Heredity Powerpoint Slides

CHAPTER 19
Heredity
What happened?
What you would learn
in this section…
(19.1) Heredity
(19.2) Basic Knowledge for Studying Heredity
(19.3) Determining Genotypes
(19.4) Multiple Alleles
(19.5) Discontinuous and Continuous Variations
(19.6) Mutation
(19.7) Selection
(19.1) Heredity
Hereditary traits
• A hereditary trait is a characteristic that can be
passed on from one generation to another.
• Examples include:
- Hair type
- Shape of earlobe
- Eye colour
- Face shape
- Chin shape
- Ability to roll tongue
- Skin colour
- Blood type
(19.1) Heredity
What is Genetics?
Genetics is the study of the inheritance of characteristics
by transmission of genetic materials from one generation
to another.
Gregor Mendel, the

founding father of
modern genetics
studied monohybrid
inheritance in peas.
(19.1) Heredity
What is monohybrid inheritance?

• Monohybrid inheritance refers to the inheritance of
one characteristic that has two contrasting
forms.
• Each characteristic is gene
controlled by a single gene.
• Each gene consists of a alleles
pair of alleles.
• Alleles can be dominant
or recessive.
homologous
chromosomes
(19.1) Heredity
Mendel’s monohybrid experiment
Mendel crossed pure-bred tall pea

plants with pure-bred dwarf plants.
He planted the seeds from the cross

and observed that the resulting F1
generation hybrids are all tall plants.
tall dwarf
He allowed the F1 offspring to
tall self-fertilise and produce
seeds.
The seeds from the F1 offspring
gave rise to the F2 generation,
which produced a ratio of three tall
tall tall tall dwarf plants to one dwarf plant.
(19.1) Heredity
Mendel’s monohybrid experiment

Mendel named the trait that always appeared
in the F1 hybrids (tall) dominant and the other
(dwarf) recessive.
dominant recessive
trait trait
(19.1) Heredity
Mendel’s model of heredity
• Hereditary factors (genes) are responsible for the

transmission of characteristics.
• Each characteristic is controlled by a pair of factors in the
cells.
• If the two factors are different, only the dominant factor
will show its effect.
• The two factors separate (segregate) during gamete
formation. Each gamete will only contain one factor
(Law of Segregation).
• The random fusion of gametes ensures that the zygote
formed contains two factors.
(19.1) Heredity
Mendel’s Law of Segregation

in this section…
(19.1) Heredity
(19.6) Mutation
(19.7) Selection
Chromosome
A chromosome is a rod-like structure visible in the

nucleus during cell division.
It is made up of the molecule deoxyribonucleic acid

(DNA).
Gene
A gene is a unit of inheritance,

gene locus
born on a particular locus
(position) of a chromosome.
It is a small segment of DNA in a chromosome

chromosome that contains a
specific sequence of nucleotides
that codes for the formation of a
single polypeptide, which
determines the characteristic of
an organism.
Alleles
Alleles are different forms of the same

T t
gene.
They occupy the same relative positions

on a pair of homologous chromosomes.
Letters are usually used to represent

alleles.
Homologous Chromosomes
gene locus
Homologous chromosomes
exist in pairs.
One chromosome in the pair

comes from the male parent
and the other from the female
parent.
They have exactly the same

sequence of gene loci. paternal maternal
chromosome chromosome
Introduction to terms
nucleus
chromatin
gene
different
cell gene loci
homologous
chromosomes
Introduction to terms:
Phenotype
• The phenotype of an organism refers to its

observable traits.
• The phenotype of an organism is influenced by:

– its genotype
– the environment
Video: Genetics 101 Part 4. Stop video at 1:18 minutes

