Physiology
ORGANIZATION IN THE HUMAN BODY
*BASIC PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN
BODY*
PHYSIOLOGY
-Is the science of body functions how the body
parts work
*LEVEL OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION IN THE HUMAN BODY*
CHEMICAL LEVEL
● Include ATOMS and MOLECULES
● ATOMS- smallest part unit of matter
that participates in chemical reaction.
● MOLECULES- two or more atoms
joined together
● DNA; Glucose.
CELLULAR LEVEL
● Molecules combine to form CELLS
● Cells- The basic structural and
functional units of an organism that are
composed of chemicals; smallest living
units in the human body.
● Nerve Cells, Muscle Cells, Epithelial
Cells
TISSUE LEVEL
● TISSUES-Group of cells and the
materials surroundings them that work
together to perform a particular
function.
● 4 basic types of tissues in the body:
● Epithelial Tissue, Connective Tissue,
Muscular Tissue, Nervous Tissue
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGAN LEVEL
● Organs-Structures that are composed of
two or more different types of tissues;
they have specific functions and usually
have recognizable shapes.
● Stomach, liver, skin, heart, etc.
SYSTEM LEVEL
● System- Consists of related organs with
common function
● Digestive System, Nervous System,
Cardiovascular System, Etc.
ORGANISM LEVEL
● Organism- Any living Individual.
● All parts of the human body function
together and constitute the total
organism.
*BASIC LIFE PROCESSES*
METABOLISM
● - Is the sum of all chemical processes
that occur in the body.
● Catabolism- Breakdown of complex
chemical substances into simpler
components.
● Anabolism- The building up of complex
chemical substances.
RESPONSIVENESS
● -Is the body’s ability to detect and
respond to changes.
● e.g turning your head towards the sound
of squealing brakes is a response to a
change in the external environment
(outside the body) to prepare the body
for a potential threat.
MOVEMENT
● -Includes the motion of the Whole body,
Individual organs, Single cells, and even
tiny structures inside cells.
GROWTH
● -Is an increase in body size that
results from an increase in the
size of existing cells, an
increase in the number of cells,
or both.
DIFFERENTIATION
● -Is the development of a cell from an
unspecialized to a specialized state.
Such precursor cells, which can divide
and give rise to cells that undergo
differentiation, are known as stem cells.
REPRODUCTION
● - Refers either to (1) the formation of
new cells for tissue growth, repair, or
replacement, or the production of a new
individual.
HOMEOSTASIS
● is the condition of equilibrium (balance)
in the body’s internal environment due
to the constant interaction of the body’s
many regulatory processes. Homeostasis
is a dynamic condition.
● In response to changing conditions, the
body's equilibrium can shift among
points in a narrow range that is
compatible with maintaining life.
CONTROL of HOMEOSTASIS
● The body has many regulating systems
that can usually bring the internal
environment back into balance. Most
often, the nervous system and the
endocrine system, working together or
independently, provide the needed
corrective measures.
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
● A feedback system or feedback loop is a
cycle of events in which the status of a
body condition is monitored, evaluated,
changed, remonitored, reevaluated, and
so on.
● Controlled condition – Each monitored
variable, such as body temperature,
blood pressure, or blood glucose level
● Stimulus – any disruption that changes
a controlled condition.
COMPONENTS OF FEEDBACK SYSTEM
RECEPTOR
● is a body structure that monitors
changes in a controlled condition and
sends input to a control center.
● This pathway is called an afferent
pathway, since the information flows
toward the control center. Typically, the
input is in the form of nerve impulses or
chemical signals.
● certain nerve endings in the skin sense
temperature and can detect changes,
such as a dramatic drop in
temperature.
CONTROL CENTER
- sets the range of values within which a
controlled condition should be
maintained (set point), evaluates the
input it receives from receptors, and
generates output commands when they
are needed.
- Output from the control center typically
occurs as nerve impulses, or hormones
or other chemical signals. This pathway
is called an efferent pathway
EFFECTOR
- is a body structure that receives output
from the control center and produces a
 response or effect that changes the
controlled condition.
● Example: Body Organs
*BASIC COMPONENTS OF FEEDBACK
SYSTEM*
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM
- A negative feedback system reverses a
change in a controlled condition.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM
- A positive feedback system tends to
strengthen or reinforce a change in one
of the body’s-controlled conditions.
Chemical Elements in the Body
Chemical Elements
Matter exists in three states: Solid, liquid, and
gas
