Petition To List The Pygmy Slow Loris

(Nycticebus pygmaeus)
As An Endangered Species

Alicia Cleaver
Venomous Mammal Protection League
26 April 2018

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Table of Contents
Notice of Petition ………………………………………………………………………………. 3

Executive Summary …………………………………………………………………………….4

Species Description and Systematics

Species Description ………………………………………………………………………4
Taxonomy ……………………………………………………………………………….. 4

Geographic Distribution & Significance

Distribution ……………………………………………………………………………….5
Significance ………………………………………………………………………………6

Natural History & Ecology

Evolution ………………………………………………………………………………….6
Habitat Requirements……………………………………………………………………...6
Food Requirements ……………………………………………………………………….7
Social Organization ……………………………………………………………….………7
Reproduction ……………………………………………………………………………...7
Survival & Mortality ……………………………………………………………………...8

Population Status & Trends …………………………………………………………………….8

Justification for Listing under the Endangered Species Act ..………………………………11

Present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or

range………………………………………………………...............................................11
The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms……………………………………..11
Over-utilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes……...12
Disease or predation………………………………………………………………...……13

Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………………………..13

Literature Cited ………………………………………………………………………………..14

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Notice of Petition
Pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531 et seq., the Venomous
Mammal Protection League hereby formally petition the United States Secretary of Interior and
the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to list the Pygmy Slow Loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus)
as “endangered” throughout its range. We submit this petition as an interested party under 5
U.S.C. § 553(e) and 50 C.F.R. § 424.14.

__________________________________ Date this 24th day of April, 2018

Alicia Cleaver
President
Venomous Mammal Protection League
P.O. Box 2210
Cincinnati, OH 45219
Phone: 513-867-5309
Fax: 513-867-8675 (VMPL)
Email: acleaver@vmpl.org

The Venomous Mammal Protection League recognizes the value all species contribute to their
natural ecosystems. Only a handful of venomous mammals exist on earth. We strive to protect
those unique animals by raising awareness and conservation efforts of wild populations and by
petitioning for better treatment of captive populations.

Executive Summary

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Nycticebus pygmaeus, commonly known as the pygmy slow loris, is a nocturnal primate species
that is primarily located southeast of China, Vietnam and Laos (Deng et al. 2007). They have a
lifespan of about 17 years in the wild and 20 years in captivity according to the Duke Lemur
Center. The same source reports that the pygmy slow loris is the most endangered of all non-
lemur prosimians. The protection of the vulnerable Nycticebus pygmaeus is paramount to
maintaining the integrity of south and southeast Asian forests.

Species Description & Systematics

Species Description
Pygmy slow lorises have been described as resembling a teddy bear. They boast thick light
brown to reddish brown coats, with a white or gray underbelly. They also have dark brown or
black markings encircling the eyes, and dorsal stripes that originate at the top of the head and run
down the length of the back (Gray 2011). A defining feature of the pygmy slow loris is the
presence of brachial glands that harbor toxins. Oil from the glands is mixed with saliva to active
a toxic solution, which has been known to kill small animals and even induce anaphylactic shock
in humans (Nekaris et al. 2013).

Nycticebus pygmaeus is one of several Nycticebus species. Pygmy slow lorises are distinguished
from other lorises primarily because of their unique coloration and small body size. They also
have a specialized arrangement of teeth, a long tongue, and display modified hind limbs and
volar pads (Starr and Nekaris 2013). Individuals generally weigh 0.8-1.0 pounds at maturity,
with males weighing slightly more than females (“Nycticebus Pygmaeus”).

Taxonomy
Some sources have considered the pygmy slow loris a subspecies of the larger Nycticebus
coucang. Another loris species, Nycticebus intermedius, has been described as an intermediate
between N. coucang and N. pygmaeus. The prevalence of several similar Nycticebus species has
undoubtedly made it difficult to classify the different primates while performing field studies.
However, the pygmy slow loris is believed to have been first described as a separate species by
Bonhote in 1907. Numerous accounts of its presence since then, in both the wild and captivity,
have been verified by experts (Ratajszczak 1998).