Genotype
• The genotype is the genetic make-up of an organism
which is inherited from its parents.
• An organism is homozygous for a trait if the two alleles

controlling the trait are the same. The possible
homozygous combinations are:
– homozygous dominant (e.g. TT)
– homozygous recessive (e.g. tt)
• An organism is heterozygous for a trait if the two alleles

controlling the trait are different (e.g. Tt).
Dominant and recessive alleles
• Alleles can exist in dominant or recessive forms.
Dominant allele Recessive allele is

is represented represented with
with an upper the corresponding
case letter. lower case letter.
• A dominant allele expresses itself in both

homozygous dominant and heterozygous conditions.
• A recessive allele will only express itself in a

homozygous recessive genotype.
Dominant and reccessive alleles
P Q R
Phenotype:
physical characteristic
of the organism
a a A A A a Genotype:
genetic make-up of
the organism
homozygous heterozygous
(pure-breeding) (hybrid)
Why do plants Q and R look the same

when they have different genes?
Modelling genetic crosses
• Genetic models can be used to:

- explain how alleles are passed on to an offspring
- predict the traits that will be displayed by an
offspring
• The next slide uses the genetic model to explain

Mendel’s monohybrid experiment on tall and
dwarf plants.
Genetic diagram (TB Pg 362)

The Punnett square

• The Punnett square is a simpler method to determine
or explain genetic crosses.
• The Punnett squares for Mendel’s monohybrid experiment:
Parents F1 hybrid self-cross
TT  tt Tt  Tt
Gametes t t Gametes T t
T Tt Tt T TT Tt
(tall) (tall) (tall) (tall)
T Tt Tt t Tt tt
(tall) (tall) (tall) (dwarf)
What happened?
in this section…
(19.1) Heredity
(19.6) Mutation
(19.7) Selection
Determining genotypes
• When an organism displays the recessive trait, the
organism is a homozygous recessive.
• However, when organisms display the dominant trait,

the organism could be a heterozygous or a homozygous
dominant.
• Breeding experiments are used to identify the

genotype of an organism.
Test cross
A test cross is used to determine the genotype of an
organism with dominant trait by crossing the organism
with a homozygous recessive organism.
• If the organism is homozygous dominant, all the offspring

should show the dominant trait.
Phenotypes homozygous dominant homozygous recessive
and genotypes tall TT  tt dwarf
of parents
Gametes T t
Phenotype
and genotype Tt
of offspring all tall
Test cross
• If the organism is heterozygous, half the number of
offspring should show the dominant trait. The
remaining half should show the recessive trait.
Phenotypes heterozygous homozygous recessive

and genotypes tall Tt  tt dwarf
of parents
Gametes T t t
Genotypes
of offspring Tt tt
Ratio of phenotypes 1 tall : 1 dwarf

Co-dominance
• Occurs when both alleles are equally expressed
in the heterozygous condition
• Co-dominance in a short-horned cattle:

– The offspring of a homozygous red bull (CR CR)
and a homozygous white cow (CW CW) will be roan
(CR CW) with a mixture of red and white hairs.
• The ABO blood group in human is another example

of co-dominance.
Try Worked Eg 1-3
• Need to include the legend statement if

alleles are not stated by the question
• Chance has to be in %
• Probability / proportion can leave in
fraction
Sex determination
• Sex chromosomes are chromosomes that determine
the sex of an organism.
• Autosomes are chromosomes in cells other than the
sex chromosome.
• There are two types of sex chromosome:
– X chromosome
– Y chromosome
• Cells that produce gametes by meiosis are known as

sex cells. The other cells in the body are known as
somatic cells.
Sex determination
• Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex
chromosomes (XY - male or XX – female) in each cell.
• Male gametes (sperms) contain either the X chromosome
or Y chromosome.
• Female gamete (eggs) contain only the X chromosome.
• Whether an X-carrying sperm or a Y-carrying sperm
fertilises the ovum determines the sex of the zygote.
Video: Genetics 101 Part 3. Play video from 0:47-1:20 min

Sex determination
When male and female gametes fuse during
fertilisation, there is an equal chance that the
offspring could be a male or a female.
male female
Parents XY X XX
Gametes X Y X X
Offspring XX XX XY XY
females males
in this section…
(19.1) Heredity
(19.6) Mutation
(19.7) Selection
Multiple alleles
• If a gene for a particular trait exists in more than two
alleles, it is said to have multiple alleles.
• For example, coat colours in rabbits is determined by

three alleles; C, ch and ca.
Phenotype Genotype C: Allele for full colour (grey coat)

