SY12202 GENETICS / SEM 2 / SESSION 2019/2020

MENDELIAN
INHERITANCE Lecture by:
Dr. Noor Hydayaty Md Yusuf
IMPORTANT TERMS AND
CONCEPTS
Parental (P1), 1st filial offspring (F1), and 2nd filial offspring (F2),

Generation & Symbol Description

Parental Generation (P1) The original parents (male
& female) used for crossing

First filial offspring (F1) The individuals resulting

from crossing of the P1
Second filial offspring (F2) The individuals resulting
from the selfing of the F1
generation
 Contrasting traits & monohybrid cross
• Contrasting traits = Mendel’s simplest
crosses involved only one pair of
Male contrasting traits (Eg: Tall vs Short).
Each such breeding experiment is
called a monohybrid cross.
P1
• Monohybrid cross = Made by mating
X individuals from two parents, each of
which exhibits one of the two
Female contrasting forms of the character
under study.

P1
 Phenotype, Traits and Genes

• Traits & Phenotype = Physical expression of the information contained

in unit factors. We now call the physical expression of a trait the
phenotype of the individual.
• Genes = The phenotype is determined by different combination of
alternative forms of a single gene called alleles. For example, tall and
dwarf are alleles determining the height (phenotype) of the pea
plant.
 The dominant & recessive alleles

• When two unlike factors (alleles) responsible for a single characters (traits) are present in a single
individual, one unit factor (allele) is dominant to the other, which is said to be recessive
The dominant & recessive alleles naming systems

W or w T or t
1. The first letter of the recessive trait is chosen to
symbolize the character in question.

T
2. The lowercase form of the letter designates the allele
W
for the recessive trait
3. The uppercase letter designates the alleles for the
dominant trait
4. The gene symbols are italicized

t NOTE:
w
1. There are no standard system on choosing ‘letter’ to represent traits.
2. The naming system stated above are as used in Klug et al. (2006) in his book
Concepts of Genetics, and will be used throughout this course (tutorial & exams).
3. Some figures shown in this lecture may not in agreement with this naming system
as it is from different reference, using different system.
 Dominant allele, Recessive allele, Genotype, Phenotype
DD dd
Traits for height
X Parental Alleles Tall D
(P1) Dwarf d

D d

Gametes D X d D X D X D d X d
d

First generation Dd DD dD dd
(F1)
• When alleles are written in pairs to
represent the two unit unit factors Traits for height
present in any individual (DD, Dd, Alleles Tall D
dd), these symbols are referred to
as the genotype. Dwarf d
• When identical alleles constitute
genotype (DD or dd), the individual
is said to be homozygous or a D X d D X D d X D d X d
homozygote
• When alleles are different (Dd), we
use the term heterozygous or
heterozygote.
• The physical expression of a trait is
now call Phenotype Dd DD dD dd

Probability 1 Probability 2 Probability 3 Probability 4

Genotype Dd DD dD dd
Heterozygous Homozygous Heterozygous Homozygous
Dominant Recessive
Phenotype Tall Tall Tall Dwarf
MONOHYBRID CROSS OF
TRUE-BREEDING PEAS

As proposed by Mendel
Monohybrid crossing (From P1 to F1)
Y Y
y Yy Yy
Yellow Yellow
y Yy Yy
Yellow Yellow

Punnet Square

Y y
Y YY Yy
Yellow Yellow
y Yy yy
Yellow Green
Monohybrid crossing (From P1 to F2)
Y Y
y Yy Yy
Yellow Yellow
y Yy Yy
Yellow Yellow

Y y
Y YY Yy
Yellow Yellow
y Yy yy
Yellow Green
Monohybrid crossing (From P1 to F2) and 3:1
phenotype ratio
Genotype / Phenotype (F2) Genotype Phenotype
ratio ratio
(1:2:1) (3:1)
YY (Homozygous dominant) / Yellow 1 3
Yy (Heterozygous) / Yellow
2
yY (Heterozygous) / Yellow
yy (Homozygous recessive) / Green 1 1

IMPORANT NOTE:
Phenotype ratio of 3:1 will only be obtained on:
1) Monohybrid crossing
2) Parents are true-breeding individuals
3) F2 generations
‘True’ or ‘Pure’ breeding plants

• Homozygous (dominant YY / recessive

yy) represents true breeding individual.
Mendel monohybrid crossing of true breeding peas