Solid - are compact and have a definite shape
and volume.
Liquids – have a definite volume and assume
the shape of their container
Gases – have neither definite shape nor volume
- All forms of matter both living and
nonliving are made up of a limited
number of building blocks called
chemical elements.
- Each element is a substance that cannot
be split into a simpler substance by
ordinary chemical means.
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
- Each element is made up of atoms, the
smallest units of matter that retain the
properties and characteristics of the
Element. Dozens of different subatomic
particles compose individual atoms.
However, only three types of subatomic
particles are important for understanding
the chemical reactions in the human
body: protons, neutrons, and electrons.
● Nucleus- Dense central core
● Protons - Positively Charged
● Electrons - Negatively Charged
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• usually lack carbon and are structurally simple.
• Their molecules also have only a few atoms
and cannot be
used by cells to perform complicated biological
functions.
• Water and many salts, acids, and bases.
• Water makes up 55–60% of a lean adult’s
total body mass.
• all other inorganic compounds combined
add 1–2%. Inorganic compounds that contain
carbon include carbon dioxide (CO2),
bicarbonate ion (HCO3 -), and carbon
dioxide (CO2), bicarbonate ion (HCO3 -), and
carbonic acid(H2CO3).
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• always contain carbon, usually contain
hydrogen, and always have covalent bonds.
• Most are large molecules, many made up of
long carbon atom chains.
• Organic compounds make up the
remaining 38–43% of the human body.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
● Integument is skin
● Skin and its Appendages make up the
integumentary system
● A fatty layer (hypodermis) lies deep to
it.
Two Distinct Regions:
● Epidermis
● Dermis
FUNCTIONS OF SKIN
● Protection
● Cushions and Insulates and is
Waterproof
● Protects from chemicals
 heat, cold, bacteria
● Screens UV
● Synthesizes vitamin D with UV
● Regulates Body Heat
● Prevents unnecessary water loss
● Sensory Reception (Nerve Endings)
EPIDERMIS
● Keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium
Four Types of Cells:
● Keratinocytes- Deepest, Produce
keratin (Tough Fibrous Protein).
● Melanocytes- Make dark Skin pigment
melanin
● Merkel Cells- Associated with sensory
Nerve endings
● Langerhans Cells- Macrophage-like
dendritic Cells.
Layers (From deep to Superficial)
● Stratum basale or germinativum -
Single row of cells attached to dermis;
youngest cells
● Stratum Spinosum- Spiny Ness is
artificial; tonofilament (bundles of
protein) resist tension.
● Stratum Granulosum- layers of
flattened keratinocytes producing
keratin (hair and nails made it also)
● Stratum Lucidum - (only on palms and
soles)
● Stratum corneum- horny layer (cells
dead many layers thick).
Dermis
● Strong, Flexible connective tissue
● Cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast
cells, WBCs
● Fiber Types: Collagen, Elastic,
Reticular.
Two Layers
● Papillary- Areolar Connective tissue:
includes dermal papillae
● Reticular- “Reticulum” network of
collagen and reticular fibers
FINGERPRINT, PALMPRINT,
FOOTPRINT
● Dermal papillae lie atop dermal ridges
● Elevate the overlying epidermis into
epidermal ridges
Flexion Creases
● Deep dermis, From Continual Folding
Fibers
● Collagen: Strength and Resilience
● Elastic fibers: Stretch-recoil
- Striae-Stretch Marks
● Tension lines (or lines of cleavage)
- The direction the bundles of fibers are
directed.
HYPODERMIS
● “Hypodermis” = Below the skin
● Also called “Superficial Fascia”
SMALL INTESTINES
● Mixing Contractions (Segmentation
Contractions)
● Gastroenteric reflex
- Initiated by distention of stomach
- Conducted via myenteric plexus
- From stomach along the small intestines
● Gastroileal reflex
- Increase peristalsis in ileum
● HORMONES
● Enhance peristalsis
- Gastrin
- Insulin, motilin and serotonin
SKIN APPENDAGES
● Derived from epidermis but extend into
dermis
● Include:
- Hair and hair follicles
- Sebaceous (oil) Glands
- Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
- Nails
NAILS
● Of hard keratin
● Corresponds to hooves and claws
● Grows from nail matrix
HAIR AND HAIR FOLLICLES:
FUNCTION OF HAIR
● Warmth- less in man than other
mammals
● Sense light touch of the skin
● Protection for the scalp
PARTS
● Root imbedded in skin
● Shaft Projecting above skin surface
● Make up of hair - Hard Keratin
Types of Sweat Glands
● Eccrine or merocrine
- Most numerous
- True Sweat:99%water, Some salts,
traces of waste
- Open through pores
● Apocrine
- Axillary, Anal and genital areas only
- Ducts open into hair follicle
- The organic molecules in it decompose
with time -odor
Modified Apocrine glands
● Ceruminous-Secrete earwax
● Mammary-Secrete Milk
DISORDER OF THE INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM

THREE CONCENTRIC LAYERS BURNS

● Medulla (core) ● Threat to life
● Cortex (Surrounds medulla) ● Catastrophic: loss of body fluids
● Cuticle (Single layers, Overlapping) ● Dehydration and fatal circulatory shock
● Infection
Types of Hair TYPES
- Vellus: fine, Short hair ● First Degree - epidermis: redness
- Intermediate hairs (sunburn)
- Terminal: longer, Courser hair ● Second Degree- Epidermis and upper
● Hair Growth: Averages 2mm/week dermis: Blister
- Active: Growing ● Third Degree-Full Thickness
- Resting Phase then shed
● Hair loss Critical Burns
- Thinning - age related ● Over 10% of the body has third-degree
- Male pattern baldness burns.
● 25% of the body has second degree
Sebaceous Oil Glands burns
● Entire body except palms and soles ● Third Degree burns on face, hands, or
● Produce Sebum by holocrine secretion feet
● Oils and lubricates Tumors of the skin
● Benign (warts)
Sweat Glands ● Cancer- Associated with UV exposure
● Entire skin surface except nipples and (also skin aging)
parts of external genitalia
● Prevent overheating
SKELETAL SYSTEM
● Parts of the skeletal system include:
- Bones
- Joints
- Cartilages
- Ligaments
Divided into two division:
1. Axial skeleton - (skull, ribs and
vertebrae)
2. Appendicular Skeleton - (pelvis,
extremities)
Functions of Bones
● Protection of soft organs
● Shapes
● Blood Cell formation
● Support of the body
● Storage of minerals and fats
Bones of the Human Body
● The Adult skeleton has 206 bones.
● Two basic Types of bone tissue
- Compact bone- Homogenous
● Spongy bone
- Small needle-like piece of bone
- Many open spaces
Classification of Bones
LONG BONES
● Typically, longer than wide
● Have a shaft with heads at both ends
● Contain mostly compact bone
● Examples: Femur, humerus
SHORT BONES
● Generally, Cube-Shape
● Contain Mostly Spongy Bone
Examples: Carpals, Tarsals
FLAT BONES
● Thin and flattened, Usually Curved
● Thin layers of compact bone around a
layer of spongy bone
Examples: Skull, Ribs, Sternum
IRREGULAR BONES
● Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
Example: Vertebrae and hip
Gross Anatomy of A long Bone
● Diaphysis
- Shaft
- Composed of compact bone
● Epiphysis
- Ends of the bone
- Composed mostly of Spongy bone
● Metaphysis
- The wide portions of long bones and the
regions of the bone where growth occurs
STRUCTURES of a LONG BONE
● Periosteum
- Outside covering of the diaphysis
- Fibrous Connective Tissue Membrane
● Sharpey’s Fibers
- Secure periosteum to underlying bone
● Arteries
- Supply bone cells with nutrients
STRUCTURES of a LONG BONE
● Articular Cartilage
- Covers the external Surface of the
epiphysis
- Made of Hyaline Cartilage
- Decreases friction at joint Surfaces
Medullary Cavity
● Cavity of the shaft
● Contains yellow marrow (Mostly fat) in
adults
● Contains red marrow (Cell formation) in
infants
BONE MARKINGS ● Bones change shape somewhat
Surface Features of bone ● Bones grow in width
● Projection and processes - grow out
from the bone Surface Types of Bone Cells
● Depression or Cavities- Indentations ● Osteocytes
● Sites of attachments for muscles, - Mature bone cells
tendons, and ligaments ● Osteoblasts
● Passages for nerves and blood vessels - Bone-Forming Cells
● Osteoclasts
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone - Bone-destroying Cells
● Osteon (Haversian System) - Breakdown bone matrix for remodeling
- A unit of bone and release of calcium
● Central (Haversian System) Canal
- Carries blood vessels and nerves BONE FRACTURES
- Horizontal ● A Break in bone
● Perforating (Volkmann's Canal) Types of Bone fractures
● Canal perpendicular to the central canal ● Closed Fracture- break that does not
● Carries blood vessels and nerves penetrate the skin
● Vertical ● Open Fracture- broken bone penetrates
● Circle(canaliculi) through skin
- process of osteocyte ● Bone fractures are treated by
● lacunae- storage of osteocyte reduction and immobilization
● 2 types of bone development - Realignment of the bone
- endochondral and membranous
● Endochondral- forms of long bones, COMMON TYPES OF FRACTURE
sternum, ribs, scapula, spine, pelvis and
starting hyaline cartilage invading of ● Comminuted- Bone Breaks into many
blood vessels Fragments
● Membranous- forms of cranial vault ● Compression- Bone is Crushed
skull, face from osteoid matrix. ● Depressed- Broken bone portion is
pressed inward
Changes in the human Skeleton ● Impacted- Broken bone ends are forced
● In embryos, the skeleton is primarily into each other
hyaline cartilage ● Spiral- Ragged breaks occurs when
● During development, much of this excessive twisting Forces are applied to
cartilage is replaced by bone a bone
● Cartilage remains in isolated areas ● Greenstick- Bone breaks incompletely,
- Bridge of the noses much in the way a green twig breaks
- Parts of Ribs
- Joints REPAIRS OF BONE FRACTURES
1. Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is
Bone Growth formed
● Bones are remodeled with lengthened 2. Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to
until growth stops form a callus
 3. Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a ● MAKE UP THE STRUCTURE OF
bony callus THE CELL
4. Bony callus is remodeled to form a TWO TYPES:
permanent patch
INTRACELLULAR CHON
---------------------------------------------------------- ● inside the cell
● forms by microtubules/cytoskeleton:
CELLULAR AND TISSUE PHYSIOLOGY framework of the cell