Figure 1. Taxonomic classification of the pygmy slow loris. (Streicher et al. 2008).

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Geographic Distribution & Significance
Distribution

Nycticebus pygmaeus is naturally found in Southeast Asia. Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and the
province of Yunnan in China are currently known to harbor members of the species. Some data
suggests that the pygmy slow loris’ range has expanded to parts of Singapore (Fam et al. 2014).
In these areas, pygmy slow lorises reside in forests with thick foliage and sometimes bamboo
groves (“Nycticebus Pygmaeus”). In Vietnam, members of the species have been found in a wide
range of habitats, from primary rain forest on limestone through secondary, and even destroyed
areas (Ratajszczak 1998). The variety of habitat conditions in Vietnam can likely be contributed
to destruction from the Vietnam War.

Overall, little is known about the complete distribution of the pygmy slow loris. A substantial
amount of information about the species has come from local informants and data on illegal trade
confiscations in Southeast Asia (Starr et al. 2011).

Figure 2. Orange region is where members of Nycticebus pygmaeus are currently found and gray
region is the uncertain origin of the species (Starr et al. 2011).

Significance

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Sussman found that Nycticebus pygmaeus consumed floral nectar, and nectar‐producing parts of
flowers in his 1978 study of lemurs and other primates. Pygmy slow lorises also feed upon
numerous other food sources, such as tree gums and saps, bamboo, insects, and invertebrates.
Their varied diet means they are capable of traveling vast distances in search of food sources.
This suggests that pygmy slow lorises are a valuable tool in the pollination of many tree and
plant species of their range (Starr and Nekaris 2013).

Natural History & Ecology

Evolution
A mitochondrial study by Deng et al. indicates that the presence of genetic variation within the
Nycticebus pygmaeus populations of southern China and northern Vietnam is quite low (2007).
The nucleotide diversity of 119 sample lorises in the areas was 0.192%. The low level of genetic
diversity indicates that a recent bottleneck may have occurred. However, the second species the
study evaluated (Nycticebus bengalensis), shares an overlapping niche with the pygmy slow
loris. N. bengalensis notably does not share similar population patterns. Therefore, the study
suggests that the pygmy slow loris population from southern China and northern Vietnam
experienced a founder effect; the individuals may have originated from mid or southern Vietnam
in years 7350-1860.

Habitat Requirements
Pygmy slow lorises have a large home range of 10.38-33.80 ha. They spend most of their time in
trees and prefer to travel in the canopy. Their volar pads, or raised pads on the fingers, palms,
and feet, help them traverse their arboreal environment. Pygmy slow lorises will descend from
coverage and cross land when no continuous canopy is available, but it makes them particularly
vulnerable to predators (Starr and Nekaris 2013).

Favorite locations of pygmy slow lorises include places where food materials like plant shoots,
bamboo, exudates, insects, and small animals are abundant. They primarily reside in forests with
thick foliage and sometimes bamboo groves (“Nycticebus Pygmaeus”).

Food Requirements

The pygmy slow loris is a nocturnal, arboreal feeder. Previous research assumed the pygmy slow
loris to be largely frugivorous, but fecal samples indicate a varied diet of plant parts, small
invertebrates, and even small reptiles and animals (Starr and Nekaris 2013). The complete
breakdown of the loris diet is debated. The Duke Lemur Center suggests that insects make up
about 33% of food intake. Rasmussen and Nekaris found that more than 90% of the diet is
comprised of small animal prey (1998). In fact, captive studies have shown that the pygmy slow
loris will choose invertebrates over all other food items such as fruits, boiled eggs, and

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vegetables (Streicher et al. 2012). It is clear through numerous studies that insects, tree parts,
fruit and bamboo are all common components of the diet.

