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17.1 Types of genetic crosses and breeding system

17.2 Non-Mendelian inheritance
17.3 Genetic mapping
17.4 Population genetic
17.5 DNA replication
17.6 Gene expression
17.7 Regulation of gene expression
17.8 Mutation

Types of genetic crosses and breeding

system
Learning outcomes
• Explain the Mendelian inheritance pertaining to
the phenotypes and genotypes ration
• Describes the types of crosses ( test cross,
backcross, reciprocal cross and selfing) and
explain their importance
• Describe pure breeding, outbreedings,
inbreeding, selective breeding and explain their
importance

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17.1 TYPES OF GENETIC CROSSES AND BREEDING SYSTEM

Mendelian genetic
• ‘Transmission of genetic information from parent to offspring’

Important terms
• Character - heritable feature (eg: flower colour)
• Trait - each variant for a character (eg: purple or white colour for flower)
• Gene - a segment of DNA that serves as a unit of heredity (eg: gene for flower colour)
- each gene resides at a specific locus on a specific chromosome
• Allele - alternative version of a gene
- eg: a pea plant may have the purple- flower allele [P] & white-flower allele [p]

…Important terms

• Dominant allele - allele that can be expressed in homozygous or heterozygous conditions

• Recessive allele - allele that can only be expressed in homozygous condition

• Homozygous - having 2 identical alleles for a certain gene ( eg: PP ~ dominant

homozygous; pp ~ recessive homozygous )

• Heterozygous - having 2 different alleles for a certain gene ( eg: Pp )

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…Important terms

Alleles of the
same gene

Different genes

Loci Homozygous
dominant alleles

Heterozygous
alleles
Homozygous
recessive alleles

…Important terms

• Genotype - the genetic constitution for a certain character of an organism

• Phenotype - the physical appearance for a certain character of an organism

eg:
Genotype Phenotype

PP Purple flower

Pp Purple flower

pp White flower

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…Important terms

• P generation - parental generation

• F1 generation - first filial generation (offspring produced from a cross between individuals of
P generation)

• F2 generation - second filial generation (offspring produced from a cross between F1

individuals)

• Back cross - crossing between an F1 individual with one of the parents ( or with individual
that has same genotype as the parents )

• Self cross - cross involving individuals of same generation (eg: F1 x F1)

…Important terms
• Test cross - crossing between an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous
recessive individual

- done to determine the unknown genotype

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Mendel’s Experiment

• Basic principles of heredity was discovered by

Gregor Mendel

• He did experiments on genetic crosses using garden

pea plants (Pisum sativum)

• Mendel chose garden pea plants because:

1. they could be grown easily in large numbers
2. they had a short life cycle
3. their pollination could be controlled
4. they had easily observable characters

• Mendel studied 7 observable characters:

1. flower colour (purple / white)
2. flower position (axial / terminal)
3. seed colour (yellow / green)
4. seed shape (round / wrinkled)
5. pod shape (inflated / constricted)
6. pod colour (green / yellow)
7. stem length (tall / dwarf)

• The 7 characters of pea plants (Pisum sativum)

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• Mendel’s experiment

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• In a typical breeding experiment, Mendel would start by crossing 2 true breeding

individuals as P1
[eg of true breeding plant: a plant with purple flowers that produces offspring
which all have purple flowers through self-pollination]

• Mendel then tracked the heritable characters for 3 generations

• Mendel did 2 types of crosses:

1. monohybrid cross
2. dihybrid cross

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MONOHYBRID CROSS

• ‘A genetic cross that takes into account the behaviour of alleles of a single gene at
a single locus’
• The cross tracks the inheritance of only a single character

• Eg for Mendel’s experiment:

- Plant with purple flowers were crossed with plant with white flowers

- F1 plants all had purple flowers

- when F1 plants were self-crossed, F2 showed that 705 plants had purple
flowers and 224 had white flowers (with phenotypic ratio 3:1)

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…MONOHYBRID CROSS

• Mendel’s monohybrid cross

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…MONOHYBRID CROSS

• Based from the monohybrid cross, Mendel proposed the law of segregation:
‘the two alleles for a heritable character separate during gamete formation and end up in
different gametes’

• This corresponds to the distribution of homologous chromosomes to different gametes in

meiosis

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…MONOHYBRID CROSS
P : Purple flower x White flower
PP pp

G : all P all p
F1: Purple flower x Purple flower
Pp Pp
G: ½ P ½ p ½ P ½ p

F2 : ¼ PP ¼ Pp ¼ Pp ¼ pp
Purple flower White flower
3 : 1

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…MONOHYBRID CROSS
• Phenotypic ratio of F2 (when heterozygous F1 plants were self-crossed) is 3:1
while genotypic ratio is 1:2:1

• Can also be determined using a Punnet square:

F2

gametes P p

P PP Pp

p Pp pp

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MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE in Drosophila

• Character : wing size

• Trait : normal wings
vestigial wings
• Alleles for normal wings (V) : dominant
vestigial wings (v) : recessive
• True breeding parent with normal wings (VV) is crossed with parent with vestigial wings (vv)

…MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE in humans

• Character : albino
• Trait : normal or albino
• Allele for albino is recessive
• Genotype for albino individual : aa
• Genotype for normal individual : AA or Aa

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Test cross for monohybrids

• Genotype for a tall pea plant may be TT or Tt

• Test cross is used to determine the unknown genotype

• If test cross is done on an individual which is heterozygous for one character (eg: Tt),
phenotypic ratio for the offspring will be 1:1

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Mendel’s experiment:
- Plant with yellow-round seeds (YYRR) were crossed with plant with green-
wrinkled seeds (yyrr)

- F1 plants all had yellow-round seeds (YyRr)

- when F1 plants were self-crossed, F2 showed that 315 had yellow-round seeds
108 had green- round seeds 101 had yellow-wrinkled seeds 32 had
green-wrinkled seeds

- phenotypic ratio for F2 was 9:3:3:1

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DIHYBRID CROSS

• ‘A genetic cross that takes into account the behaviour of alleles of genes at 2 different loci’

• The cross tracks the inheritance of 2 characters

P : yellow-round seed x green-wrinkled seed

YYRR yyrr

G : all YR all yr

F1: yellow-round seed x yellow-round seed

YyRr YyRr

G: YR Yr yR yr YR Yr yR yr

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…DIHYBRID CROSS
F2 :
gametes YR Yr yR yr

YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr

Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr

yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr

yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr

• Y_R_ 9/16 ; Y_rr 3/16 ; yyR_ 3/
16 ; yyrr 1/16
:. Phenotypic ratio for F2 is 9:3:3:1

• Genotypic ratio is 1 YYRR 2 YYRr 2 YyRR 1 YYrr 4 YyRr 1 yyRR

2 Yyrr 2 yyRr 1 yyrr

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…DIHYBRID CROSS

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• Based from the dihybrid cross, Mendel proposed the law of independent assortment :
‘each pair of alleles segregates independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete
formation ’

• Genes are packaged into gametes in all possible allelic combinations, as long as each
gamete has 1 allele for each gene

• This occurs as 2 pairs of homologous chromosomes can be arranged in 2 different ways at

metaphase I

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Test cross for dihybrids

• Genotype for a tall pea plant with purple flowers may be TTPP or TTPp or TtPP or TtPp

• Test cross is used to determine this

• If test cross is done on an individual which is heterozygous for both characters (eg: TtPp),
phenotypic ratio for the offspring will be 1:1:1:1

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