THEORIES OF PERSONALITY NOTES THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
- Theories of personality are attempts at explaining,
WHAT IS THEORIES OF PERSONALITY?
- composed of two words, (1) theories and (2) personality.
WHAT IS PERSONALITY (PAGKTAO)?
BASIC DEFINITION - Pattern of relatively permanent traits
(kaugalian ng isang tao. |ex. Ang pagkatao ng isang 18yrs
old na tao ay hindi na magbabago hanggang sa pagtanda,
kumbaga permanent na, it can change, but a little. Kaya kung
cheater jowa mo, hiwalayan mo na kasi cheater will always
be a cheater) and unique characteristics that give both
consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior.
!!! Take note that traits and unique characteristics are not
personality, it’s just part of the personality of a particular
person. !!!
- The dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique
adjustments to the environment.
- Which defines what a person will do when faced with a
defined situation.
COMPLEX DEFINITION - An individual’s unique variation on
the general evolutionary design for human nature, expressed
as a developing pattern of dispositional traits, characteristics
adaptations, and integrative life stories complexly and
differentially situated in culture.
WHAT IS A THEORY?
- A scientific theory is a set of related assumptions that allows
scientist to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate
testable hypothesis.
- An explanation for a phenomenon. (Phenomenon is
anything that is happening under the sun o lahat ng
nangyayari)
- Theories are just theories, it’s not true. It can only be true
by testing it.
predicting and “manipulating” a person’s pattern of traits
and behaviors.
- The reason why psychiatrist wants to know the explanation
of the personality of their patients and how to predict the
things that will happen with those personalities is because
they want to manipulate their patients in a good way so they
can help them with their problems.
- In theories of personality, we want to know what is the
reason of that personality, what will it cause in the near
future, and what can we do to help manipulate that
personality.
THEORY AND ITS RELATIVES
 EPISTEMOLOGY
- A branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of
knowledge. How do we know that we know something?
- It’s like the father of theories kasi dito nagmumula ang
mga theories.
- Why do we make theory? It’s because we want to gain
knowledge.
- It’s like a tool for gaining knowledge.
 SPECULATION
- A scientific speculation of course
- Anak ng theory, kasi nagkakaroon lang ng speculation
and also hypothesis right after magkaroon ng theory.
- A hypothesis is an educated guess or prediction
specific enough for its validity to be tested through the
use of the scientific method.
- Using deductive reasoning (going from the general to
the specific), a scientific investigator can derive testable
hypothesis from a useful theory and then test these
hypothesis.
 TAXONOMY
- Classification of things according to their natural
relationships.
- Naming species. Ex: Homo-sapiens
!!! Take note that theory is the general thoughts while  Knowing the biography of the theorist is important
hypothesis is only the specifics.!!! because their theories reflects their personality a lot.

WHY DIFFERENT THEORIES?/Bakit madaming theories? WHAT MAKES A THEORY USEFUL?

- Theories are not laws but are speculations from different  Generates Research
point of views. - If a theory generates research, it means it’s a good
- They are based on assumptions but are subject to individual theory, because it’s answering questions.
interpretations.  In Falsifiable
- The usefulness of a theory does not depend on its - Falsification means that the theory can be proven
commonsense value or on its agreement with other theories; wrong.
rather, it depends on its ability to generate research and to  Organizes Data
explain research data and other observations.  Guides Action
 Internally Consistent
 We have different theories because human personality  Is Parsimonious
is very complex, and one explanation is not enough to
cover everything about it, especially if we will take into DIMENSIONS OF CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
considerations to context of that person.  DETERMINISM VS FREE CHOICE
 There are theories that are very useful and their - Are people’s behavior determined by outside forces
usefulness can still be used even though there is a new which they cannot control or people can choose what
theories newer than the old theories. they want to be?
 In theories of personality, there will always be bias to a  PESSIMISM VS OPTIMISM?
particular theory. - Are people doomed or can become happy?