The pygmy slow loris is one of few primates that uses active gouging to procure exudates from
plants. Exudates include gums and saps which provide a carbohydrate-rich energy source.
Lorises possess a body composition that makes them ideal for processing and digesting exudates.
Specialized teeth, a long tongue, and strong limbs allow them to break down tree barks to access
exudate material (Starr and Nekaris 2013). Pygmy slow lories also seem to know the location of
trees which produce exudates. They have been observed visiting the same trees repeatedly to
feed (Streicher et al. 2012). The percentage of exudates in the diet differs by site.

Social Organization

Pygmy slow lorises are solitary by nature, but the territory of one male may overlap with that of
several females. If the home range territory of one individual overlaps with that of another,
encounters are usually friendly. If there is no range overlap, individuals can display extreme
aggression. Friendly interactions comprise “spatial groups” within the species. Members of a
“spatial group” may interact through allogrooming, following, and vocal communication (Gron
2009). Communication includes whistles, grunts, snarls, and clicks, as well as ultrasonic
vocalizations that are out of human hearing range. Social behavior and calling is thought to make
up only about 3% of the activity budget of Nycticebus species (Wiens and Zitzmann 2003).

Threatened individuals will emit a strong odor to warn off predators and competitors of the same
species. If this warning signal fails to work, pygmy slow lorises will coat themselves in a toxic
mixture of saliva and venom from brachial arm pads (“Nycticebus Pygmaeus”). Mothers have
been observed covering their offspring in the same toxic mixture. They then “park” the toxin-
coated young in trees and depart to forage for food (Nekaris et al. 2013).

Reproduction

The pygmy slow loris has a seasonal breeding pattern (Deng et al. 2007). Female pygmy slow
lorises are able to give birth once every 12-18 months and typically produce one or two babies.
Females reach sexual maturity first, typically between 17-24 months. Males reach sexual
maturity as early 14 months, but do not reproduce until the 20 month mark or beyond (Fitch-
Snyder and Jurke 2001).

Twinning is a common reproductive anomaly of the pygmy slow loris. Infants are entirely
dependent on the mother for the first 6-8 weeks of age. They are carried by clinging to the
underbelly fur of the mother (Ehrlich 1974). Offspring begin to exhibit minor independence in
the first few weeks of age; they will attempt to follow the mother and begin to learn how to
climb. They are weaned around 133 days after birth (“Nycticebus pygmaeus”).
Survival & Mortality

The pygmy slow loris has a lifespan of up to 20 years, though they typically live 17 years or less
in the wild (“Nycticebus pygmaeus”). A wide range of factors contribute to mortality rates of

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pygmy slow lorises. The most apparent pressure comes from hunting and market trade of the
species. Local peoples will use the animal for traditional medicines and as a food source. The
illegal pet trade has negatively impacted pygmy slow loris populations. In addition, their native
habitat was largely destroyed during the Vietnam war, and most sources point to a steady decline
in population numbers since the 1970’s (Ratajszczak 1998).

Humans are the primary predators of Nycticebus pygmaeus. Threats to the population
predominately originate in Vietnam and Cambodia where traditional “medicine” is common. The
animals are often snared or trapped and exported to markets for sale, though they may also be
collected for trade during logging, and slash and burn agricultural activities. Ratajszczak has
observed hundreds of lesser slow lorises being traded in major markets in Vietnam (1998).

Habitat destruction and fragmentation have also caused pygmy slow loris populations to
drastically decline since the Vietnam War. Bombing, plowing, the use of Agent Orange, and
napalm all contributed to the rapid destruction of the slow loris habitat (Gray 2011).

Mothers have been shown to spend less time caring for individuals when twins are produced.
This is likely because care must be divided between the babies (Deng et al. 2007). This could
explain the reduced polymorphism in Nycticebus pygmaeus populations of southern China and
northern Vietnam. A 7-year study of the captive breeding of Nycticebus pygmaeus showed that
the birth sex ratio was 1:1.68, with males outnumbering females. The ratio may explain the
reduced polymorphism in Deng et al.’s study.

