GENERAL PRINCIPLES

OF HOMEOSTASIS

Denny Agustiningsih
Dept. of Physiology
WHAT IS HOMEOSTASIS

 Concept of homeostasis
was formulated by a
French Physiologist
Claude Bernard in 1865
 He noticed that La fixité

du milieu intérieur est la

condition de la vie libre (it
is the fixity of milieu
intérieur which is the
condition of free and
independent life)
WHAT IS HOMEOSTASIS
 From Greek words
 Homeo= same
 Stasis= to stand or

stay
 Term proposed by

American
Physiologist Walter
B Cannon, 1933
Basic Cell Functions
 Sensing and responding to changes in
surrounding environment
 Control exchange of materials between cell

and its surrounding environment

◦ Obtain nutrients and oxygen from surrounding
environment
◦ Eliminate carbon dioxide and other wastes to
surrounding environment
 Perform chemical reactions that provide
energy for the cell
 Synthesize needed cellular components
Homeostasis
HOMEOSTASIS
1. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
2. MULTIPLE STIMULI
3. MAINTAINED BY NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Homeostasis

 Homeostasis involves dynamic

mechanisms that detect and respond to
deviations in physiological variables
from their “set point” values by initiating
effector responses that restore the
variables to the optimal physiological
range.
Maintenance of Homeostasis
 Nervous system
◦ Controls and coordinates bodily activities that
require rapid responses
◦ Detects and initiates reactions to changes in
external environment
 Endocrine system
◦ Secreting glands of endocrine regulate activities
that require duration rather than speed
◦ Controls concentration of nutrients and, by
adjusting kidney function, controls internal
environment’s volume and electrolyte
composition
Internal components of homeostasis

 Concentration of
oxygen and carbon
dioxide
 pH of the internal
environment
 Concentration of
nutrients and waste
products
 Concentration of salt
and other electrolytes
 Volume and pressure
of extracellular fluid
Control of Homeostasis
 Homeostasis is continually being
disrupted by
◦ External stimuli
 heat, cold, lack of oxygen,
pathogens, toxins
◦ Internal stimuli
 Body temperature
 Blood pressure
 Concentration of water, glucose,
salts, oxygen, etc.
 Physical and psychological
distresses
 Disruptions can be mild to severe
 If homeostasis is not maintained,
pathological condition even death
may result
Control of Homeostasis
Homeostatic Control Systems
 In order to maintain homeostasis, control
system must be able to
◦ Detect deviations from normal in the internal
environment that need to be held within narrow
limits
◦ Integrate this information with other relevant
information
◦ Make appropriate adjustments in order to restore
factor to its desired value
Control Mechanisms in Homeostasis

 The organs and tissues which maintain

homeostasis are called control systems.
 Autoregulation (local control)
◦ when cells, tissues, organs or systems automatically change
in response to signals within themselves.
 Intrinsic control
◦ controls that generate a response to change that built
into the organ.
 Extrinsic control
◦ changes stimulated by signals from outside of the cell,
organ, or system
◦ Mediated by
 Nervous system:
 brain & spinal cord signals cause change;
 response is rapid but short term.
 Endocrine system
 glands produce hormones that cause changes;
 response is slower, but lasts longer
Homeostatic Control Systems
 Feedforward - term used for responses made
in anticipation of a change
 Feedback - refers to responses made after

change has been detected

◦ Types of feedback systems
 Negative
 Positive
Components of Feedback
Mechanisms
 Stimulus:
◦ The change from ideal or resting conditions.
 Receptor:
◦ The cells or tissue which detects the change due to the
stimulus
 Relay:
◦ The transmission of the message, via nerves or
hormones or both, to the effector.
 Effector:
◦ The cells or tissue, usually a gland or muscles, which
cause the response to happen.
 Response:
◦ An action, at cell, tissue or whole organism level which
would not have occurred in the absence of the stimulus
 Feedback:
◦ The consequence of the response on the stimulus.
◦ May be positive or negative.
Components of a Biological
Control System
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

A REGULATORY MECHANISM IN
WHICH A CHANGE IN A CONTROLLED
VARIABLE TRIGGERS A RESPONSE
THAT OPPOSES THE CHANGE.
Negative Feedback
 Most common homeostatic feedback mechanism
◦ responses that resists any change from normal range.
 Restoration of homeostasis because
◦ Negative feedback causes action that a value is falling too low.
◦ Negative feedback causes action that a value is rising too high.
 Values fluctuate within Set limits,
 Values change from hour to hour, sometimes with
regular diurnal cycles ( circadian rhythms).
 Elevated or reduced changes are corrected before they
become too extreme.
 Can continue forever
 Maintains homeostasis
 EXAMPLE: body
temperature - Set
point = 37 C, 98.6
F
 Normal limits 36.5-

37.5 C, 97.7-99.5 F
Examples:
.Body Temperature – Nervous System
.Blood Calcium Levels – Endocrine System

When blood calcium level drops, parathyroid glands

sense that and secrete hormones that cause release
of calcium stores from bone. Blood calcium levels
return to normal, secretion stops.
Homeostasis of Blood Pressure

 Baroreceptors in walls
of blood vessels detect
an increase in BP
 Brain receives input
and signals blood
vessels and heart
 Blood vessels dilate,
HR decreases
 BP decreases
POSITIVE FEEDBACK

A REGULATORY MECHANISM IN
WHICH THE RESPONSE TO A
STIMULUS, IN A CONTROL SYSTEM,
CAUSES THE CONTROLLED VARIABLE
TO MOVE FARTHER FROM THE
SET POINT.
Positive feedback
 Rare homeostatic feedback
mechanism
 The response enhances the
original
 stimulus
 Positive feedback promotes
changes that are
developing, so they become
more extreme
 Positive feedback causes
action that a value is falling
causing it to fall farther.
 Positive feedback causes
action that a value is rising
causing it to rise higher.
 Positive feedback in disease Examples:
- ex. Hypothalamus .Hemorrhage
increases set point. .Childbirth
Development of a fever. .Lactation
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
 Unstable system
 It is used to trigger a sudden event or

phenomenon
 Can not continue forever, always has a limit

 Does not result in homeostasis

 Beneficial only in special circumstances

◦ Example in childbirth, stretching of uterus elicits

production of hormones that stimulate contraction
of uterine muscles; this leads to more stretching of
uterus, more hormone secretion, more muscle
contractions; loop is broken upon birth of a baby
Positive Feedback during
Childbirth
 Stretch receptors in walls of uterus send

signals to the brain

 Brain induces release of hormone (oxytocin)

into bloodstream
 Uterine smooth muscle contracts more

forcefully
 More stretch, more hormone, more

contraction etc.
 Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease

in stretch
COMPARISON BETWEEN Feedback Loop