 CAUSALITY VS TELEOLOGY
“If you don’t know your limitations, that becomes a recipe for - Are people’s behavior dependent to the past
disaster.” - Sir J.P. experiences (causality) or our behavior dependent on
the goals we have in the future (teleology)?
THEORISTS’ PERSONALITIES AND THEIR THEORIES OF  CONSCIOUS VS UNCONSCIOUS
PERSONALITY - Are we aware of our behavior or not?
 PSYCHOLOGY OF SCIENCE  BIOLOGICAL VS SOCIAL INFLUENCES
- Subdiscipline of psychology which studies the - Nature vs. Nurture debate.
personality traits of scientist.  UNIQUENESS VS SIMILARITY
- The historical, social and psychological background of - Do our personality differ from one another or are we
the theorist may affect the theory that a person makes. all the same?
- This is why theorist’s biographies are important in
studying a theory especially about personalities.
- Of course this does not mean that we only have to look
at the theorists’ perspective in evaluating their theories.
We also have to evaluate it objectively by looking at
their usefulness.
TAKE NOTE!
 There are a lot of theories about personalities for a
good reason. Humans are complex.
 There is no one size fit all explanation for our behaviors
and thought process which is why having alternate
explanations can be useful especially if we know how to
contextualize each theory that is available.
 Of course, not all theories are made equal, some are
useful, and some are not. Those that are not useful
enough will slowly die and disappear from the literature
while useful theories will thrive and reproduce as it
develops. Such in the life of a theory.
PSYCHOANALYSIS (SIGMUND FREUD)
 We always have this notion in our head that our present
behavior is heavily influenced by our past childhood
(sometimes traumatic) experiences.
This narrative is the main idea of psychoanalysis
 The heart of psychoanalysis is that our present behavior
is explained by our past experiences.
 Psychoanalysis is all about analyzing the
psyche/personality of a person.
 Ang focus ng theory ni Freud ay lahat ng tao kasi para sa
kanya, pare-parehas lang lahat ng tao.
 A method which we dig deeper in the unconscious mind
of a person.
 Psychoanalysis is best used when a person have anxiety
disorders.
SIGMUND FREUD
 He was close to his mother when he was young.
 He was a medical doctor and is fond of the drug cocaine.
 He was not successful in the field of medicine. He was a
neurologist. But he found success in psychoanalysis.
How? Well he’s the one who made psychoanalysis.
 He helped Josef Breuer in treating Anna O. of her
hysteria through “talk-therapy”.
LEVELS OF MENTAL LIFE (CONTAINER)
 UNCONSCIOUS (not aware)
- Contains all those drives, urges, or instincts that are
beyond our awareness but that nevertheless motivate
most of our words, feelings, and actions.
 PRECONSCIOUS (kinda aware)
- Contains all those elements that are not conscious but
can become conscious either quite readily or with some
difficulty.
- Can come from either conscious or unconscious.
- Ex. Hindi mo naman iniisip palagi yung naging ulam for
dinner yesterday pero kung tatanungin ka ng iasng tao
about doon, masasagot mo siya kasi alam mo kung
anong naging ulam niyo for dinner and let’s say it’s
laeng. (It’s not conscious kasi hindi mo naman siya
palaging iniisip and hindi din siya unconscious kasi
pwede mo siyang magrasp sa memory mo anytime it’s
mention.)
 CONSCIOUS (full time aware)
- Defined as those mental elements in awareness any
given point in time.
*PERCEPTUAL CONSCIOUS SYSTEM
- Which is turned toward the outer world
and acts as a medium for the perception of
external stimuli.
- Ang nagdidirect sa mind natin kung saan dapat mag
pay attention ang isang tao.
- Si conscious yung laging aware, may logical thinking, at
siya yung laging nag-iisip.
PROVINCES OF THE MIND
PERSONALITY OF A PERSON (CONTENT SA LOOB NG
CONTAINER) - sa loob lang ng unconscious
1. ID (The Pleasure Principle)
- At the core of personality and completely
unconscious is the physical region called the id, a term
derived from the impersonal pronoun meaning “the it,”
or the not-yet owned component of personality.
