = 0.92231 (8 m)(1.5 m)1.5 = 13.56 m3/sec
thus:
For without viscosity effect:

Q = CLh1.5
Q = 0.9361637256 (8 m)(1.5 m)1.5 = 13.76 m3/sec

For with rounded entrance:

Q = CLh1.5
Q = 0.998 (8 m) (1.5 m)1.5 = 14.67 m3/sec
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Therefore, the flow rates of broad-crested rectangular weirs when viscosity effect is
considered is 13.56 m3/sec; 13.76 m3/sec when viscosity is neglected; and 14.67 m3/sec
when the weir has rounded entrance.

VI. Weir Installation, Maintenance and Operation

To be effective in measuring flow, the following weir installation, maintenance and
operational requirements should be followed (Adkins, 2006):

1. The connection between the weir and the channel should be watertight. The joint
between the weir plate and the channel should be packed with chemically inert
cement or asphalt-type roofing compound.

2. The weir should be ventilated, if necessary, to prevent a vacuum from forming on the
underside of the nappe. The ventilated air pocket formed under the nappe insures that
atmospheric pressure is present on all sides of the nappe.

3. The height of the weir from the bottom of the channel to the crest should be at least 2
times the maximum expected head of liquid above the crest. This is necessary to lower
the velocity of approach.

4. The approach section upstream from the weir should be straight for a distance of at least
20 times the maximum expected head of liquid and should have little or no slope. In a
relatively large channel, water velocity approach should be less than
0.15 m/sec.

5. The crest must be set higher than the maximum downstream elevation of the water
surface; otherwise, a submerged flow condition will occur instead of the free-flow
condition required for reliable measurement.

6. A stilling pond or basin may be required to reduce velocity and the effects of flow
turbulence of the liquid upstream of the weir.

7. A drop of about 0.15 m or more in the channel is needed to establish free-flow conditions
over the weir. This required fall of water surface makes it impracticable to use a weir in
areas having level land.

8. The head measuring point of the weir should be located upstream of the weir crest at a
distance of at least three and preferably four times the maximum expected head of the
weir. It should be located in a quiet section of the channel away from all disturbances,
preferably in a stilling well. Also, the zero point of the head-measuring device must be set
exactly level with the weir crest.

9. For a triangular or rectangular weir with end contraction, the minimum distance of the
sides of the weir from the channel banks should be at least twice the maximum
expected head on the weir.
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10. Avoid deposition of gravel, sand, and silt above the weir so that accurate water
measurements can be obtained.

11. The velocity of approach of water should not exceed 0.15 m/sec. This is accomplished
by setting the weir at the lower end of a long pool, which is wide and deep enough to
give an even, smooth current.

12. The longitudinal axis of the weir should be perpendicular to the direction of the flow. If a
weir box is used, the center line of the weir box should be parallel to the direction of the
flow.

13. The face of the weir should be vertical and at a right angle to the direction of the flow.
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Passing Score: 75 points

Due Date: ASAP but not later than ____________________________________.
Penalty for Late Submission: 5 points deduction per day of delay

If space is not enough, continue at the left-side directly opposite the item being answered.

1. In the world-wide-web (www) and/or elsewhere, find actual pictures (not drawings or
illustrations) of the different types of weir according to crest construction and geometric
shape. (10 pts)
 19

2. What would be the equivalent form of Equation 1 (sharp-crested rectangular weir) when the
effects of viscosity (Kb) and surface tension (Kh) are neglected? (5 pts)

3. Determine the discharge of a sharp-crested rectangular weir (Kh = 0.001 m) with the
following characteristics: height of crest = 0.75 m; head = 1.31 m; bottom width of crest = 2.5
m; and width of channel = 3.57 m. (15 pts)

4. In Q3 above, what would be the head if the crest bottom is shortened by 0.5 m and
neglecting the effects of viscosity (Kb) and surface tension (Kh)? (15 pts)
 20

5. What is the rate of flow over a 1200 sharp-crested V-notch when the head is 0.52 m? (15 pts)

6. In Example 3, the flow rate over the sharp-crested Cipolletti weir is 0.70 m3/sec when the
head is 0.4 m and the bottom width is 1.5 m. What would be the head if the bottom of the
crest is increased by 0.2 m and assuming the same discharge? (15 pts)
 21

7. Suppose a broad-crested rectangular weir (called locally as patappuak) is constructed

across the river in Barangay Tinaan, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur. The height of flow after a heavy
rain is 0.75 m and length of weir = 6 m. The height of the crest is 1.5 m. Determine the
discharge under the following conditions:

a. with viscosity effect;

b. without viscosity effect; and
c. with rounded entrance.