Full colour CC, Cch, Cca ch: Allele for himalayan (white
Himalayan c hc h, c hc a
coat with black or dark brown
feet, ears, tail and tip of nose)
Albino c ac a
ca: Allele for albino (white coat)
The allele C is dominant over ch and ca
while the allele ch is dominant over ca.
Human blood groups

• Human blood group is also determined by three
alleles; IA, IB and IO.
• IA and IB are both codominant, while IO is recessive
to both IA and IB.
Blood Genotype
group
A IA IA (homozygous dominant) or IA IO (heterozygous)
B IB IB (homozygous dominant) or IB IO (heterozygous)
AB IA IB (codominant)
O IO IO (homozygous recessive)
Checkpoint
Is it possible for a couple with blood group A and B to have a child
with the blood group O? Explain your answer with a genetic diagram.
Parents’ phenotype blood group A X blood group

Parents’ genotype IA IO IB
B IO
Gametes IA IO IB IO
F1 genotype I A IB IA IO IB IO IO IO
F1 phenotype blood blood blood blood
group AB group A group B group O
ratio AB: A:B:O

1 :1 :1 :1
It can be difficult to express in words
2013/P2A/6 the explanations, thus students
should try by stating the particular
alleles that were being passed on.
• Individual 1 has the Bb genotype.
• Individual 5 has blue eyes, which is expressed in the homozygous
recessive condition, thus she must have inherited one recessive
blue eye allele / recessive b allele each from both of her parents
(individual 1 and 2)
• Individual 1 has brown eyes, hence she would have the dominant B
allele
• Individual 10 has Bb genotype

• Individual 4 has blue eyes, which is expressed in the homozygous
recessive condition give individual 10 one recessive blue eye
allele
• Individual 10 has brown eyes  have the dominant B allele
in this section…
(19.1) Heredity
(19.6) Mutation
(19.7) Selection
Variations
• Variations are differences in traits between
individuals of the same species.
• The traits of an individual is dependent on

interactions between the genes and the
environment.
• Genetic variation is heritable, but variations due to

the environment are not.
Variations
• Discontinuous variation is brought about one or a few
genes.
• Continuous variation is brought about by the additive effect
of many genes.
Discontinuous variation Continuous variation

Number of individuals
Number of individuals
double-eyelids
in a population
in a population
single-eyelid
Dark skin Fair skin

Comparing discontinuous and

continuous variations
Discontinuous variation Continuous variation
Deals with a few clear-cut Deals with a range of
phenotypes phenotypes
Controlled by one or a few Controlled by many genes
genes
Genes do not show additive Genes show additive effect
effect
Not affected by environmental Affected by environmental
conditions conditions
Examples include eye colour Examples include height and
and blood group skin colour
Which of the following is/are
example(s) of discontinuous variation?
1. Blood groups
2. Finger prints
3. Lengths of fingers
4. Tongue rolling
5. Sensitivity of taste buds
6. Ear lobes Answer: C
A. (1), (3) and (5) C. (1), (2), (4) and (6)

B. (1), (2) and (6) D. (1), (2), (3) and (5)
in this section…
(19.1) Heredity
(19.6) Mutation
(19.7) Selection
(19.6) Mutation
Mutation
• Definition:
A sudden, random or a spontaneous change in the
structure of a gene or in the chromosome number in
the nucleus which would affect the phenotype of an
individual.
(19.6) Mutation
Types of mutation
• Mutation occurs as a result of error during the
replication of the gene or chromosome.
• Somatic mutations that occur in normal body cells

cannot be inherited.
• Mutations may be inherited by the next generation if

they occur in cells that give rise to gametes.
• Dominant mutations are easily detected unlike

