Biology Student’s Companion Resource SB025

CHAPTER 9 : HOMEOSTASIS

SUBTOPIC : 9.1 Concept of homeostasis

LEARNING OUTCOMES: Explain the concept of homeostasis and describe the homeostatic control system.

MAIN
IDEAS /KEY EXPLANATION NOTES
POINT

Concept of What is homeostasis?

homeostasis ✓ A state in which the internal environment is being maintained
within a range that cells can tolerate
(Biology: Starr Taggart, 11th edition, pg 484)

✓ Dynamic consistency of the internal

environment.
(Biology: Raven 6th edition, pg 1174)
▪ Dynamic is used because the conditions are
never absolutely constant but fluctuate
continuously within narrow limits
✓ The existence of a stable internal environment.
(Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology, 9th
edition, pg 10)
✓ The consistency of the body's internal
environment
(Biology life on earth, 7th edition, pg 536)

review!

Homeostasis is the activity of cells throughout the body to

maintain the physiological state within a narrow range that is
compatible with life. Homeostasis is regulated by negative
feedback loops and, much less frequently, by positive feedback
loops. Both have the same components of a stimulus, sensor,
control center, and effector; however, negative feedback loops
work to prevent an excessive response to the stimulus, whereas
positive feedback loops intensify the response until an end point
is reached.

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MAIN
IDEAS /KEY EXPLANATION NOTES
POINT
What is internal environment?
✓ Internal environment is all the fluid not inside the body’s cell.
▪ It consists of interstitial fluid and blood plasma: extracellular
fluid

Mechanism What is the mechanism involved in homeostasis?

Involved in
homeostatic ✓ Feedback mechanism
▪ Help control what goes on in cells
▪ They also are major homeostatic controls over how multicell
body functions
▪ There are two types of feedback mechanism
⚫ NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
⚫ POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

NEGATIVE feedback mechanisms

✓ Correct the deviations from set point

▪ Some activity changes a specific condition in the internal
environment
▪ If the changes past a certain point, a response reverse the
changes

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IDEAS /KEY EXPLANATION NOTES
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POSITIVE feedback mechanisms

✓ Controls initiate a chain of events that

intensify change from an original
condition
▪ The end result is that change tends
to proceed in the same direction as
the initial stimulus
▪ After a limited time, the
intensification reverses the change

Homeostatic How does homeostatic control system operate?

control system ✓ Receptor, control centre and effector are in
charge of it
Collectively, they detect, process and respond to
information/stimulus

Hint!
Do you know what disrupted homeostasis? Stimulus and response are both changes in the same variables.

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MAIN
IDEAS /KEY EXPLANATION NOTES
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STIMULUS

✓ Any disruption that changes a controlled condition

▪ changes in physical or chemical factors

RECEPTOR

✓ A body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition

▪ stimulus of changes in physical or chemical factors is detected
by receptor
▪ What will receptor do then?
✓ Sends INPUT in the form of nerve impulses or chemical
signals to a control centre
▪ Example of receptor?
✓ Cells of islets of Langerhans

CONTROL CENTRE

✓ Receives and processes the information / input supplied from

the receptor
✓ Triggers the action/output that will correct the changes and
send to effector
✓ Output from the control center can occur in several forms:
▪ nerve impulses, hormones or other chemical signals
✓ Example of control center: Cells of islets of Langerhans,
hypothalamus

EFFECTOR
▪ Functions of effector:
✓ A body structure that receives output from the control
centre
✓ produces a response or effect that changes the controlled
condition (through negative feedback mechanisms)
✓ restore condition back to normal
▪ Example of effector?
✓ Liver, muscle

Check this out!

Homeostatic mechanisms work continuously to maintain stable
conditions in the human body. Sometimes, however, the mechanisms
fail. When they do, homeostatic imbalance may result, in which cells
may not get everything they need or toxic wastes may accumulate in the
body. If homeostasis is not restored, the imbalance may lead to disease
or even death. Diabetes is an example of a disease caused by
homeostatic imbalance. In the case of diabetes, blood glucose levels are
no longer regulated and may be dangerously high. Medical intervention
can help restore homeostasis and possibly prevent permanent damage
to the organism.
Normal aging may bring about a reduction in the efficiency of the body’s
control systems. This makes the body more susceptible to disease. For
example, older people may have a harder time regulating their body
temperature. This is one reason they are more likely than younger people
to develop serious heat-induced illnesses such as heat stroke.

