ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BS PSYCHOLOGY 3
1st Semester | A.Y. 2023-2024
ENZYMES
 The series of chemical reactions that make up a
metabolic pathway in a cell do not just usually happen
on their own.
 At normal body temperatures, the activation
energy needed to start a chemical reaction is too
great for a significant number of chemicals.
 What is needed to make chemical reactions
happen is a catalyst - a chemical that reduces the
amount of activation energy needed to start a
chemical reaction.
*activation energy - presence of a catalyst
*catalyst - will initiate the chemical reaction,
catalysts participate in chemical reactions but are not
themselves
 Changed by the reaction, this is the role of enzymes
in the cell - to act as chemical catalysts that allow
metabolic reactions to occur.
CHEMICAL STRUCTURES OF ENZYME
1. Cofactor - non-protein part; maybe inorganic ions or
vitamins. If the cofactor is an organic non-protein,
it is called a CoENZYME
2. Active Site - Portion of the enzyme molecule that
chemically fits the substrate molecule.
 The SUBSTRATE is the molecule acted on by
the enzyme (shape of active site ay dapat tugma
sa substrate)
*Lock and key mechanism
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ENZYME FUNCTION
1. Various physical and chemical agents activate or
inhibit enzyme action by changing the shape of
enzyme molecules.
*When the shape changes, so does the function.
2. Most enzymes catalyze a chemical reaction in both
direction.
3. Enzymes are continually being destroyed and
therefore must be continually synthesized.
CLASSIFICATION AND NAMING OF ENZYMES
1. Oxidase-reduction Enzymes
 Known as oxidases, hydrogenases and
dehydrogenases.
 Energy release for muscular contractions and all
physiological work depend on these enzymes.
2. Hydrolyzing Enzymes or Hydrolases
 Digestive enzymes belong to this group.
 They are named after the substrate they acted
on.
 Example: Lipase (lipase enzyme activity),
sucrase, maltase,
3. Phosphorylating enzymes
 Add or remove phosphate groups and are
known as phosphorylases or phosphatases.
4. Carboxylases or decarboxylases
 Enzymes that add or remove carbon dioxide.
5. Mutases or Isomerases
 Enzymes that rearrange atoms within a
molecule.
6. Hydrases - Add water to a molecule without
splitting it.
HOMEOSTASIS
 A condition that may vary, but which is relatively
constant.
 Maintenance of relatively constant internal
conditions despite changes in either the internal or
the external environment
 The ability to be in the state of equilibrium.
SET POINT or SET POINT RANGE
 A normal reading or range of normal body
conditions
 Examples:
 Body temperature is relatively constant at 37
degrees Celsius, but it may vary slightly above
or below this point and still be considered normal.
 80-100 mg of glucose per ml of blood is
normal, but it may vary depending on dietary
intake and timing of meals.
 Bacterial Infection
1. Immune system sends chemicals that signals
the hypothalamus to turn up the set
temperature.
2. Body shivers as it tries to reach that higher
set point.
3. Fever results and slows down bacterial
reproduction.
4. Infection disappears and hypothalamus
returns to normal set point.
HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS
 Are processes for maintaining or restoring
homeostasis. They are involved in all the body
organs and systems.
 Example:
 Exercise increases the need for oxygen and
results in the accumulation of carbon dioxide, by
increasing our breathing rate, we maintain
adequate blood oxygen level and increase
elimination of C02. When exercise stops, the
 need for increased respiratory rate no longer
exists.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL MECHANISMS
1. Sensor Mechanism
 Is important for regulation and return to
normalcy because the body should be able to
sense or identity the variable being controlled
sensory nerve cells and endocrine glands are
homeostatic sensors.
 Features of Sensors
 Must be able to identify the element being
controlled.
 Must be able to respond to any changes that
may occur from the normal set point range.
2. Integrating or Control Center performs the following
functions:
 Receives input from a homeostatic sensor.
 Analyzes and integrates information with other
sensors.
 Sends efferent signal to some type of effector
mechanism where a specific action is initiated.
3. Effectors - Are organs such as muscles that directly
influence controlled physiological variables.
4. Feedback - Regulates-activity of effectors. It may be
positive or negative control systems.
TYPES OF FEEDBACK
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
 Inhibitory
 They oppose a change that is opposite in direction to
the initial disturbance.
 Stabilize physiological variables and keep variables
from straying too far outside of their normal ranges.
 Responsible for maintaining a constant internal
environment.
Examples:
 Temperature Regulation
1. Sensory receptors such as the skin and blood
vessels detect a decrease in temperature.
2. Information is relayed through sensory nerve
fibers to the hypothalamus.
3. Hypothalamic integrator compares the actual
body temperature with the " bullt-in" set
temperature and sends signal to effectors via
nerve fibers.
4. Skeletal muscles act as effectors by shivering
and thus, producing heat.
 Human Blood Pressure
 When blood pressure increases, signals are sent
to the brain from the blood vessels. Signals are
sent to the heart.
 Human Metabolism
 When a human is hungry, metabolism slows
down to conserve energy and allows the human
to continue living with less food.
 Regulation of blood sugar in humans
 When blood sugar rises, insulin sends signal to
the liver, muscles, and other cells to store the
excess glucose. Some is stored as glycogen in
the liver and muscles.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
 When there is a stimulus, mas dadagdagan pa, often
harmful and disastrous.
 Stimulatory; instead of opposing a change in the
internal environment and causing a return to normal,
 It tends to amplify or reinforce the change that is
occurring.
 It causes an ever-increasing rate of events to occur
until something stops the process.
Examples:
 Childbirth
1. As delivery begins, the baby is pushed triggers
the pituitary gland to secrete the from the womb
into the birth canal.
2. Stretch receptors in the walls of the stretch is fed
back to the brain which stretch caused by the
movement of the baby.
3. Information regarding increased stretch is fed
back to the brain which triggers the pituitary gland
to secrete the hormone oxytocin.
4. Oxytocin travels to the uterus through the
bloodstream where it stimulates stronger
contractions.
5. Stronger contractions push the baby further
along, increasing stretch, and stimulating more
release of oxytocin.
6. Uterine contractions quickly get stronger and
stronger until the baby is pushed out of the baby
and the positive feedback loop is broken.
 Blood Clotting
 The loop is initiated when injured tissue releases
signal chemicals that activate platelets in the
blood.
 An activated platelet releases chemicals to
activate more platelets, causing a rapid cascade
and the formation of a blood clot.
 Lactation
 Involves positive feedback in that as the baby
suckles on the nipple there is a nerve response
into the spinal cord and up into the hypothalamus
of the brain, which then stimulates the pituitary
gland to produce more prolactin to produce more
milk.
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
HYPODERMIS (SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE)