BASIC ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL EXTRACELLULAR CHON

● outside the cell
● CELLS ● found in connective tissue (collagen
- basic living unit of the body and elastin)
- divided into two broad groups: the
eukaryotes and prokaryotes FUNCTIONAL PROTEIN
● in the form of tubular-globular chon
ORGANIZATION OF THE CELLS ● i.e. enzymes; often mobile in the cell
1. Nucleus fluid
2. Cytoplasm ● can easily influence the whole cell
3. Cell membrane
4. LIPIDS
COMPOSITION OF PROTOPLASM ● i.e. cholesterol, phospholipids, 2% of
1. WATER (H20) cell mass
• 70-85% of protoplasm ● mainly insoluble in h2o
• major medium of transportation inside ● used to form the cell membrane and
the cell intracellular membrane barriers
• many cellular chemicals are dissolved in ● triglycerides/neutral fat: present in fat
H2O cells;95% present in these cells
● main source of energy in the body
2. ELECTROLYTES/IONS
- Cations: K+ Na + Mg2 5. CARBOHYDRATES
- Anions: Cl- ● 1%(average in cells)
● 3% in muscle cells
3. PROTEINS(CHON) ● 6% in liver
- MADE UP OF CARBON, ● another source of energy
HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN ● play a major role in nutrition of the cell
- 10-20% IN CELLS
TWO TYPES: THE CELLULAR MEMBRANE AND
● STRUCTURAL CHON THEIR COMPONENTS
● FUNCTIONAL CHON ● CHON- 55%
● Cholesterol-13%
STRUCTURAL PROTEIN ● Phospholipids-25%
● PRESENT MAINLY BY LONG ● Carbohydrates-3%
FILAMENT ● Other lipids-4%
LIPID BILAYER ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
● has a hydrophilic head and hydrophilic ● granular er
tail ● forms the transport vesicle
● hydro-water
● philic-attract/loving SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
● phobic-fear ● aka agranular
● lipid synthesis
● hydrophilic head - exposed to h20
● hydrophobic tail - fear of h20 RIBOSOMES
● i.e, ions, glucose, urea ● RNA+CHON=ribosomes
● nucleolus: site of production of
CELL MEMBRANE CHONs ribosomes
2 TYPES: ● synthesize new protein molecule of in
● INTEGRAL CHON the cells
● PERIPHERAL CHON ● transport vesicle - covered the lipid
membrane
INTEGRAL CHON
● act as a carrier GOLGI COMPLEX
● act as enzyme ● functions in association with er
● act as channel ● package proteins
● act as receptor ● composed of four or more stacked layers
of thin, flat, enclosed vesicles
PERIPHERAL CHONs
● always attached to an integral chon LYSOSOMES
● acts as an enzyme ● provide an intracellular digestive system
● digest unwanted particles i.e. bacteria
CYTOPLASM ● digest non-functioning mitochondria
● filled with both minute and large ● digest non-functioning dead cell
dispersed particles and organelles
● cytosol; jelly like fluid contains PEROXISOME
proteins, electrolyte, glucose ● similar physically to lysosomes but with
● 5 important organelles: different functions:
ER, Golgi, Mitochondria ● formed by self-replication rather than
Lysosomes, Peroxisomes from the Golgi apparatus
● remove waste material ● contain oxidase rather than hydrolases
● helps in cell respiration
● converts glucose into energy MITOCHONDRIA
- “powerhouse of the cell”
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - generates ATP
TWO TYPES:
● Rough endoplasmic MICROTUBULES
● Smooth endoplasmic - framework of the cell
- maintains the cell’s shape and anchor’s
organelles
NUCLEUS