SUBTOPIC : 9.2 Negative feedback mechanism

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LEARNING OUTCOMES: Explain the negative feedback mechanism in controlling blood glucose level.

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

➢ A form of regulation in which accumulation of an end product

of a process slows the process;
Negative
feedback ➢ In physiology, a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a
mechanism change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the
initial change.
(Campbell 11th edition)

Regulation of blood glucose level.

➢ Involves negative feedback mechanism but; both receptor and

control centre are cells of islets of Langerhans (in pancreas)

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EXPLANATION NOTES
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When blood glucose level increase

✓ Receptor: β-cells of Langerhans in pancreas are stimulated
• to secrete insulin
✓ Insulin triggers uptake of glucose from the blood
✓ by stimulate the effector (liver, muscle cells and other
tissues) to store glucose as glycogen (in liver & muscle
cell) or increase the metabolic rate
✓ so blood glucose level return (back) to normal level

When blood glucose level decrease,

✓ Receptor: α-cells of Langerhans in the pancreas are
stimulated
• to secrete glucagon
✓ Glucagon stimulates effector: the liver cells
• to convert glycogen to glucose
✓ Blood glucose level return to normal

Check this out!

Glycogen is mainly stored in the liver (where it makes up as much as
10% of liver weight and can be released back into the blood stream) and
muscle (where it can be converted back to glucose but only used by the
muscle). Therefore, excess glucose is removed from the blood stream
and stored.

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SUBTOPIC : 9.3 Human homeostatic organ: Structure and functions of kidney

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Describe the structure of nephron
b) Analyse the processes in urine formation:
i. Ultrafiltration
ii. Reabsorption
iii. Secretion
c) Describe the counter current multiplier mechanism in urine formation.
d) Relate the regulation of blood water content with ADH

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

Kidney ➢ A major excretory and osmoregulatory organ

➢ A pair bean-shaped organ
➢ About 10 cm in length

➢ Consists of:
• Renal cortex
• Renal medulla
• Renal pelvis

➢ Nephron: basic structural and functional unit of the kidney

Structure of ➢ Each kidney consists about a million nephrons
nephron ➢ Total (nephron) tubule length: approximately 80 km
➢ Enormous surface area for the exchange of materials

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Glomerulus
- A spherical cluster of blood capillaries
- Located in the cortex

Bowman’s capsule
- A double-walled, cup-shaped swelling capsule
- Blind end of the tubule
- Located in the cortex

Proximal convoluted tubule

- Lumen is continuous with the Bowman’s capsule
- Highly coiled
- Located in the cortex

Loop of Henle
- Hair-pin shaped
- Have descending limb & ascending limb
- Located in the medulla

Distal convoluted tubule

- Highly coiled
- Located in the cortex

Collecting duct
- End of kidney
- Eventually drain into the pelvis of the kidney (from where the urine flows into the ureter)
- Located in the medulla

Nephron and its

blood supply

Main blood vessels:

1. Renal artery:
- supplies oxygenated blood from aorta to kidney
2. Renal veins:
- carries deoxygenated blood from kidney to posterior vena cava
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An individual nephron and its blood supply:

Renal artery Afferent arteriole Glomerulus

Efferent arteriole Vasa recta Renal vein

Urine formation Involved 3

processes:
1. Ultrafiltration
2. Reabsorption
3. Secretion

1.Ultrafiltration ➢ Takes place between the glomerulus and the Bowman’s capsule
➢ Occurs due to the hydrostatic pressure caused by the blood pressure
➢ Blood enters the glomerulus via afferent arteriole (larger diameter)
and leaves via efferent arteriole (smaller diameter)
• Produce high hydrostatic pressure
- Forces small molecules (glucose, amino acids, sodium,
potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, other salts, water and urea);
except red blood cell, plasma proteins and platelets
• through the walls of capillaries and Bowman’s capsule into the
capsular space