• The cross between true-breeding pea plants with yellow and green stems is
representative of Mendel’s monohybrid crosses.
• When Mendel crossed yellow seed (true breeding, GG) and green seed (true
breeding, gg) plants, the resulting F1 generation consisted of only yellow plants.
The other trait (green) was disappeared.
Mendel monohybrid crossing of true breeding peas

3:1 phenotype ratio

Important terms
• Monohybrid cross
• True breeding individual
• Generation P1 - F1. What are the genotype & phenotype ratio?
• Generation F1 - F2. What are the genotype & phenotype ratio?
DIHYBRID CROSS OF TRUE
BREEDING PEAS

As proposed by Mendel
 Dihybrid cross

• To examine two characters simultaneously. Such a cross, involving two pairs of contrasting traits,
is called a dihybrid cross, or a two-factor cross.

Two characters:
(1) Seed colour – Yellow or Green
(2) Seed shape – Round or Wrinkled
 Dihybrid cross from P1 to F1
Trait for seed colour Trait for seed shape
Alleles Yellow G Alleles Round W
Green g Wrinkled w

OR
Dihybrid cross from F1 to F2 Genotype / Phenotype Genotype Phenotype ratio
(F2) ratio (9:3:3:1)
and phenotype ratio 9:3:3:1
GGWW (Yellow, Round) 1
GGWw (Yellow, Round) 2 Yellow, Round
GgWW (Yellow, Round) 2 9

GgWw (Yellow, Round) 4

GGww (Yellow, wrinkled) 1 Yellow, Wrinkled
Ggww (Yellow, wrinkled) 2 3

ggWW (Green, round) 1 Green, Round

ggWw (Green, round) 2 3

ggww (Green, Wrinkled) 1 Green, Wrinkled

1

IMPORANT NOTE:
Phenotype ratio of 9:3:3:1 will only be obtained on:
1) Dihybrid crossing
2) Parents are true-breeding individuals
3) F2 generations
Product law of probabilities

• From monohybrid cross, we know that

the predicted F2 results are ¾ yellow and
¼ green.
• The same ratio is apply to other
monohybrid crossing of true-breeding
parents.
Forked-line (Brand Diagram) and 9:3:3:1 phenotype
ratio in dihybrid cross

Of all offspring in F2 Of all offspring in F2 Combined probabilities of phenotypes in F2

3/4 are round (3/4) (3/4) = 9/16 yellow, round

3/4 are yellow
1/4 are wrinkled (3/4) (1/4) = 3/16 yellow, wrinkled

3/4 are round (1/4) (3/4) = 3/16 green, round

1/4 are green
1/4 are wrinkled (1/4) (1/4) = 1/16 green, wrinkled
Trihybrid cross

Three characters:
(1) Seed colour – Yellow or Green Trait for seed colour
(2) Seed shape – Round or Wrinkled Alleles Yellow G
(3) Pod shape – Inflated or Constricted
Green g

Trait for seed shape

Alleles Round W
Wrinkled w

Trait for pod shape

Alleles Inflated C
Constricted c
 TESTCROSS:
WAY TO KNOW THE UNKNOWN
GENOTYPE OF AN INDIVIDUAL WITH
KNOWN PHENOTYPE
 The testcross
• If the organism is with dominant phenotype, but unknown genotype, is there a way to identify whether the
organism is expressing a Heterozygous or Homozygous Dominant genotype?
• Testcross: The organism of the dominant phenotype, but unknown genotype, is crossed to a homozygous
recessive individuals

P1 with Homozygous
predicted recessive P1
genotype
 The testcross: single character

Trait for stem length

Alleles Tall D
Dwarf d

DD or Dd?
 The testcross: Two characters

Trait for seed colour

Alleles Yellow G
Green g

Trait for seed shape

Alleles Round W
Wrinkled w

GGWw or
Yellow, Round
GgWw or
GgWW?
MENDEL – PRINCIPLES OF
INHERITANCE
 Mendel – Principles of inheritance

Principles of Inheritance:

• Is proposed by Gregor Mendel, based on his experiments on pea

plants. It consists of four principles, of which:

• The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd principles were derived from his observation on
monohybrid cross between true-breeding parents.