- No Contact with reality. Wala siyang contact sa outside
world, basta ang gusto niya lang laging gawin ay I-
consume lahat ng magustuhan niya. Lahat ng illogical at
chaotic na bagay gusto niya para masatisfy lahat ng
drives, urges, and impulses niya. Kapag hindi siya
nasatisfy, magwawala siya ganurn.
- Illogical, primitive, chaotic, and inaccessible.
- According to Freud, the Id is our true self, this is who
we are, and this is the core of our personality.
- The Id is a barbaric one. Lahat ng gustuhin niya dapat
mapunta sa kanya.
- Id is unsustainable.
- When a baby is born, maituturing silang example ng Id.
Bakit? Kasi katulad ng Id, ang baby ay walang alam kung
hindi mag demand lang ng mag demand ng mga bagay
na gusto nila like milk at kapag hindi nila ito nakuha,
nagwawala o umiiyak sila, and basically, babies destroy
most of things.
- As the baby grow older, kailangan niya na magkaroon
ng contact sa outside world to satisfy the id, kasi kung
puro gusto lang ang isang bata, wala siyang makukuha
kaya kailangan niya magsabi sa mga magulang niya na
gutom na siya para mabigyan siya ng food na gusto
niya/gusto ng id. (For example only)
- For the id to satisfy itself as the personality grow older,
it needs to contact the outside world, the conscious one
which will be the ego.
- Ang feelings ni Id ay impulses, chaos, and drives.
- Id all have the energy
2. EGO (The Reality Principle)
- The ego, or I, is the only region of the mind in contact
with reality.
- It grows out of the id during infancy and becomes a
person’s sole source of communication with the
external world.
- When performing its cognitive and intellectual
functions, the ego must take into consideration the
incompatible but equally unrealistic demands of the id
and the superego. In addition to these tow tyrants, the
ego must serve as a third master --- the external world.
- The great reconciler, the diplomat and employs
defense mechanisms.
- Ego is who we are. Yung kilala natin as a tao is yung
ego. It’s the self concept.
- And this part of self is responsible for making
calculations like for example intellectual and cognitive
calculations.
- Ego is the rational part of the brain.
- No energy
3. SUPEREGO (Morality and Idealistic Principle)
- Represents the moral and ideal aspects of personality
*CONSCIENCE (Konsensya)
- What we should not do
*EGO-IDEAL
- What we should do
- Ang feelings ni Superego ay konsensya, siya yung
nagsasabi kung anong dapat ang gawin mo.
- No energy
 A healthy individual must have a strong ego that can
deal with the demands of id and superego.
(If ever na hindi strong ang ego ng isang individual,
maari itong mapunit dahil pinaghihilahan siya ng id and
superego, and that can cause depression, stress, and
anxiety to that individual kasi hindi na mabalance ng ego
ang id and superego.)
DYNAMICS OF THE PERSONALITY OF A PERSON
- Imagine Id is the child, Superego is the super adult, and Ego
is the you. And Id and Superego have demands and usually
their demands are opposite. Kunwari si Id gusto niyang
masarapan and si superego gusto niyang mahirapan. For
example, sabi ni superego, you must be successful so you
must work hard. So dito, superego doesn’t mind suffering,
gusto ka niya mag suffer para makuha niya yung demand niya.
On the other hand, Id doesn’t want you to suffer, ayaw niya
maghirap ka, gusto niya masarapan ka lang. So ang trabaho
dito ni Ego ay pagbigyan si Id and Superego ng hindi
nalalamangan ang isa’t-isa, so si ego ang nagbabalance sa
demands ng Id and Superego. Dapat maibibigay ni Ego yung
sarap na gusto ni Id at yung ideal na gusto ni Superego.
DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY (The movement)
 DRIVES
- Drives operate as a constant motivational force. As an
internal stimulus, drives differ from external stimuli in
that they cannot be avoided through flight.
*SEXUAL DRIVE
- Freud believed that the entire body is invested
with libido (energy for sexual drive) especially on
the erogenous zones.
- The ultimate aim of the sexual drive (reduction of
sexual tension) cannot be changed, but the path by
which the aim is reached can be varied.
