Personality
- Set of psychological traits and
mechanisms within the individual that
is organized and relatively enduring
and that influences his or her
interactions with, and adaptations to,
the environment
Psychological Traits
- Characteristics that describe ways in
which people are different from each
other
- Relatively enduring over time
- Consistent over situations
Psychological Mechanisms
- Processes of personality in which,
personality presents itself
*Personality stresses the important sources of
personality reside within the individual, and are
at least somewhat stable overtime and
consistent with other situations
*Personality plays a key role in affecting how
people shape their lives, how they think, act, and
feel
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON
PERSONALITY
Grand Theories of Personality
- Attempt to provide universal account of
the fundamental psychological
processes and characteristics of the
human species
- Statements about universal core of
human nature lie at the center of grand
theories of personality, such as Sigmund
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Contemporary Research
- Addresses ways in which individuals
and groups differ, not human universals
- Personality psychologists specialize in a
particular domain, such as biological
aspects of personality or how culture
impacts personality
Role of Personality Theory
- Serve as guide for researchers
- Organizes known findings
- Make predictions about behavior and
psychological phenomena that not one
has yet documented or observed
*Scientific theories need to be
distinguished from beliefs
Five Standards for Evaluating Personality
Theories
1. Comprehensiveness
- Does the theory explain most or all of
the facts and observations within its
domain?
- Theories that explain more empirical
data within their domains are generally
more superior than to those that
explain fewer
2. Heuristic Value
- Does the theory provide a guide to
future research? Is it useful? –
- Good personality theories will guide
personality researchers to make
discoveries that were previously
unknown
3. Testability
- Can the theory be tested empirically by
personality psychologists?
- As a general rule, the testability of a
theory rests with the precision of its
prediction. If a theory does not lend
itself to being tested empirically, it is
generally judged to be a poor theory
4. Parsimony
- Can the theory be summarized or not?
- Parsimony refers to preferring the
simpler of two otherwise equally
adequate theories because of its
usefulness to various fields
5. Compatibility and Integration Across
Domains and Levels
- A personality theory in one domain that
violated well-established principles in
another domain is judged to be highly
problematic
- A personality theory should be able to
coordinate with other branches of
scientific knowledge
MAJOR SCHOOLS OF PERSONALITY
 Psychoanalytical
 Behaviorists
 Social Learning
 Humanistic
 Trait
Psychoanalytical Theory: Sigmund Freud
- Unconscious/ Subconscious
- Part of the mind that contains material
of which we are unaware but that
strongly influences conscious processes
and behaviors
Three Parts of a Personality
1. ID – contains the needs, drives, instinct
and repressed materials of the
individual; selfish, makes demands, and
wants instant gratification
2. EGO – in touch with reality and strives
to meet the demands f the ID and the
SUPEREGO
3. SUPEREGO – source of conscience and
counteracts the socially undesirable
impulses of ID
Psychoanalytical Theory: Carl Jung
- A person’s past and childhood
experiences determined future
behavior (adapted Freud’s claims), but
the future is also shaped by aspirations
- Distinguished between the personal
unconscious and the collective
unconscious -? A storehouse of
instincts, urges, and memories of the
entire human species throughout
history (archetypes)
The Archetypes
1. Persona – the social mask: what the
public can see and should see
2. Shadow – similar to Freud’s ID
3. Anima/ Animus - male and female
sides
Psychoanalytical Theory: Alfred Adler
- Believed that the driving force in
people’s lives is a desire to overcome
their feelings of inferiority
- Described a person who continually
tries to compensate for his weaknesses
and avoid feelings of inadequacy as
having an inferiority complex
- Believed that the way parents treat
their kids influences the style of life
they choose
Psychoanalytical Theory: Abraham Maslow
- Based his theory of personality on
studies of healthy, creative, self-
actualizing people who fully utilized
their talents and potential, rather than
on studies of disturbed individuals
Traits of a Self-Actualized Person
- Perceive reality accurately ->
acceptance of self, other people, and
environment
- Able to focus on tasks and are more
likely to base decisions on ethical
principles -> strong sense of identity
- Spontaneous and independent
Carl Roger: Self Theory
- For a person to “grow”, they need:
- An environment that provides them
with genuineness (openness and self-
disclosure)
- Acceptance (being seen with
unconditional positive regard)
- Emotional stability: calm vs high strung
- An environment that provides them
with genuineness (openness and self-
disclosure)
- Acceptance (being seen with
unconditional positive regard) -
Empathy (being listened to and
understood)
SELF-CONCEPT
Three Components:
1. Self-worth (self-esteem) – what the
individual thinks about himself
 2. Congruence – self-actualization occurs 11. Sensitivity: tender-hearted vs
when a person’s “ideal self” is toughminded
congruent with their actual behavior 12. Social Boldness: uninhibited vs shy
(self-image) 13. Tension: Impatient vs relaxed
14. Vigilance: suspicious vs trusting
Full-Functioning Person 15. Warmth: outgoing vs reserved
16. Self-reliance: self-sufficient vs
- An individual who is actualizing as a
dependent
fully functioning person exhibits the
following traits:
- Open to experience
- Existential living (in touch with
different experiences as they occur in
life)
- Trustful feelings
- Creativity
- Fulfilled life

Trait Theory: Allport

Three Levels:

1. Cardinal Traits – traits that dominate

an individual’s whole life, often to the
point that the person becomes known
specifically for these traits
2. Central Traits – major characteristics
you might use to describe another
person
3. Secondary Traits – traits that are
sometimes related to attitudes or
preferences and often appear only
uncertain situations or under specific
circumferences

Raymond Cattell: Sixteen Trait Theory

1. Abstractedness: imaginative vs.

practicality
2. Apprehension: worried vs. competent
3. Dominance: forceful vs. submissive
4. Emotional Stability: calm vs. high
strung
5. Liveliness: spontaneous
6. Openness to change: flexible vs
attached to the familiar
7. Perfectionism: controlled vs
undisciplined
8. Privacy: discreet vs open
9. Reasoning: abstract vs concrete
10. Rule Consciousness: conforming vs
nonconforming