• The 4th principles was derived from dihybrid cross between true-breeding
parents.
 Principles of inheritance (1st, 2nd, and 3rd principle)
• The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd principles were derived from observation on
monohybrid cross between true-breeding parents. REMEMBER
• Also concluded based on a consistent pattern tested on various traits.
THIS?
 Principles of inheritance (1st, 2nd, and 3rd principle)
Principle of inheritance proposed based on observation on monohybrid cross of true-breeding parents (From P1 to F1 to F2)
1st principle Genetic characters are controlled by Observation:
Unit factors (genes) in unit factors (genes) existing in pairs (1) In the monohybrid cross eg: between tall and dwarf stems, a specific
pairs (alleles) in individual organisms unit factor exists for each traits. Each diploid individual receives one
factor from parent.
(2) Because the factor occurs in pairs, only then three combination are
possible: two factors for tallness (DD), two factors for dwarfness
(dd), or one of each factor (Dd).

2nd Principle When two unlike unit factors Observation:

Dominance / Recessive responsible for a single characters are (1) In each monohybrid cross, the trait expressed in the F1 generation
presents in a single individual, one unit results from the presence of the dominant unit factor.
factor is dominant to the other, which (2) The trait that is not expressed in the F1, but which reappears in the
is said to be recessive F2, is under the genetic influence of the recessive unit factor.

3rd principle During the formation of gametes, the Observation:

Segregation paired unit factors separate, randomly (1) It is only possible for F2 generations to randomly received individual
so that each gamete receives one or of four possible combination (DD, Dd, dD, and dd), equally, if the
the other with equal likelihood each unit factor are segregated during gamete formation.
 Principles of inheritance (1st, 2nd, and 3rd principle)
Principle of inheritance proposed based on observation on monohybrid cross of true-breeding parents (From P1 to F1 to F2)
1st principle Genetic characters are controlled by Observation:
Unit factors (genes) in unit factors (genes) existing in pairs (1) In the monohybrid cross eg: between tall and dwarf stems, a specific
pairs (alleles) in individual organisms unit factor exists for each traits. Each diploid individual receives one
factor from parent.
(2) Because the factor occurs in pairs, only then three combination are
possible: two factors for tallness (DD), two factors for dwarfness
(dd), or one of each factor (Dd).

2nd Principle When two unlike unit factors Observation:

Dominance / Recessive responsible for a single characters are (1) In each monohybrid cross, the trait expressed in the F1 generation
presents in a single individual, one unit results from the presence of the dominant unit factor.
factor is dominant to the other, which (2) The trait that is not expressed in the F1, but which reappears in the
is said to be recessive F2, is under the genetic influence of the recessive unit factor.

3rd principle During the formation of gametes, the Observation:

Segregation paired unit factors separate, randomly (1) It is only possible for F2 generations to randomly received individual
so that each gamete receives one or of four possible combination (DD, Dd, dD, and dd), equally, if the
the other with equal likelihood each unit factor are segregated during gamete formation.
 Principles of inheritance (4th principles)
Principle of inheritance proposed based on observation on dihybrid cross of true-breeding parents (From P1 to F1 to F2)
4th principle Any pair of unit factors segregates Observation:
Independent independently of all other unit factors. (1) As a result of segregation in all crosses (monohybrid & dihybrid &
assortment trihybrid, etc) of true-breeding parents, all possible combination of
gametes formed in equal frequency
Principles of inheritance (4th principles)
 SUMMARY

1. Monohybrid crossing of true-breeding individual (P1) leads towards the postulation

of four principles of inheritance.

• 1st = Unit factors in pairs (concept of genes & alleles)

• 2nd = Dominance and recessive
• 3rd = Segregation (Alleles separated during gametes formation, then transmitted to the generation)
• 4th = Independent assortment (Alleles segregated independently with equal frequency)

2. The F2 phenotype ratio of 3:1 (monohybrid cross) and 9:3:3:1 (dihybrid cross) only
valid on:

• Mendel crossing system (comparing contrasting traits and true-breeding P1)

• Following Mendel’s principles of inheritance
 SUMMARY

3. Crosses (Monohybrid, dihybrid, trihybrid, etc) can be done up until FX. For this
course, we will cover until F2.

4. The principles of inheritance by Mendel helps towards the finding of concepts of

genes, alleles, chromosomes, and DNA as genetic materials (Week 1 lecture on
Introduction to Genetics).

5. The principles of inheritance by Mendel helps to evaluates the influence of chance

on Genetic data & population, to help explain genetic events (Next lecture).

6. BUT, Not all genes are transmitted through generation or translated into
phenotypes are following the Mendel’s law/principles (Next lecture).