- Can be expressed via narcissism (extreme self love),
love, sadism (wanting to destroy things and hurt
people) and masochism (you want to be receiving
the pain).
- Ang source niya ay laging internal
- Hindi kailangan ng drive ng external stimuli para
maging active o mamotivate kasi lagi ang source niya ay
laging internal.
- According to Freud, ang mga tao ay forever malimit
unless marelease nila iyon by for example sexual acts.
The goal is to reduce sexual drives but the actions can
be varied (pwedeng though sexual acts, masturbation,
etc.)
*AGGRESSION
- The aim of the destructive drive, according to
Freud, is to return the organism to an inorganic state.
- Because the ultimate inorganic condition is death,
the final aim of the aggressive drive is self-
destruction.
- Can be expressed via teasing, gossip, sarcasm,
humiliation, humor, and enjoyment of other
people’s suffering.
- THANATOS: Death Drive/God of death
- It’s like Freud is saying that suicide is kinda
common because of what we call aggression drive,
meaning to say, there’s a feeling when a person
wants to self destruct.
!!! Take note that both sexual drive and aggression drive
comes from Idcentric, kasi parehas silang nanggaaling sa Id.
While anxiety can come from everywhere, it can come from Id,
reality (ego), or even from superego!!!
*ANXIETY (tension)
- Freud (1933/1964) emphasized that it is a felt,
affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a
physical sensation that warns the person against
 impending danger.
- It is basically “worry”.
- Anxiety is only experienced by ego, meaning to say,
siya lang ang nagsusuffer, tayo lang ang nagsusuffer.
The conscious part of our being is the only one
who’s suffering.
NEUROTIC ANXIETY
- Defined as apprehension about an unknown danger; during
childhood, these feelings of hostility are often accompanied
by fear of punishment, and this fear becomes generalized
into unconscious neurotic anxiety.
- Hindi mo alam yung mga posibleng mangyari
- Galing sa conflict between ego and id
- Kapag nanggaling ang worry sa Id, it is called Neurotic
Anxiety.
- For example, noong nasa kinder ka pa lang, nagkaroon ka ng
namamalo na teacher sa Math Subject. So yung mga
naranasan mo dun sa namamalong math teacher, napupunta
yon sa unconscious mo, and then eventually, kapag
nakakakita ka ng mga math teacher noong pagtanda mo,
bigla bigla ka na lang namamawis, nanginginig, at
kinakabahan. That is called neurotic anxiety, yung mga fear
na naranasan mo noon sa math teacher mo noong kinder ka
ay inilalabas ng Id sa present times kung saan natatakot ka sa
current math teacher mo kahit wala naman siyang
ginagawang masama sayo. Kumbaga tinatakot ka ng Id
HAHAHAHA lokong Id to, ikaw pala dahilan kung bakit
hanggang ngayon takot akong matulog ng walang ilaw.
- Dito nagmumula yung mga psychopathological symptoms.
MORAL ANXIETY
- Stems from the conflict between ego and the superego
(should and should nots).
- So basically kapag nagkakaroon ka ng conscience attack,
yung mga moments na nag overthink ka sa mga bagay na
nagawa mo kung naging tama ba ito o hindi. Si superego yung
dahilan kung bakit nag ooverthink tayo kapag naguiguilty ka
sa isang bagay.
- Galing sa superego, and superego doesn’t have a contact
with reality, it’s just idealistic. Foe example, you wash your
hands all the time and can’t go all the day without washing
them because that is your idealistic features, you wash your
hands all the time.
Another example is yung palagi mong iniisip kung napatay
mo ba yung ilaw sa kusina bago ka matulog o naisarado mo
ba yung pinto bago ka umalis ng bahay.
REALISTIC ANXIETY
- It is defined as an unpleasant, nonspecific feeling involving a
possible danger.
- Kapag ang worry ay nanggaling sa outside world. Like for
example, nag woworry ka na baka maapektuhan ka ng Covid.
- Alam mo yung mga posibleng mangyari
 These three anxieties can happen at the same time.