Population Status & Trends

The pygmy slow loris population is believed to have undergone a decline of more than 30% over
the past 30 years due to hunting and habitat loss (Streicher et al. 2008). Estimates of the total
pygmy slow loris population have not been made for several decades, which is probably due to
the difficulty of locating the animals in field studies. In the 1980’s one estimate placed the
population at about 72,000 individuals. Another far more conservative estimate of the same year
placed the number around 600-700 individuals (Mackinnon and Mackinnon 1987).

Much of the data collected on the pygmy slow loris has been through inferential observation. For
example, a 2011 study by Starr et al. focused on eastern Cambodia. Local informants consisting
of government park protection staff, ex hunters and traders, and taxi drivers were questioned
about pygmy slow loris sightings. Surveys and interviews, as well as market data, were collected
opportunistically in the province.

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 Pygmy slow lorises were detected in Seima
Protection Forest and Phnom Prich Wildlife
Sanctuary during spotlight surveys. They
were not seen in the Mondulkiri Protected
Forest (Figure 3, Table 1).
Hunting pressure estimates were collected
from a random sample of 44 informants. In
the Seima Protection Forest, current hunting
pressure was believed to be at a medium
level (30.8%, 4/14). The same “medium”
hunting pressure was reported for the Phnom
Prich habitat (50%, 10/20). The Mondulkiri
Protection Forest loris hunting was reported
as low to nonexistent (100%, 5/5); this is
likely because lorises prefer more heavily
forested habitats, and the Mondulkiri area
lacks structural complexity. Most notably, all
informants with ex hunting or trading
experience (100%, 20/20) reported a decline
in the number of loris in all the observed
sites. In addition, the severity of the decline
of local loris populations in all areas was
rated as “severe” by informants.

Figure 3. A map of the 29 transects studied in eastern

Cambodia from Starr et al.’s 2011 study.

Although Starr et al.’s field study relies heavily on opinion from local informants, it effectively
illustrates the rapid decline seen in pygmy slow loris populations.

Table 1. Results of spotlight surveys for the pygmy slow loris.

A population survey of the Nycticebus species as a whole was conducted in 2014 by Fam et al.
The study hypothesized that slow lorises exist in Singapore among a population of greater slow
lorises and exotic lorises. A mixture of night surveys, data on sightings from 1965 to the present,
and newspaper reports of illegal trade and confiscations were combined to produce one of the
first ever ecological studies of slow lorises in Singapore.

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Figure 4. Rate of sightings per hour of surveys for each site in Fam et al.’s Singapore study.

Three main study sites with several marked transects were used for conducting night surveys:
BTNR, Nee Soon Swamp Forest, and Thompson Ridge of the CCNR. Two out of three field
surveys in the NSSF produced sightings of Nycticebus, so lorises were seen at a mean rate of
0.07h-1 in the NSSF. Prior to that, seven other field surveys covering 80ha of land produced no
sightings. One of the individuals spotted was a pygmy slow loris, which is not native to
Singapore. It was hypothesized that the animal was a smuggled pet. Data from Figure 4
represents what was sighted during the field studies. The average encounter rate for slow lorises
was 0.017km-1. The author notes that this is much lower than the average rate of 0.66 to 0.74km-1
in the Malaysian Peninsula (Fam et al. 2014).

A separate study in Phong, Nha-Ke National Park found only seven pygmy slow lorises during
90 survey nights. Eight animals were seen in Ben En National Park over a ten-day period which
covered many kilometers per night (Streicher et al. 2008).

Ratajszczak observed hundreds of lesser slow lorises being traded in major markets in Vietnam
in his studies of the Nycticebus species. Through this observation, he infers that pygmy slow
loris populations are still quite numerous in the Vietnam wilderness. Although he counterpoints
this argument, stating that his observation may merely reflect the extent to which the habitat of
the loris is being destroyed.