recessive mutations, which may not be detectable for
generations.
(19.6) Mutation
Types of mutation
• Chromosome mutation
– change in number of chromosomes
– causes Down’s syndrome
• Gene mutation
– change in the structure of DNA
– produces variation between individuals as it results
in new alleles of genes
– causes albinism and sickle-cell anaemia
(19.6) Mutation
Chromosome mutation
Down’s syndrome
• Humans normally have 46 chromosomes in their body cells.
• People with Down’s syndrome have 47 chromosomes.
• They have an extra copy of chromosome 21.
(Right) Karyotype of female

with Down’s syndrome.
Down’s syndrome is also
known as Trisomy 21.
(19.6) Mutation
Chromosome mutation
Down’s syndrome
• Chromosome mutation in the gametes of a female
parent can produce a child with Down’s syndrome.
Male Female
Normal body cell has
X
two copies of
chromosome 21
One of the eggs has

two copies of
chromosome 21
mutation
Zygote formed has
three copies of
chromosome 21
(19.6) Mutation
Gene mutation
Albinism
• Caused by mutation in a recessive allele
• The absence of the pigment melanin results in reddish-white skin,
white hair and pink eyes.
• Albinos get sunburn easily as they are very sensitive to sunlight.

(19.6) Mutation
Gene mutation
Sickle-cell anaemia
• Caused by mutation in the gene
controlling haemoglobin production
• The mutated gene is recessive,
hence only expressed in
homozygous recessive condition.
• Sickle-shaped red blood cells have Individuals with the mutated
low oxygen carrying capacity and gene produces Haemoglobin
tend to clump together. S (HbS) and not Haemoglobin
A (HbA). HbS molecule has a
• This disease is fatal and sufferers different three dimensional
shape making the red blood
usually die young.
cell sickle-shaped under low
oxygen conditions.
Sickle
Farmer harvesting paddy in a rice field using
a sickle.
(19.6) Mutation
Gene mutation
Sickle-cell anaemia
• Individuals who are heterozygous for the sickle-cell allele
are more resistant to malaria.
• Hence, heterozygous individuals are common in areas
where malaria is prevalent such as West Africa.
• However, convincing evidence indicates, in areas with
persistent malaria outbreaks, individuals with the heterozygous
state have a distinct advantage
• Those with the benign sickle trait possess a resistance to malarial
infection. The pathogen that causes the disease spends part of its
cycle in the red blood cells and triggers an abnormal drop in
oxygen levels in the cell. In carriers, this drop is sufficient to trigger
the full sickle-cell reaction, which leads to infected cells being
rapidly removed from circulation and strongly limiting the
infection's progress.
• These individuals have a great resistance to infection and have a
greater chance of surviving outbreaks. However, those with two
alleles for SCA may survive malaria, but will typically die from their
genetic disease unless they have access to advanced medical
care. Those of the homozygous "normal" or wild-type case will
have a greater chance of passing on their genes successfully, in
that there is no chance of their offspring's suffering from SCA; yet,
they are more susceptible to dying from malarial infection before
they have a chance to pass on their genes.
(19.6) Mutation
Mutagenic agents
Mutagens
Radiation Chemicals
- UV light, X-ray - mustard gas
- alpha and beta radiation - formaldehyde
- gamma rays - lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD)
• Mutagens can greatly increase the rate of mutations.
• In the absence of mutagens, rate of spontaneous

mutation is extremely low.
(19.6) Mutation
Mutation and selection

• Mutations can be harmful or beneficial.
- Individuals with harmful mutation will be eliminated.
- Individuals with beneficial mutation on the other hand
may leave more offspring than normal individuals.
• Nature ‘selects’ organisms with more favourable