Pwedeng sabay ang neurotic and moral, pwedeng moral
at realistic, o kaya naman pwedeng neurotic at realistic.
 Anxieties can help us by giving us signs/signals about
the possible dangers
DEFENSE MECHANISM (EGO)
- The idea is from Freud, but his daughter Anna is the one
who organized the whole defense mechanism.
- The source of energy in psychoanalysis is id because it’s the
drive to life. And if you spend most of your psychic energy to
your defense mechanism, mas less pleasure and attention
ang mabibigay kaY id.
- To protect the Ego from the Impulses and demands of id
and superego (which manifests as drives and anxiety), the
ego uses techniques to avoid breaking down.
- Mechanisms or patterns of thought that the ego uses to
satisfy the demands of id and superego.
- Because we must expend psychic energy to establish and
maintain defenses mechanisms, the more defensive we are,
the less psychic energy we have left to satisfy id impulses.
- This can result to having a week ego, therefore weaker
control and personality.
- Ito yung ginagamit ni ego na technique para hindi siya ma
disintegrate nila id at superego. Ito yung technique ni ego
para hindi siya maapektuhan ng anxiety, kasi kapag nag
paapekto siya don, dun na magsisimula yung
psychopathological symptoms.
- Ang cause ni defense mechanism ay psychic energy and
kapag ang ego ay naubusan ng psychic energy kakadefense
mechanism niya, ang tendency ay magbaback fire sa defense
mechanism.
- Defense Mechanism is like putting a dam on the reality and
anxiety para hindi sila pumunta sa ego ng isang individual.
And if that dam collapsed, the water or lahat ng anxiety for
example ay papasok ngayon sa kabilang side kung saan
andun si ego. Ang ending, psychopathology symptoms. And
kapag nalunod na si ego, dito na magiging required a
therapist.
LIST OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 REPRESSION
- The forcing of unwanted, anxiety laden experiences into the
unconscious as a defense against the pain of that anxiety.
- Most common form of defense mechanism.
- Example: Nagkaroon ka ng younger sibling and lahat ng
attention and care ng mga magulang mo ay napunta lahat sa
nakababata mong kapatid, and deep down sa sarili mo ay
nakaramdam ka ng hostility towards your younger sibling and
your unconscious about because the ego is repressing that
thoughts to keep your from hating your younger isbling.
 DENIAL
- A defense mechanism that involves denying the existence of
an external threat or traumatic event.
- Example: Denying the fact that you and your ex are already
broken up due to excessive stress.
 PROJECTION
- A defense mechanism that involves attributing a disturbing
impulse to someone else. Can cause paranoia.
- Example: Aamin ka sa crush mo, saying na “gusto kita” but
instead of saying that, ang nasabi mo ay “gusto ka ni miley”.
 DISPLACEMENT
- A Freudian defense mechanism in which unwanted urges
are redirected onto other objects or people in order to
disguise the original impulse.
- Displacement is a defense mechanism that involves an
individual transferring negative feelings from one person or
thing to another.
- Example: A person who is angry at their boss may “take out”
their anger on a family member by shouting at them.
 REGRESSION
- A defense mechanism whereby a person returns to an
earlier stage in order to protect the ego against anxiety.
- Example: Due to some separation anxiety, a child tends to
cry over and over again when the mother leaves the child.
- Temporary
 SUPPRESSION
- Conscious
- Consciously choosing to block ideas or impulses that are
undesirable, as opposed to repression, a subconscious
process. This defense mechanism may be present in
someone who has intrusive thoughts about a traumatic event
but pushes these thoughts out of their mind.
- Pilit mong kinakalimutan ang isang bagay
- Example: Pilit mong kinakalimutan yung ex mo.
 IDENTIFICATION
- Identification is an ego defense or mental mechanism
through which an individual, in varying degree, makes himself
or herself like someone else; he identifies with another
person. This results in the unconscious taking over of various
elements of another (Laughlin 1979).