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
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✓ The structure of Bowman’s capsule also contribute to the

efficient ultrafiltration process

➢ The wall of Bowman’s capsule consists of a specialized

epithelial cell called podocytes (pod:foot)
➢ Podocytes: cover most of the capillaries
➢ Foot processes of adjacent podocytes are separated by narrow
gaps called filtration slits
➢ the perforated walls of the capillaries and the podocytes form a
filtration membrane
- Permits fluid and small solutes to pass

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MAIN IDEAS
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2.Reabsorption ➢ The process of absorbing useful substances (glucose, amino acids,

vitamins, most of the water, sodium and chloride ions) from the
tubule into capillaries which wrapped around tubule

➢ Occurs in:
1. Proximal convoluted tubule
2. Loop of Henle
3. Distal tubule
4. Collecting duct

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MAIN IDEAS
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Structure of ➢ The epithelial luminal surface is covered with densely packed
Proximal microvilli
Convoluted • to increase the surface area, facilitating their reabsorptive function
tubule
➢ The cytoplasm of the cells is densely packed with mitochondria
• to supply energy for active transport of sodium ions out of the
proximal tubule.
• Water passively follows the sodium out along its concentration
gradient.

Reabsorption at Proximal convoluted tubule

proximal Most reabsorption occurs : over 80 %
convoluted • All glucose, amino acids, vitamins and
tubule hormones, 85% of NaCl and other ions (by
active transport)
• 40-50% of urea by diffusion
• 85% of water as concentration of ions
increases in plasma. Water moves out by
osmosis

Reabsorption at Function:
Loop of Henle To create a water potential gradient
- Between the filtrate and the interstitial fluid in the medulla
The longer loop of Henle → urine produced is more concentrated

Structure of Divided into 2:

Loop of Henle 1. Descending limb
• Thin walls
• Highly permeable to water
• Impermeable to NaCl and other solutes

2. Ascending limb
• Impermeable to water but permeable to NaCl and urea
- Thin segment (transport NaCl passively)
- Thick segment (transport NaCl actively)

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
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Counter-current ✓ Reabsorption occurs in loop of Henle is contribute by counter-

multiplier current multiplier reaction
✓ Counter current multiplier: The interaction between the flow of
filtrate through the ascending and descending limbs of loop of Henle
and the flow of blood in the vasa recta

Function:
▪ To establish and maintain a high salt concentration in the loop of
Henle extending from the cortex through the medulla
▪ Enable water to be reabsorb into the vasa recta to conserve water.

➢ In the descending limb :

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MAIN IDEAS
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• As the filtrate flow from cortex to medulla, water is drawn out by
osmosis
• NaCl become more concentrated in the tubule, increasing the
osmolarity of the filtrate
• Filtrate concentration is highest at the bottom of the loop of
Henle (hairpin loop of Henle)

➢ At the ascending limb:

• Filtrate concentration is high in the tubule
• As the filtrate move through the thin segment, NaCl passively
diffuse out into the interstitial fluid
• and at the thick segment, NaCl is actively pumped out into
interstitial fluid
• Produce a high concentration of NaCl around the descending
limb
• Water potential in the interstitial fluid is lower
• Causes water in the descending limb drawn out by osmosis
• Creating a concentration gradient in the medulla
• The water and NaCl moves into the vasa recta surrounding the
loop of Henle

Reabsorption at ➢ Distal convoluted tubule receives a hypotonic (high water

distal concentration) filtrate from the ascending limb
convoluted ➢ Distal convoluted tubule impermeable to water but (the permeability
tubule to water) depends on hormonal control
• ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
- under regulation of ADH, distal convoluted tubule became
more permeable towards water
• aldosterone
- under regulation of aldosterone, distal convoluted tubule
became more permeable towards NaCl and water
(secondary effect)