characteristics to survive and reproduce.
Using named examples, explain what is meant
by a mutation (2017 P2 Q10 OR).
• Mutation is a sudden random spontaneous change in the structure
of a gene or in the chromosome number in the nucleus. [1]
• Down syndrome is example of a change in chromosome number. [1]
People with Down syndrome have 3 copies of chromosome 21
instead of 2 copies.[1]
• An example of a gene mutation is albinism [1], a condition caused
by a recessive mutant allele. It is characterized by the absence of
pigments in the skin, hair and eyes. [1] OR
• Another example of a gene mutation is sickle-cell anaemia. [1]
There is a change in the nucleotide sequence within the
haemoglobin gene, resulting in the production of a faulty
haemoglobin protein, causing sickle cell anaemia where red blood
cells are sickle shaped / not able to transport oxygen effectively. [1]
[Max 3 for examples]
in this section…
(19.1) Heredity
(19.6) Mutation
(19.7) Selection
Questions to consider for
Worksheet 5b)
• What resulted in the appearance of black
bodied flies?
• If mutation happened spontaneously at a

low level, what caused the black-bodied
flies to be present in such a huge
proportion compared to grey bodied
individuals?
4FK sample answers
4FK sample answers
4FK sample answers
• Who decides whether the organisms will
survive?
• How does the environment do it?
• Do organisms mutate to suit the
environmental change?
• How is this survival of organisms significant to
the overall population on a larger scale?
 survive to reproduce and pass on their

desirable trait to the next generation.
this is evolution: shift in genetic make-up of the
population
• Students to modify their answers to the

question using the theory of natural selection.
(19.7) Selection
Variation
• Variations in organisms may arise due to:
- crossing over and independent assortment of
chromosomes and during meiosis
- mutation in genetic material
• Mutation provides new alleles to the gene pool for natural

selection to act on. Note:
A gene pool is the combination of
all the alleles of all genes of a
particular species.
• Genetic variation is important to help organisms adapt
and survive in changing environments.
(19.7) Selection
Natural selection
• Natural selection is a process that ensures the best
adapted organisms in a species survive to reproduce and
pass on their traits to the next generation.
• Nature selects varieties of organisms that are:

– more resistant to diseases
– better adapted to changes in the environment
• The process by which present complex forms of living

organisms have arisen from simpler ancestral forms is
known as evolution.
How do mutations and natural
selection lead to evolution?
• Random mutation can result in new alleles and hence increased
variety of traits within a species.
• As organisms compete for limited resources (describe the
survival advantage ),
• varieties that are better adapted are more likely to survive and
reproduce,
• To pass on the desirable trait to the next generation
• Over many generations, there is a shift in the genetic make-up
of the population, with majority possessing the (desirable) trait
OR
• resulting in the accumulation of the (desirable) traits over many
generations
TYS Question on Natural Selection
• 2020 /P2/ 8a
Explain how mutation and natural selection
result in the higher occurrence of sickle-cell
anaemia allele in malaria-stricken countries?
• Sickle-cell anaemia is a result of a gene mutation in the
haemoglobin gene which
• causes the RBC to be sickle-cell shaped, affecting their
ability to transport oxygen.
• However, people who are heterozygous for the sickle-
cell allele are more resistant to the malaria pathogen
• Hence these individuals have better chances of
survival and reproduction as compared to normal
individuals, particularly in malaria prone areas
• Resulting in the accumulation of sickle-cell allele over
many generations
(19.7) Selection Need to know 1
example for natural
selection
Natural selection
Galapagos finches
Typical mainland type (ancestral)
large ground cactus warbler insectivorous vegetarian woodpecker

finch ground finch finch tree finch tree finch finch
short, long, slender slender parrot-like curved large straight

straight beak beak beak beak parrot-like beak
beak
large cactus flower flying large buds and insect

seeds with nectar insects insects fruit larvae
(19.7) Selection
Galapagos finches
Explanation of Darwin’s observations at the Galapagos Islands:
• Ancestor finches came from the South American mainland.
• Finches at the Galapagos Islands reproduced rapidly, resulting
in competition for food.
• Variations occurred and finches with beaks suited for a
particular diet on the islands are selected for by the environment.
• Finches that are selected for by the environment survived and
reproduced successfully.
• Eventually, six major types of finches evolved, each of which is
adapted to a particular food source.
The process whereby a common ancestor evolves into several