- You started seeing yourself like the other person (for
example, role model mo ay yung father mo so you tend to
follow his footstep, so nung nagkaroon ka na ng sariling
family, you see yourself like your father na).
- Example: Someone who commits an episode of infidelity in
their marriage may then accuse their partner of infidelity or
may become more suspicious of their partner.
 SUBLIMATION
- A defense mechanism that involves the repression of the
genital aim of Eros and its substitution by a cultural or social
aim.
- Best defense mechanisms that is accepted in our society.
- Turning tension into something that is beneficial.
- For example, Taylor Swift writes a song about her exes
when she’s broken. Through that, she earns money from her
released albums.
 FIXATION
- A defense mechanism that arises when psychic energy is
blocked at one stage of development, thus making change or
psychological growth difficult.
- Example: Fixation at the oral stage of development may
later lead to seeking oral pleasure as an adult through
sucking one's thumb, pen or cigarette. Also, fixation during
the anal stage may cause a person to sublimate their desire
to handle faeces with an enjoyment of pottery.
 INTROJECTION
- A defense mechanism whereby people incorporate positive
qualities of another person into their ego.
- Social cognitive theory is applicable to this defense
mechanism.
- You can get qualities from other person, it’s often the
positive qualities of other person.
- Example: A dad telling his son “boys don't cry”- this is an
idea that a person might take in from their environment and
internalize into their way of thinking.
 INTELLECTUALIZATION
- Involves a person using reason and logic to avoid
uncomfortable or anxiety-provoking emotions.
Intellectualization can be a useful way of explaining and
understanding negative events.
- Example: If person A is rude to person B, person B may think
about the possible reasons for person A's behavior.
 RATIONALIZATION
- Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves
explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational
or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior.
- Example: A student who is rejected from her dream college
may explain that she's happy to be attending a school that's
less competitive and more welcoming.
 REACTION FORMATION
- Reaction formation reduces anxiety by taking up the
opposite feeling, impulse, or behavior.
- An example of reaction formation would be treating
someone you strongly dislike in an excessively friendly
manner in order to hide your true feelings.
 UNDOING
- Trying to make up for what you feel are inappropriate
thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.
- Example, if you hurt someone's feelings, you might offer to
do something nice for them in order to assuage your anxiety
or guilt.s - Oral-Sadistic Phase: Infants respond to others
through biting, cooing, closing their mouth, smiling,
https://www.verywellmind.com/defense-mechanisms-2795960#:~:text=Rationalization%20is%20a%20defense%20mechanism,true%20reasons%20for%20the%20behavior.

and crying.
 When it comes to defense mechanism, it is much better
 Oral Dependent Personality: Gullible, passive and need
kung lahat ng defense mechanism ay magagamit kasi for
lots of attention. This can be the result of oral fixation.
example, kung puro denial ka lang, magbubuild up siya
 Fixations create oral-aggressive adults who like to argue
ng mag buibuild up hanggang sa sumabog ka na sa
and exploit others.
sobrang dami mong thoughts and feelings na itinago,
 Erogenous Zone: Mouth (Oral) --- gratification is gained
which is obviously bad kasi it can cause
by oral stimulation (Breastfeeding).
psychopathology symptoms.
 People are driven by their sexual urges and those sexual
urges have erogenous zone. Yung buong katawan ng tao
ay filled with sexual energy/sexual drive and throughout
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
the phase of development ay nalilipat yung mga
- Freud’s theory of development is only up to early childhood.
erogenous zone na yun.
- Psychosexual Development
 According to Freud, the main erogenous zone is the
1. INFANTILE PERIOD
mouth of an individual. And eventually, after sa mouth
- Birth to five year old.
mapupunta yung erogenous zone sa pwet part ng isang
2. LATENCY PERIOD
tao which starts the anal phase.
- From the 4th or 5th year until puberty, both boys and girls
 EROGENOUS ZONE: Freud regarded sex as our primary
usually, but not always go through a period of dormant
motivation. Erotic wishes arise from the body’s
psychosexual development.
erogenous zones: the mouth, anus, and sex organs. He
3. GENITAL PERIOD
suggested that people are predominantly pleasure-
- Puberty signals a reawakening of the sexual aim and the
seeking beings, and much of his personality theory
beginning of the genital period.
revolves around the necessity of inhibiting or
suppressing our sexual longings.