● the control center of the cells
● reproduction of the cells
● send messages to the cell to grow and
mature, to replicate, or to die
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
● “NUCLEAR ENVELOPE”
CHARACTERISTICS OF
INTRACELLULAR AND
EXTRACELLULAR FLUIDS
EXTRACELLULAR FLUIDS
● the “internal environment” of the body
● has constant motion throughout the body
● IONS:NA+,CL-,HCO3,Ca2+
INTRACELLULAR FLUIDS
● fluids found inside the cells
● Ions: K+Mg2+PO4 3-
FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS OF THE CELL
ENDOCYTOSIS
● ingestion by the cell
● pinocytosis, phagocytosis
PINOCYTOSIS
● ingestion of minute particles that form
in vesicles of ECF and particulate
constituents inside the cell cytoplasm
● the only means by which most large
macromolecules can enter cells
PHAGOCYTOSIS
● ingestion of large particles rather than
molecules
● seen in the tissue macrophages and
WBCs
PINOCYTOTIC AND PHAGOCYTIC
VESICLE
● lysosome will attach the vesicle and
empty their acid hydrolases to the inside
of vesicle
● digestive vesicle: formed inside the cell
cytoplasm
● products of digestion: small molecules
of amino acids, glucose, phosphates etc.
● residual body: indigestible substances,
excreted through exocytosis
LYSOSOMES
● removal of damage cells or damage
portions of cells from tissues
AUTOPHAGY
● “to eat oneself”
● reusing the nutrients or organelles by the
cell
LOCOMOTION OF CELLS
AMEBOID MOVEMENT
● movement of an entire cell in relation to
its surroundings
● i.e. movement of WBCs through tissues
● protrude/extend to cell membrane
CILIARY MOVEMENT
● whip- like movement of cilia on the
surfaces of the cells
● cilia: hair- structure
or organelles
● found in the respiratory airways and on
the surface of the uterine tubes
QUASI-SINUSOIDAL MOVEMENT
● i.e. flagella
(sperm cell)
GENETIC CONTROL
DNA
● basic chemical compounds:
- 1 molecule of phosphoric acid
- 1 molecule of deoxyribose
- 4 nitrogen bases (2 purines and 2
pyrimidines)
TRANSCRIPTION
● DNA - RNA
● RNA IS FORMED BY:
- 1 molecules of phosphoric acid
- 1 molecule of ribose
- 4 nitrogenous bases (2 purines, 2
pyrimidines
MESSENGER RNA
● molecule in cells that carries codes from
DNA in the nucleus to the sites of
protein synthesis in the ribosome
● genetic code to outside the nucleus
TRANSFER RNA
● transports activated aa to the ribosomes
to use in assembling the chon molecule
● acts as a carrier to transport its specific
type of amino acid to the ribosomes,
where protein molecules are forming
RIBOSOMAL RNA
● constitutes the 60% of the ribosome
● 40% CHON, includes about 75 types of
CHONs
TRANSLATION
● process in order for DNA and mRNA
meet in the ribosome - form new codon
CELL CYCLE IN SOMATIC CELLS
G1 PHASE
● intermediate phase occupying the time
between the end of the cell division in
mitosis and the beginning of DNA
replication during s phase
● cell is metabolically active
● 8-10 hours
S PHASE (INTERPHASE)
● the phase of the cell cycle when dna
packaged into chromosome is replicated
G2 PHASE
● intermediate phase, a time for the cell to
ensure that is ready to proceed in the
cell cycle
● serves as the “safety gap”
● cell grow continues
● centrosome replicated complete
MITOSIS
● proceed of nuclear division in
eukaryotic cells that occurs when a
parent cell divides to produce two
