GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
HOMEOSTASIS o Only selected substances go in and out of the
cell.
o The process of maintaining a stable internal o Highly specialized to allow efficient movement
environment. of substances
o The physiological consistency of the body o Contains signal receptors that help in
despite external fluctuations. All complex identifying substances.
multicellular organisms maintain a stable
internal environment using their organ
systems.
o In a general sense, refers to stability, balance
or equilibrium. Maintaining a stable internal
environment requires constant monitoring and
adjustments as conditions change. The
adjustment of physiological systems within the
body is called homeostatic regulation.
o If balance is shifted or disrupted and
homeostasis is not maintained, the results
may not allow normal functioning of the
organism. If homeostasis is disrupted, it must
be controlled or a disease/disorder may result.
For most organisms, any breakdown of
homeostasis may have serious or even fatal
consequences.
The homeostatic control has three components:
i. A receptor (sense organ) to detect a
change
ii. A center of control (the brain or the spinal
cord) that will process and integrate what
is happening
iii. An effector (muscle cells or
organs/glands) to produce a response
appropriate to the change STIMULUS-RESPONSE FEEDBACK MODEL
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
1. Stimulus – a structure that produces the
o Maintain balance or equilibrium (homeostasis) change
o Substances that need to be maintained are 2. Receptor – a structure that detects the change
glucose, water, co2, oxygen, minerals such as 3. Control center – a structure that determines
sodium and chlorine. Internal conditions such the appropriate response to the stimulus
as temperature, blood pressure and hormone 4. Effector – can be organs, glands or tissues
concentration. that are instructed to adjust the amount of
o Cell membrane serves as the gatekeeper of output that produces a desired effect
the cell. 5. Response – the outcome of the adjustment
that should remove the stimulus

Sese, Catherine C.
St. Zadkiel the Archangel
NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE FEEDBACK
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
It allows the internal condition of the body to go back
to its normal or ideal state by inhabiting or removing
the stimulus.
Positive Feedback Loops
A positive feedback loop occurs in nature when the
product of a reaction leads to an increase in that
reaction. if we look at a system in homeostasis, a
positive feedback loop moves a system further away
from the target of equilibrium. It does this by
amplifying the effects of a product or event and
occurs when something needs to happen quickly.
Example 1: Fruit Ripening
Once a fruit in a tree is ripe, it gives off ethylene (C 2H4)
through its skin causing the other fruits near it to also
ripen.

Negative Feedback Loops

A negative feedback loop occurs in biology when the
product of a reaction leads to a decrease in that
reaction. In this way, a negative feedback loop
brings a system closer to a target of stability or
homeostasis. Negative feedback loops are Example 2: Childbirth
responsible for the stabilization of a system, and
ensure the maintenance of a steady, stable state. When labor begins, the baby’s head is pushed
downwards and results in increased pressure on the
The response of the regulating mechanism is
cervix. This stimulates receptor cells to send a chemical
opposite to the output of the event.
signal to the brain, allowing the release of oxytocin that
diffuses to the cervix via the blood, where it stimulated
further contractions. These contractions stimulate further
POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM oxytocin release until the baby is born.

Positive feedback is a response that occurs to

amplify the change in the variable. (This has a
destabilizing effect, so does not result in
homeostasis. Positive feedback is less common in
naturally occurring systems than negative feedback,
but it has its applications.).
It allows the output to enhance the original stimulus.

Sese, Catherine C.
St. Zadkiel the Archangel
 Example 2: Blood Pressure Regulation (Baroreflex)
Blood pressure needs to remain high enough to pump
blood to all parts of the body, but not so high as to cause
damage while doing so. While the heart is pumping,
baroreceptors detect the pressure of the blood going
through the arteries. If the pressure is too high or too low,
a chemical signal is sent to the brain via the
glossopharyngeal nerve. The brain then sends a chemical
signal to the heart to adjust the rate of pumping: if blood
pressure is low, heart rate increases, while if blood
pressure is high, heart rate decreases.