(1) INFANTILE PERIOD
- Body parts that gives a person a pleasure.
- Before, people are hesitant to accept that infants have
sexual drive. Today, however, nearly all close observers
ANAL PHASE (Ages 1-3): The aggressive drive, which during
accept the idea that children show an interests in the genitals,
the first year of life takes the form of oral sadism, reaches
delight in sexual pleasure, and manifest sexual excitement.
fuller development during the second year when the anus
emerges as a sexually pleasurable zone.
ORAL PHASE (Ages 0-1): Infants obtains life-sustaining
- Toilet training phase
nourishment though oral cavity, but beyond that, they also
- Early Anal Period: Children receive satisfaction by
gain pleasure through the act of sucking.
destroying or losing objects. At this time, the
- Oral-Receptive Phase: Infants feel no ambivalence
destructive nature of the sadistic drive is stronger
toward the pleasurable object and their need are
than the erotic one, and children often behave
usually satisfied with a minimum of frustration and
aggressively toward their parents for frustrating
anxiety.
them with toilet training.
- Late Anal Period: They sometimes take a friendly
 interest toward their feces, an interest that stems
from the erotic pleasure of defecting.
If children will be forced to withhold their feces,
they may develop anal character (orderliness,
stinginess and obstinacy).
 According to Freud, nasasarapan daw tumae yung ibang
mga bata.
 Attention turns to process of elimination. Child can gain
approval or express aggression by letting go or holding
on.
 Ego develops. Harsh or lenient toilet training can make a
child either:
*Anal Retentive: Stubborn, clingy, orderly, and
compulsively clean
*Anal Expulsive: Disorderly, messy, destructive, or cruel
 Erogenous Zone: Anus
*pleasure is gained by being able to control feces (potty
training)
PHALLIC PHASE (Ages 3-6): A time when the genital area
becomes the leading erogenous zone; This stage is marked
for the first time by a dichotomy between male and female
development.
- Anatomy is destiny. This means that magkaiba ang
process ng phallic phase ng men sa women. So dito
papasok ang oedipal complex.
*MALE PHALLIC PHASE
 Oedipus Complex: Sexual desire for mother/hostility for
the father.(from the legend of Oedipus, the one who
married his mother and killed his father, and then blinds
himself)
- Term used by Freud to indicate the situation in which
the child of either sex develops feelings of love and/or
hostility for the parent. In the simple male Oedipus
complex, the boy has incestuous feelings of love for the
mother and hostility toward the father. The simple
female Oedipus complex exists when the girl feels
hostility for the mother and sexual love for the father.
AWAKENING OF SEXUALITY (ADDITIONAL)
 OEDIPUS CONFLICT: For boys only. Boys feels rivalry
with his father for his mother’s affection. When a male
child wants to kill his father so he can have sex with his
mother. (from the Greek Tragedy “Oedipus Rex” by
Sophocoles)
 Castration Complex in the form of castration anxiety
shatters the Oedipus Complex.
- Condition that accompanies the Oedipus complex, but
takes different forms in the two sexes. In boys, it takes
the form of castration anxiety, or fear of having one’s
penis removed, and is responsible for shattering the
Oedipus complex. In girls, it takes the form of penis
envy, or the desire to have a penis, and it precedes and
instigates the Oedipus complex.
 Identification with the father
 Strong superego replaces the nearly completely
dissolved Oedipus Complex.
*FEMALE PHALLIC PHASE
 Castration Complex in the form of penis envy (The envy
the female feels toward the male because the male
possesses a penis; this is accompanied by a sense of loss
because the female does not have a penis.)
 Oedipus Complex develops as an attempt to obtain a
penis (Sexual desires for the father; hostility towards
mother)
 Gradual realization that the Oedipal desires are self
defeating
 Identification with the mother
 Weak superego replaces the partially dissolved Oedipus
Complex.