Overall, compilations of slow loris sightings from southeastern Asia indicate that the animals
still exist in forests, albeit to an unknown degree. This uncertainty contributes to the lack of
publications centered on members of the Nycticebus family (Figure 3). Focused and regular
surveys could provide a more reliable estimate of loris populations in the future.

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Figure 3. Lorisdae is among the least-studied primate family. An average of 6 publications per
genus per year are published.

Justification for Listing under the

Endangered Species Act
Section 4(a)(1) of the Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.) and regulations (50 CFR
part 424) warrants that a species shall be determined “endangered” or “threatened” based one of
five factors. In this case, the pygmy slow loris is threatened by four of these five factors and
justifies protection under the Act.

Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of its Habitat

or Range
The Vietnam War raged for nearly 20 years and was a major event that brought about the
destruction of much of the pygmy slow loris habitat. Bombing, plowing, and the use of Agent
Orange and napalm all contributed to the rapid destruction of forests. To this day, much of
southeastern Asia has yet to recover from the effects of the war. Sources indicate that pygmy
slow loris populations have yet to recover, as well (Gray 2011).

Habitat fragmentation largely impacts pygmy slow loris numbers. Forests areas are declining at a
rapid rate to make room for agriculture. Major crops of southeast Asia, like rice and wheat,
require huge areas of land for cultivation. Agricultural plots destroy any chance for
transmigration (Ratajszczak 1998).

The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms

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Pygmy slow lorises were listed in Appendix II by the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1977. Appendix II allows regulated
trade of species. In June 2007, Cambodia petitioned for the genus Nycticebus to be transferred to
Appendix I, which prohibits all international commercial trade. In order to qualify for listing in
Appendix I, CITES requires several listing criteria to be met: the wild population must be small
and must have a restricted area of distribution, or it must have experienced a marked decline in
size (Nekaris and Nijman 2007). They pygmy slow loris was promoted to Appendix I in
September 2007. This indicates that trade of the pygmy slow loris has not been adequately
controlled in the last few decades (Gray 2011).

The pygmy slow loris is protected at the highest level possible in Vietnam (Appendix IB, Decree
32, 2006). It is listed as Class I protected in China. It was listed in 1994 as “prohibited to hunt”
in Cambodia under the Ministry of Forestry and Fisheries Species List (Streicher et al. 2008).
Despite existing hunting bans, the pygmy slow loris population continues to decline in response
to hunting and the illegal wildlife trade.

Over-utilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or Educational

Purposes
Pygmy slow lorises may be ensnared or hunted by local peoples, or be collected after slash and
burn-type agricultural activities. In a 2011 study by Starr et al., ex hunters and traders from the
Cambodian region indicated medium hunting pressures and high rates of decline in native pygmy
slow loris populations. These inferences seemed to correlate to the low sighting of the species in
the area (see Figure 3, Table 1). Pygmy slow lorises typically face one of three fates after
capture: They may be sold into the illegal pet trade, sent to local markets, or consumed as a food
source.

Ratajszczak (1998) has observed hundreds of lesser slow lorises being traded in major markets in
Vietnam in his studies of the Nycticebus species. Nekaris and Starr note in their 2015 study that
despite the level of legal protection these animals receive, they continue to be traded openly and
with few consequences. In Vietnam and Cambodia, traditional medicine often compels buyers to
seek the pygmy slow loris at markets. The indigenous peoples of Cambodia have been known to
purchase and consume loris flesh as a cure for leprosy. Loris body parts are used to create tonics
which are marketed for a variety of afflictions. In many Asian countries, they are considered to
cure up to 100 ailments (Nekaris and Starr 2015). In Sri Lanka and other countries, body parts
may also serve as a talisman to ward off the “evil eye” or to cast curses (Platt 2010).