identical daughter cells
PROPHASE
● replicated pairs of chromosomes
condense and compact themselves
● sister chromatids; pairs of chromosomes
that have been replicated; they remain at
centromere
● mitosis spindle; forms of microtubule on
each pole of the cell
PROMETAPHASE
● nuclear envelope that encloses the
nuclear breaks down, and the nucleus is
no longer separated from the cytoplasm
METAPHASE
● microtubules pull the sister chromatids
back and forth until they align in the
equatorial plane, along the center of the
cell
ANAPHASE
● sister chromatids are separated
simultaneously at their centromeres
● separated chromosomes are then pulled
by the spindle
TELOPHASE
● chromosome begin to uncoil
● cytokinesis: divides the cytoplasm of the
parental cell into daughter cells
APOPTOSIS
• suicide program of cell death
DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSPORT
SYSTEM
TRANSPORT ACROSS THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
● Passive Transport: moves toward the
concentration gradient (up and down)
● Active Transport: “uphill” movement
(down-up)
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
● Diffusion: molecule move from areas or
high concentration of low concentration
in order to decrease the high
concentration gradient
● Simple diffusion
● Facilitated diffusion
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
● the only form of transport that is not-
carrier mediated
● occurs down an electrochemical
gradient
● does not require metabolic energy
DETERMINANTS OF SIMPLE
DIFFUSION
● high amount of available substances
● high amount of kinetic movement
high number and size opening in the cell
membrane
TWO TYPES OF CHON CHANNEL
● Voltage-Gated CHON Channel
- will only open if there are changes in
voltage/change of the cell
● Ligand-Gated CHON Channel
- only open if there is a presence of
chemical that binds to specific receptors
PERMEABILITY
• describe the ease with which a solute
diffuses through a membrane
• depends on the characteristics of the
solute and the membrane
CARRIED-MEDIATED TRANSPORT
● includes facilitated diffusion; primary
and secondary at
● Characteristics:
● Stereospecificity: the ability to
distinguish between stereoisomers
● Saturation: transport rate high as the
concentration of solute high
● Competition: structurally related to
solutes compete for transport sites on
carrier molecules
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
● occurs down as electrochemical gradient
● does not require metabolic energy
● more rapid than simple diffusion

PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

● occurs against an electrochemical
gradient (low-high)
● require direct input of metabolic energy
in the form as ATP

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

● transport of two or more solutes is
coupled
● one of the solutes is transported
“downhill” and provides energy for the
“uphill” transport of other solutes
● co-transport/symport
● counter transport
/exchange/antiport

CO-TRANSPORT
● solutes move in the same direction
across the cell membrane

COUNTER TRANSPORT
● solutes move in opposite direction
across the cell membrane

OSMOSIS
● the flow of water across a semi-
permeable membrane
● high-low
● osmotic pressure: prevents the
movement of H2O (osmosis)