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Reabsorption at ➢ The collecting duct drains the filtrate from cortex to medulla to the
collecting duct renal pelvis
➢ Permeability to water and urea is under hormonal control (anti-
diuretic hormone (ADH)).
➢ When the filtrate pass along the collecting duct,
• water moves out by osmosis to the interstitial fluid
• Some urea will also diffuse out along with NaCl, contributes to
the high concentration of solute (lower water potential) in the
interstitial fluid (aids the water reabsorption in descending limb
of loop of Henle)
• This urea is recycled by diffusion into the ascending limb of
loop of Henle

3. Secretion ➢ Substances from blood capillaries were secreted into the tubule
➢ Occurs in the distal convoluted tubule (mainly) and the proximal
convoluted tubule
➢ In distal tubule; H+ and NH3 secreted from the blood into the filtrate
to maintain blood pH level.
➢ Secretion of K+ occurs under hormonal control by aldosterone
- Proximal & distal tubule also actively secretes harmful or toxic
substances (Example: drugs such as penicillin and caffeine) into
the filtrate
- to be removed (from human blood) by urine

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MAIN IDEAS
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SUMMARY :
Urine formation

Regulation of ➢ Control the normal blood osmotic pressure (normal water potential of
blood water blood plasma) controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
content ➢ Produced in hypothalamus
➢ Released by posterior pituitary gland
➢ Target tissue
- Distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts
➢ Actions
- Increases permeability to water and urea

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
review!
The most common disease of man and animals related to antidiuretic
hormone is diabetes insipidus. This condition can arise from either of two
situations:
• Hypothalamic ("central") diabetes insipidus results from a deficiency in
secretion of antidiuretic hormone from the posterior pituitary. Causes of this
disease include head trauma, and infections or tumors involving the
hypothalamus.
• Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus occurs when the kidney is unable to
respond to antidiuretic hormone. Most commonly, this results from some
type of renal disease, but mutations in the ADH receptor gene or in the
gene encoding aquaporin-2 have also been demonstrated in affected
humans.
The major sign of either type of diabetes insipidus is excessive urine
production. Some human patients produce as much as 16 liters of urine per
day! If adequate water is available for consumption, the disease is rarely
life-threatening, but withholding water can be very dangerous.
Hypothalamic diabetes insipidus can be treated with exogenous antidiuretic
hormone.

Dehydration/
blood osmotic Detected by osmoreceptors Stimulated posterior
pressure high/ in the hypothalamus pituitary to release ADH
water potential
low
Dehydration
BOP During low water intake,
Blood water potential Distal tubule and
high salt intake or lots
Collecting duct
of sweating

Normal blood osmotic pressure Permeability towards

(normal water potential water and urea increase
of the blood plasma)

Greater water and urea absorption

Small volume of
concentrated urine produced

• Less intake of water caused an increased in blood osmotic

pressure (BOP)/ osmolarity/ low blood volume
• (This condition) is detected by osmoreceptor in hypothalamus
• Leads to the stimulation of the posterior pituitary gland to
secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• ADH acts on nephron tubule:
- increases water permeability of distal tubule and
collecting duct
• More water is reabsorbed back (into the blood vessel) by osmosis
• Blood osmotic pressure/ blood volume returns back to normal
level
• This regulation involved negative feedback mechanism

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

High water
intake/ blood Detected by osmoreceptors Inhibit the release of ADH
osmotic in the hypothalamus from posterior pituitary
pressure low/
water potential
high BOP During high water intake,
Blood water potential low salt intake or little Distal tubule and
of sweating Collecting duct

Normal blood osmotic pressure Permeability towards

(normal water potential Water and urea decrease
of the blood plasma)

Less water and urea absorption

Large volume of
diluted urine produced

• High intake of water caused a decreased in blood osmotic

pressure/ osmolarity/ high blood volume
• (this condition) Detected by osmoreceptor in hypothalamus
• Inhibits the posterior pituitary gland to secrete antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
- reduce water permeability of distal tubule and
collecting duct
• Less water is reabsorbed (into the blood vessel) by osmosis
• Blood osmotic pressure/ blood volume returns back to normal
level
• Involved negative feedback mechanism

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