Deduce conclusions based on the above results. (15 pts)

 22

8. In not more than 200 words, summarize the installation, maintenance and operational
requirements of weirs. (10 pts)
 23

Adkins, G.B. (2006). Flow measurement devices. Retrieved from

https://waterrights.utah.gov/distinfo/measurement_devices.pdf

American Society for Testing and Materials. (1993). Standard method for open-channel flow
measurement of water with thin-plate weirs. ASTM D5242. Retrieved from Global
Engineering Documents at http://global.ihs.com

Azimi, A.H. & Rajaratnam, N. (2009). Discharge characteristics of weirs of finite crest length.
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. 135(12):120-125.

Bengtson, H. (2010). Open channel flow measurement 1: Introduction to the weir and flume. In
Bright Hub Engineering. Stonecypher, L. (Ed.). Retrieved from
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/hydraulics-civil-engineering/51435-introduction-
to-the-weir-and-flume/

Claydon, J.F. (2011). The broad-crested weir. Retrieved from

http://www.jfccivilengineer.com/broad_crested_weir.htm

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage. (n.d). ICID [Logo]. Retrieved from
https://icid2019.com/international-commision-on-irrigation-and-drainage/

International Standards Organization. (1980). Water flow measurement in open channels using
weirs and venturi flumes - Part 1: Thin plate weirs. ISO 1438/1-1980(E). Retrieved from
Global Engineering Documents at http://global.ihs.com

Kay, Melvin. 1998. Practical hydraulics: Broad-crested weir. Retrieved from

www.jfccivilengineer.com/broad_crested_weir.htm

Kindsvater, C.E. & Carter, R.W. (1959). Discharge characteristics of rectangular thin-plate weirs.
American Society of Civil Engineers. Vol. 24, p. 3001.

LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd. (2013). Cipolletti (trapezoidal) weir calculator:
Discharge, head and weir length calculations, equations and installation guidelines.
Retrieved from http://www.LMNOeng.com

____________________. (2014). Rectangular weir calculator: Discharge, head, and design

Calculations, equations and installation guidelines. Retrieved from
http://www.LMNOeng.com

____________________. (2015). V-notch (triangular) weir calculator: Discharge and head

calculations, equations and guidelines for water flow measurement in streams and
channels. Retrieved from http://www.LMNOeng.com

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. (n.d). NASEM [Logo]. Retrieved
from http://sites.nationalacademies.org/PGA/biso/SS/index.htm
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Sabia Landscaping and Tree Service. (n.d). SLTS [Logos]. Retrieved from
http://www.sabialandscaping.com/landscaping/seasonal-yard-garden-services/ and
http://www.sabialandscaping.com/irrigation-drainage/

Salmasi, F., Poorescandar, S., Dalir, A.H. & Zadeh, D.F. (2012). Discharge relations for rectangular
broad-crested weirs. Journal of Agricultural Sciences. Tabriz University, Tabriz, Iran.
Retrieved from www.agri.ankara.edu.tr/journal

Sutherland, R. & Taylor, T. (2014). Weirs. Retrieved from

https://www.engr.colostate.edu/.../13%20-%20Sharp%20and%20Broad-crested%20W

The Constructor: Civil Engineering Home. (n.d). What is a weir? Types of weirs and flow over weirs.
Retrieved from https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/what-is-weir-types-
flow...weirs/11873/

United States Department of Interior – Bureau of Reclamation. (1997). Water measurement

manual. 3ed. Retrieved from
http://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/wmm/index.htm

Wikipedia. (2018). Weir. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weir