Homeostasis Part 1

21/6/2022
11.1 Importance of homeostasis

11. 2 Liver
11. 3 Osmoregulation in mammals
11. 4 Osmoregulation in plants
11.1 Importance of homeostasis
Learning outcomes :
• Explain the importance of homeostasis
• Describe the homeostatic control system
in mammals
• Explain the physiological and behavioural
control in thermoregulation of endotherms.
CHAPTER 11 : HOMEOSTASIS
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11.1 IMPORTANCE OF HOMEOSTASIS

• ‘Steady state’
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment by the body of an organism.
• Homeostasis regulates the internal environment as outside forces tend to change it
• It maintains conditions within a range in which metabolic processes can occur
• Many biological processes are self-regulating, operating by a mechanism called feedback
• The output or product of a process regulates that process
• Negative feedback is the correctional mechanism of homeostasis
• In negative feedback, the output or product of a process slows or stops that process
• This will reverse the change and prevent the small change from becoming too large
Importance of Homeostasis
• The organism is less dependent on the external environment.
• It ensures an optimum internal environment for cells to carry out their functions and for the
survival of the organism.
• It allows biological systems to function efficiently so that there is less energy wastage.
• It allows organisms to live in a wider range of habitats.
• It allows organisms to increase or decrease the rate of metabolism to suit their requirements.
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Homeostatic control system in Mammals

• The mechanism involves 3 components:
• A receptor / detector detects a change in the internal environment
• A control centre processes information it receives from the receptor and directs an appropriate
response
• An effector receives the signals from the control centre and produces a response to prevent a
bigger change
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Homeostatic control
Level keeps
increasing
positive
feedback
Level Correctional
negative
increases mechanism
feedback
Normal Normal
level level
Level Correctional negative

decreases mechanism feedback
positive
feedback Level keeps
decreasing
Temperature Regulation
• To maintain a constant body temperature, the heat gained by an organism must equal the heat
loss.
Heat gained = Heat loss Constant body temperature
• Heat may gained by

 Metabolism of food
 Absorption of solar energy
• Heat maybe lost by radiation, convection and conduction.
• In regulation of body temperature, organism can divided into

 Endotherm (homoitherm) eg : mammals, birds
 Ectotherm (poikiloitherm) eg : All invertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles
• Endotherm is animal that produces heat within the body to regulate its temperature. The heat
produced from respiration. Their body temperature fairly constant and independently of the
environment temperature.
• Ectotherm is animal that receives heat from the environment to regulate its body temperature.
Their body temperature follows the temperature of environment.
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Stratum
granulosom
Malphigian layer
Thermoregulation
• Thermoregulation is the process by which an organism regulates its internal temperature within a
tolerable range.
• Two interacting homeostatic system that control human body temperature

 The system that controls the temperature of skin surface
 The system that regulates the body core temperature
• The skin surface temperature is constantly monitored by thermoreceptor in the skin. Thermoreceptor
comprise of
 Cold receptor – detect decreases in skin temperature
 Heat receptor - detect increases in skin temperature
• Normal adults maintain the core body temperature in the range of 36-37oC.
• The temperature of body core is monitored by central thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus.

Thermoreceptors detect the changes in the temperature of the blood.
• The hypothalamus has two thermoregulatory centres

 Heat loss centre – activated by increase in blood temperature & response to increase heat loss
 Heat gain centre – activated by decrease in blood temperature & response to conserve body heat
and raise the body temperature.
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Thermoregulation
• Hypothalamus has two thermoregulatory centres, the heat loss centre and the heat gain centre.
that help in physiological control.
• Heat loss centre ( anterior hypothalamus )
Vasodilation
Sweating
Insulation
Low metabolic rate
• Heat gain centre ( posterior hypothalamus )

Vasoconstriction
Shivering
Insulation
Increased metabolic rate
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Control of body temperature
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11.2 Liver
Learning outcomes :
• Describe the structure of liver, and explain
the roles of its components.
• Describe the carbohydrate metabolisme in
the liver (glycogenesis, glycogenolysis,
gluconeogenesis)
• Describe protein metabolism
(transamination, deamination and urea
formation) in the liver.
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Liver
• Body’s largest organ (~ 1.5 kg)
• Situated under the diaphragm, mainly towards the right side of the abdomen
• Hepatic artery supplies the liver with oxygenated blood (from the aorta/heart)
• From hepatic portal vein, it receives deoxygenated blood containing newly absorbed nutrients,
drugs and possibly microbes and toxins (from the intestines)
• Hepatic vein carries deoxygenated blood from the liver towards the heart
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• The liver is divided into 2 main lobes
• Each lobe consists of many functional units called lobules
• Each lobule consists of hepatocytes (liver cells)
• At the centre of each lobule is an intralobular vein (branch of hepatic vein or central vein). It
receives blood that flows along the sinusoids. The blood from the intralobular veins passes into
the hepatic vein and then passes to the heart through inferior vena cava.
• Outside of the lobules are the interlobular blood vessels (branch of hepatic artery and branch of
hepatic portal vein) and a branch of bile duct.
• The arrangement of blood vessels, hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery as well as hepatocytes
forms the functional unit of liver called acinus.
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Intralobular
blood vessel
Interlobular blood
vessel
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1 2
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Intralobular
Interlobular blood vessel
blood vessel
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• Blood (from interlobular blood vessels) flow through channels called sinusoids (towards the
intralobular vein)
• Hepatocytes lining the sinusoids takes up substances (eg: O2, excess nutrients, toxins) from the
blood to perform the liver’s functions
• Also present in the walls of the sinusoids are Kuffer cells (phagocytic cells which destroy worn-out
erythrocytes, bacteria, foreign materials)
• Bile (secreted by hepatocytes) enters the canaliculi that empty into the bile ductules. Bile is
stored in the gall bladder before secreted into the small intestine.
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Functions of liver
i. Regulating blood glucose level (carbohydrate metabolism)
• When glucose level ↑, insulin stimulates hepatocytes to take up glucose (forming CO2 and H2O) or
convert it into glycogen (glycogenesis)
• When glucose level ↓, glucagon stimulates hepatocytes to convert glycogen into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
Glucose can also be synthesized from fatty acids, glycerol or amino acids (gluconeogenesis)
INSULIN
Glucose Glycogen
Glycogenesis
GLUCAGON
Glycogen Glucose
Glycogenolysis
Glycerol / Amino acid Glucose