different species, each adapted to a particular environmental
niche, is known as adaptive radiation
(19.7) Selection
Mechanism of evolution
Organisms reproduce rapidly as food supply is abundant.
Spontaneous mutation takes place, resulting in variation in the

organisms.
Organisms migrate to different environments.
Favorable traits will confer a selective advantage and

such organisms will survive, reproduce and pass on their
favorable genes to their offspring.
These organisms become the

predominant species in their environment.
(19.7) Selection
Artificial selection
Plants and animals with desirable traits can be artificially
selected through selective breeding.
Video: Meet
The Super
Cow
(19.7) Selection
Artificial selection
• Examples of desirable traits in:
plants are high oil content in seeds, disease resistance,
sweet fruit
animals are good meat, high milk production, good quality
fur
• Hybridisation is the process of cross breeding two

different varieties of plants/animals, each with their own
favorable trait, to produce offspring with both the favourable
traits.
• For example, a rice plant that produces grains with high
nutrition content can be crossed with another rice plant that
is resistant to pests to produce a hybrid that has grains with
high nutrition content and resistance to pests.
(19.7) Selection
Comparing natural selection

and artificial selection
Natural selection Artificial selection
Results from mutations in Results from manipulation

gene by humans through
selective breeding
Brought about by changes Humans select organisms
in environmental with desired traits to
conditions reproduce
Very slow process Relatively faster process
May be advantageous or Advantageous to man

harmful to man

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CHAPTER 19

Gregor Mendel, the

What is monohybrid inheritance?

Mendel’s monohybrid experiment

Mendel crossed pure-bred tall pea

He planted the seeds from the cross

Mendel’s monohybrid experiment

Mendel’s model of heredity

• Hereditary factors (genes) are responsible for the

Mendel’s Law of Segregation

A chromosome is a rod-like structure visible in the

It is made up of the molecule deoxyribonucleic acid

A gene is a unit of inheritance,

It is a small segment of DNA in a chromosome

Alleles are different forms of the same

They occupy the same relative positions

Letters are usually used to represent

One chromosome in the pair

They have exactly the same

• The phenotype of an organism refers to its

• The phenotype of an organism is influenced by:

Video: Genetics 101 Part 4. Stop video at 1:18 minutes

• An organism is homozygous for a trait if the two alleles

• An organism is heterozygous for a trait if the two alleles

Dominant allele Recessive allele is

• A dominant allele expresses itself in both

• A recessive allele will only express itself in a

Why do plants Q and R look the same

Modelling genetic crosses

• Genetic models can be used to:

• The next slide uses the genetic model to explain

Genetic diagram (TB Pg 362)

The Punnett square

• However, when organisms display the dominant trait,

• Breeding experiments are used to identify the

• If the organism is homozygous dominant, all the offspring

Phenotypes heterozygous homozygous recessive

Ratio of phenotypes 1 tall : 1 dwarf

• Co-dominance in a short-horned cattle:

• The ABO blood group in human is another example

• Need to include the legend statement if

• Cells that produce gametes by meiosis are known as

Video: Genetics 101 Part 3. Play video from 0:47-1:20 min

• For example, coat colours in rabbits is determined by

Phenotype Genotype C: Allele for full colour (grey coat)

Human blood groups

Parents’ phenotype blood group A X blood group

ratio AB: A:B:O

• Individual 10 has Bb genotype

• The traits of an individual is dependent on

• Genetic variation is heritable, but variations due to

Discontinuous variation Continuous variation

Dark skin Fair skin

Comparing discontinuous and

A. (1), (3) and (5) C. (1), (2), (4) and (6)

• Somatic mutations that occur in normal body cells

• Mutations may be inherited by the next generation if

• Dominant mutations are easily detected unlike

(Right) Karyotype of female

One of the eggs has

• Albinos get sunburn easily as they are very sensitive to sunlight.

• In the absence of mutagens, rate of spontaneous

Mutation and selection

• Nature ‘selects’ organisms with more favourable