Another fate of many pygmy slow lorises is the pet trade, which thrives both nationally and
internationally. Lorises captured for the pet trade will often have their teeth removed in an
attempt to keep them from biting; the loris bite is toxic (Platt 2010). This removes their ability to
gouge tree parts, and thus greatly decreases chances for ever returning to the wild. Oftentimes,
mutilated and emaciated pygmy slow lorises are sold into the pet trade. They will not only end
up in private homes, but will also be used as “photo-props” in bars, beaches, and clubs. Tourists
may unknowingly take their photo with the illegally-caught wild animals. In addition, loris
videos on the internet have become a worldwide sensation. Platforms such as Facebook and
Instagram boast videos of “mostly wild-caught and illegally obtained slow lorises,” which are

12
seen by millions (Nekaris and Starr 2015). The videos of the “cute” primates may entertain and
delight viewers, but also influence some to seek lorises as pets. The desirability of owning a
pygmy slow loris as a pet has increased tremendously due to social media platforms.

Pygmy slow lorises that are rescued from markets and the pet trade may be reintroduced into the
wild if they are healthy enough. However, both adult and juvenile slow lorises that are
confiscated may be unknowingly released into areas with unfamiliar food sources. Despite
moving up to eight kilometers a night, rescued pygmy slow lorises may never return to their
original habitats. This proves to be problematic because lorises seem to “know” and prefer
certain trees to feed upon (Starr and Nekaris 2013). In addition, animals that survive transport to
rescue facilities may be released directly into the wild without a period of adjustment (Streicher
2012).

Other rescued animals may become part of permanent zoo populations. While most accredited
zoos strive to maintain healthy animal populations and to provide the best educational experience
for visitors, not every species thrives in captivity. Unfortunately, zoos face extreme difficulty
managing pygmy slow lorises due to their dietary habits. As the data from Starr and Nekaris’s
2013 study shows, the species relies heavily on exudates as a nutrition source. Trees for active
gouging are rarely a part of pygmy loris habitats in captivity. Instead, zoos traditionally feed a
diet of more than 55% produce. Sugar-rich fruits and other produce lead to obesity and dental
disease in captive populations. There is a great need for improvement in captive handling of the
pygmy slow loris, particularly through providing more sources for gouging.

Another drawback zoos face is maintaining a viable, self-sustaining population. Ratajszczak

proposed establishing a pygmy slow loris population in captivity in his “Taxonomy, Distribution
and Status” paper. He reports that while efforts have been made to conserve a captive population,
many problems have been experienced. For example, low reproduction rates and high newborn
mortality in second-generation pygmy slow lorises is prevalent; some years, up to 50% of
offspring perish. Overall, Ratajszczak emphasizes a need for better management of feeding,
maintenance, and reproduction of captive Nycticebus pygmaeus.

Disease or Predation
Pygmy slow lorises undergo a seasonal torpor when food is scarce. This inactivity makes them
vulnerable to predators, especially because they tend to move and sleep alone (Nekaris et al.
2013). Lorises also act as a host to some protozoan parasites, though no major infectious
outbreaks have been recorded (Gray 2011).

Conclusion
The pygmy slow loris represents one of the least studied members of the Nycticebus species.
However, it’s growing popularity on social media platforms has begun to push it to the frontline
of primate conservation efforts. Research on the pygmy has increased within the last few years.
A solid data base has been established which can inform scientists and civilians alike about the
habitat, taxonomy, and behavior of one of the world’s few venomous mammals.

13
Varied population estimates place pygmy loris numbers anywhere between a few hundred to
several thousand individuals. Nocturnal behaviors of the species make it difficult to obtain
accurate population data. However, observation from southeast Asian markets indicate massive
numbers of pygmy slow lorises being subjected to the wildlife trade. This alone stands as a
viable fact in the efforts to protecting the species. Rapid deforestation and agriculturalization of
the pygmy’s native habitat also pose an ever-increasing threat to the survival of the species.

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