Example 3: Blood Clotting Example 3: Osmoregulation

Osmoregulation refers to the control of the concentration
When tissue is torn or injured, a chemical is released. This
of various liquids within the body, to maintain
chemical causes platelets in the blood to activate. Once
homeostasis. We will again look at an example of a fish,
these platelets have activated, they release a chemical
living in the ocean. The concentration of salt in the water
which signals more platelets to activate, until the wound
surrounding the fish is much higher than that of the liquid
is clotted.
in the fish. This water enters the fish diffusion through the
gills, through food consumption, and through drinking.
Also, because the concentration of salt is higher outside
than inside the fish, there is passive diffusion of salt into
the fish and water out of the fish. The salt concentration is
then too high in the fish, and salt ions must be released
through excretion. This occurs via the skin, and in very
concentrated urine. In addition, high salt levels in the
blood are removed via active transport by the chloride
secretory cells in the gills. The correct salt concentration
Other examples: (all Negative Feedback)
is thus maintained.
Example 1: Temperature Regulation
Temperature regulation in humans occurs constantly.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Normal human body temperature is approximately
Their key difference is their response to change.
98.6°F. When body temperature rises above this, two
→ amplifies change → feedback reduces
mechanisms kick in the body begins to sweat, and
→ will result in more change
vasodilation occurs to allow more of the blood surface
of a product: more → will result in less of
area to be exposed to the cooler external environment. As
apples; more a product: less
the sweat cools, it causes evaporative cooling, while the
blood vessels cause convective cooling. Normal
contractions, or heat, less
temperature is regained. Should these cooling
more clotting pressure, or less
mechanisms continue, the body will become cold. The platelets. salt.
mechanisms which then kick in are the formation of goose → moves away from → moves towards a
bumps, and vasoconstriction. Goosebumps in other a target point target.
mammals raise the hair or fur, allowing more heat to be
retained. In humans, they tighten the surrounding skin, WHY IS FEEDBACK IMPORTANT?
reducing (slightly) the surface area from which to lose
heat. Vasoconstriction ensures that only a small surface Without feedback, homeostasis cannot occur. This
area of the veins is exposed to the cooler outside means that an organism loses the ability to self-
temperature, retaining heat. Normal temperature is
regulate its body. Negative feedback mechanisms
regained.
are more common in homeostasis, but positive
feedback loops are also important. Changes in
feedback loops can lead to various issues, including
diabetes mellitus.

Sese, Catherine C.
St. Zadkiel the Archangel

In a normal glucose cycle, increases in blood glucose
levels detected by the pancreas will result in the beta cells
of the pancreas secreting insulin until normal blood
glucose levels are reached. Whereas if low blood glucose
levels are detected, the alpha cells of the pancreas will
release glucagon to raise blood glucose levels to be
normal.
WRAPPING UP POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK LOOPS
Feedback loops are biological mechanisms whereby
homeostasis is maintained. This occurs when the
product or output of an event or reaction changes the
organism's response to that reaction. Positive
feedback occurs to increase the change or output:
the result of a reaction is amplified to make it occur
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
GENETIC ENGINEERING
o Is the science of making changes to the
genes of a plant or animal to produce a desired
result.
o Its goal is to add one or more new traits that
are not normally found in that organism.
o Through advanced studies in the structure of
DNA and its chemical properties, scientists
have been able to employ different techniques
to extract, cut, and make unlimited copies of
DNA.
DNA RECOMBINATION
o Is a process of modifying of genes of
organisms for practical purposes.
o Is done when a piece of DNA is combined with
another DNA from another source. With this
process, organisms get to have traits that are
normally found in their species.
more quickly. Negative feedback occurs to reduce
the change or output: the result of a reaction is
reduced to bring the system back to a stable state.
Some examples of positive feedback are
contractions in child birth and the ripening of fruit;
negative feedback examples include the regulation
of blood glucose levels and osmoregulation.
Regulation of Body Temperature
o High temperature cause imbalance in the
body.
Regulation of Blood Pressure
o Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the
blood against the walls of the blood vessels. It
is controlled by a homeostatic mechanism.
Regulation of Glucose
o Glucose is an important sugar in the body.
When combined with oxygen inside the cell, it
produces energy necessary to perform certain
physiological processes.
TECHNOLOGY AND TOOLS USED IN DNA
RECOMBINATION
1. GEL ELECTROPHORESIS
→ is a method used to separate DNA
fragments based on their size.
→ In this method, a mixture of DNA
fragments is placed at one end of a
porous gel, and an electric voltage is
applied to the gel.
→ The smaller the DNA fragments, the
faster they move.
→ This is important for characterizing DNA
fragments, fingerprinting, comparing the
genomes of different organisms, and
locating and identifying one particular
gene out of the millions of genes in an
individual's genome.
Sese, Catherine C.
St. Zadkiel the Archangel