Gluconeogenesis
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Control of blood glucose level

• Normal level ~ 90 mg/100ml
• Pancreas detects any change of blood glucose level
• Pancreas has islets of Langerhans. Each islet has alpha cells (that releases glucagon) and
beta cells (releases insulin)
• Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones that regulate blood glucose level
• When blood glucose level ↑ :
pancreas detects change → β cells release insulin → insulin triggers the liver to take up glucose
and to convert glucose into glycogen → blood glucose level declines to normal level
• When blood glucose level ↓ :
pancreas detects change → α cells release glucagon → glucagon triggers the liver to break down
glycogen and release glucose to the blood → glucose level increases to normal level
• A disorder called diabetes mellitus is the condition when the blood glucose level is high and always
found in the urine of the patient.
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Control of blood glucose level
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ii. Regulating level of amino acids (protein metabolism)
• Excess amino acids cannot be stored
• They will be broken down in the liver through the process of deamination where the amino group
(NH2) is released from an amino acid
• One of the byproduct is ammonia, NH3 (highly toxic)
• NH3 will be converted to urea (less toxic) through a pathway called urea cycle / ornithine cycle
• 2NH3 + CO2 urea cycle CO(NH2)2 + H2O
• Urea will be released by the hepatocytes into the blood and carried towards the kidneys to be
excreted as urine
• Liver is also involved in transamination in which an amino group is transferred from an amino
acid to a keto acid. This forms a new amino acid
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ORNITHINE
CYCLE
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Ornithine cycle
• Deamination involves the removal of the amino group (NH2) from an amino acid to form ammonia
(NH3). Ammonia is very toxic and soluble. It should not be allowed to accumulate in the body.
• Ammonia (NH3) will be converted to urea (less toxic) through a pathway called urea cycle / ornithine
cycle. The process is occurs in the hepatocytes.
• The ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to form carbamoyl phosphate. ATP is used. Carbamoyl
phosphate then reacts with ornithine to produce citrulline. These processes occur in the
mitochondrial matrix of the hepatocyte.
• Citrulline then diffuses into the cytoplasm of the hepatocytes and reacts with aspartate to form
argininosuccinate.
• Argininosuccinate breaks down into arginine and fumarate. Fumarate enters the Kreb cycle.
• Arginine is then hydrolysed to produce urea and ornithine. Ornithine can be used again in the cycle.
2NH3 + CO2 urea cycle CO(NH2)2 + H2O
• Urea will be released by the hepatocytes into the blood and carried towards the kidneys to be
excreted as urine.
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Transamination
• Transamination refers to the synthesis of new amino acids by the enzymatic transfer of amino groups
between the amino acid and the keto acid.
• For example the amino acid, glutamic acid can be synthesized by the following reaction.
Alanine + ketoglutarate acid glutamic acid + pyruvic acid

(amino acid) (keto acid) (amino acid) (keto acid)
• Non-essential amino acids can be synthesized from other amino acids in this way in the liver cells.
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21/6/2022

11.1 Importance of homeostasis

11.1 Importance of homeostasis

11.1 IMPORTANCE OF HOMEOSTASIS

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment by the body of an organism.

• Homeostasis regulates the internal environment as outside forces tend to change it

• It maintains conditions within a range in which metabolic processes can occur

• Many biological processes are self-regulating, operating by a mechanism called feedback

• The output or product of a process regulates that process

• Negative feedback is the correctional mechanism of homeostasis

• The organism is less dependent on the external environment.

• It allows organisms to live in a wider range of habitats.

Homeostatic control system in Mammals

• A receptor / detector detects a change in the internal environment

Level Correctional negative

• Heat may gained by

• Heat maybe lost by radiation, convection and conduction.

• In regulation of body temperature, organism can divided into

• Two interacting homeostatic system that control human body temperature

• The temperature of body core is monitored by central thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus.

• The hypothalamus has two thermoregulatory centres

• Heat gain centre ( posterior hypothalamus )

Control of body temperature

• The liver is divided into 2 main lobes

• Each lobe consists of many functional units called lobules

• Each lobule consists of hepatocytes (liver cells)

Glycerol / Amino acid Glucose

Control of blood glucose level

• Pancreas detects any change of blood glucose level

• When blood glucose level ↑ :

• When blood glucose level ↓ :

Control of blood glucose level

ii. Regulating level of amino acids (protein metabolism)

• Excess amino acids cannot be stored

• One of the byproduct is ammonia, NH3 (highly toxic)

• 2NH3 + CO2 urea cycle CO(NH2)2 + H2O

2NH3 + CO2 urea cycle CO(NH2)2 + H2O

Alanine + ketoglutarate acid glutamic acid + pyruvic acid

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