SKIN: LAYERS OF SKIN

 Skin – largest organ, made up of three major tissue

layers, the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis

EPIDERMIS

 The epidermis is the superficial layer of the skin,

consisting of stratified squamous epithelial tissue.
 The avascular outermost layer. The epidermis is
composed of several types of cells.
 It is divided into 4-5 regions, or strata.

Layers of Epidermis

 Stratum corneum – Cornified

cells, containing keratinocytes.
 Lucidum – thin, clear zone
above granulosum
 Granulosum - layers of
flattened, diamond-shaped
cells. It produces keratohyalin
granules; lamellar bodies
release lipids from cells; cells
die.
 Spinosum – As keratinocytes
progress through this stratum,
additional keratin fibers and
lipid-filled, membrane-bound
organelles called lamellar bodies form inside the cells.
 Basale - Deepest stratum of the epidermis; single
layer of cuboidal or columnar cells; basement
membrane of the epidermis attaches to the dermis.

DERMIS

 Papillary Layer - Papillae project toward the

epidermis; loose connective tissue. Brings blood
vessels close to the epidermis; dermal papillae form
fingerprints and footprints.
 Reticular Layer - Mat of collagen and elastic fibers;
dense irregular connective tissue. The main fibrous
layer of the dermis; strong in many directions; forms
cleavage lines.