PROCESSES USED IN RECOMBINANT DNA
TECHNOLOGY
2. DNA SEQUENCING
→ This is a method used to provide the
identity and order of nucleotides in a
DNA strand.
→ Small, single stranded pieces of DNA
are placed in test tubes with an enzyme
that can make a complimentary DNA
strand by using the original DNA strand
as a template.
→ A supply of the four nucleotides bases
found in DNA is then added, along with
a small amount of one of the bases that
has been labeled with fluorescent dyes.
3. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
→ The goal of PCR is to amplify specific
DNA sequences.
→ This is important in detecting diseases or
infectious agents.
→ To make copies of a piece of DNA, DNA
is heated to separate its two strands and
then cooled to allow the primers to bind
to the single-stranded DNA.
→ The primers are short DNA strands that
provide a place for the DNA polymerase
to start working.
→ as the polymerase starts working, new
strands of the separated DNA are
formed.
→ Continuous heating and cooling allow
further separation of DNA and formation
of new DNA strands, respectively,
creating millions of copies of the DNA
segments.
1. TRANSFORMATION USING A VECTOR
→ Recombinant DNA may be created
through transformation with the help of a
vector, such as bacterial cells.
→ Vectors are organisms that are normally
harmless but may help spread infection
by transferring the genetic material from
one host to another.
→ In the transformation process, a selected
portion of the foreign DNA is inserted
into small, circular DNA molecule called
the plasmid, which is naturally found in
bacteria. Plasmids are the most useful
tool in gene transformation for two
reasons:
1) A plasmid contains a gene
sequence that serves as a bacterial
origin of replication. This is where
the foreign DNA can be inserted into
the bacterial cell.
2) It also contains a genetic marker,
which makes it possible to
distinguish bacteria that carry the
plasmid-containing foreign DNA
2. VECTORLESS GENE TRANSFER
→ This process is similar to transformation,
but it does not involve vectors.
Sese, Catherine C.
St. Zadkiel the Archangel
→ The types of vectorless gene transfer genetically modify plants to make them
include electroporation, protoplast highly resistant to insects and other
fusion, microinjection, and use of a pests.
particle gun.
a. In electroporation, temporary holes are
formed in the plasma membrane of the
host cell by applying a significant amount
of electricity in the culture medium. This
enables the entry of foreign DNA via the
pores.

b. In protoplast fusion, cells are treated with

chemicals to initiate recombination. In
this process, bacterial cell walls are
digested, turning the cells into
protoplasts. These protoplasts are
treated with polyethylene glycol to allow
them to fuse, creating a random
recombination of genes. The resulting
recombinant cell will now grow a new cell 3. TRANSDUCTION
wall. o Is the process wherein genetically
engineered bacteriophages- viruses that
parasitize bacteria- are introduced into
the cell to create the desired
recombinant DNA

c. In microinjection, the host cell is

immobilized by applying a mild suction
with a blunt pipette. The foreign gene is
then injected with a microinjection
needle, thus creating recombinant DNA.

d. In using a particle gun for recombination,

the host cell is bombarded with tungsten
particle coated with foreign DNA. This
process is used in the field of agriculture.
Many farmers use this method to

Sese, Catherine C.
St. Zadkiel the Archangel
APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA
1. AGRICULTURE
TRANSGENIC PLANTS
→ plants that contain genes from other
organisms.
→ By using recombinant DNA technology,
plants can now be grown with genes
responsible for producing natural
insecticides.
→ Ex. Genetically modified maize known as
Bt corn
Some bacteria used in recombinant DNA
technology:
a. Pseudomonas syriangae – the recombinant
variant of this bacterium is called the ice-
minus bacterium, which lacks the gene
responsible for ice formation. This ice-
minus bacteria prevent frost crystals from
forming on plants.
b. Pseudomonas flourescens – this is a
nonpathogenic bacterium that has the
ability to produce proteins rapidly. This
characteristic is advantageous in
developing bio therapeutics and vaccines.
c. Agrobacterium tumefaciens – in its natural
state, this bacterium has a tumor- inducing
(Ti) plasmid that causes crown gall disease
in plants. The said Ti plasmid in the
bacterium can be removed or replaced with
a recombinant plasmid. This enables the
now-modified bacterium to introduce
beneficial genes to plants.
2. MEDICINE
→ An important contribution of recombinant
DNA technology in the field of medicine is
the use of bacteria to create substances
that our body needs, whether to maintain
good health or to treat disease.
→ Ex. human insulin, modified human growth
hormone, blood clotting factors, hepatitis B
virus surface
3. FOOD INDUSTRY
→ Some of the crops that we eat are now
resistant to pests, diseases, and
environmental stress.
→ Crop yields have production costs have
increased been and kept lowered.
→ Recombinant crops are also beneficial
because of their improved nutritional quality
and longer shelf life.

last na ‘to huhu neways piliin ang leni-kiko sa ika-9 ng mayo! <3 wag isalalay ang ating susunod na
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Sese, Catherine C.
St. Zadkiel the Archangel