 ELCTRA CONFLICT: Girl loves her father and competes
with her mother. Girl identifies with her mother more
slowly because she already feels castrated.
 Freud admitted that he does not know if his theories
about women are correct. He said that women are an
enigma and not comprehensible to the straightforward
nature of the male population.
(2) LATENCY PERIOD (Ages 6-Puberty)
- From the 4 or 5 year until puberty, both boys and girls
th th
usually, but not always go through a period of dormant
psychosexual development.
- Boys and girls mingle with each other with no problem.
- Dito sa period na ito, parang nag subside yung sexual
drives/urges. Kasi yung mga bata naman na boys and girls,
they can get along just fine without feeling any sexual desires.
(3) GENITAL PERIOD (Ages 12+ |Puberty - on)
- Puberty signals a reawakening of the sexual aim and the
beginning of the genital period (starts to seek sexual
pleasure from others).
- Realization of full adult sexuality occurs here; sexual urges
re-awaken.
- Pleasure is gained through sexual intercourse with non-
relatives.
- First, adolescents give up autoeroticism and direct their
sexual energy toward another person instead of toward
themselves.
- Second, reproduction is now possible.
- Third, although penis envy may continue to linger in girls,
the vagina finally obtains the same status for them that the
penis had for them during infancy.
MATURITY
- A stage attained after a person has passed through the
earlier developmental periods in an ideal manner.
- Unfortunately, psychological maturity seldom happens,
because people have too many opportunities to develop
pathological disorders or neurotic predispositions.
APPLICATION OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
- Psychoanalysis was primarily established or made to treat
patients with psychopathology.
PSYCHOTHERAPHY
 PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPY
- The primary goal of Freud’s later psychoanalytic
therapy was to uncover repressed memories through
free association and dream analysis. “Our therapy works
by transforming what is unconscious into what is
conscious, and it works only in so far as it is in a position
to effect that transformation.”
- Ang goal ng both psychoanalysis at psychotherapy is to turn
the unconscious to conscious. PERO PAANO? It is possible
through the following methods:
1) FREE ASSOCIATION
- Patients are required to verbalize every thought that comes
to their mind, no matter how irrelevant or repugnant it may
appear.
- Technique used in Freudian psychotherapy in which the
therapist instructs the patient to verbalize every thought that
comes to mind, no matter how irrelevant or repugnant it may
appear.
- For example, those classical analytic therapist have couch
where the patients can lie down kasi sabi ni Freud, if you’re
lying down it means your defenses are down, so kapag ang
defenses mo ay down, mas malaki ang chances na
mauncover ang unconscious.
2) TRANSFERENCE
- Refers to the strong sexual or aggressive feelings, positive or
negative, that patients develop toward their analyst during
the course of treatment.
- Strong, undeserved feelings that the patient develops
toward the analyst during the course of treatment. These
feelings may be either sexual or hostile, but they stem from
the patient’s earlier experiences with parents.
- Countertransference: Strong, undeserved feelings that the
therapist develops toward the patient during the course of
treatment. These feelings can be either positive or negative
and are considered by most writers to be a hindrance to
successful psychotherapy.
- Positive Transference: May be helpful in therapy
- Negative Transference: In the form of hostility must be
recognized by the therapist and explained to patients so that
they can overcome any resistance to treatment.  Internal Consistency is clunky
 Not that parsimonious
3) RESISTANCE CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
- Which refers to a variety of unconscious responses used by  Determinist
patients to block their own progress in therapy, can be a  Pessimist
positive sign because it indicates that therapy has advanced  Causal
beyond superficial material.  Unconscious
- Ideally, when analytic treatment is successful, patients no  Biological
longer suffer from debilitating symptoms, they use their  Uniqueness/similarity (middle ground)
psychic energy to perform ego functions, and they have an
expanded ego that includes previously repressed experiences.
- A variety of unconscious responses by patients, designed to
block therapeutic progress.

4) DREAM ANALYSIS
- Freud used dream analysis to transform the manifest
content of dreams to the more important latent content.
- The therapeutic procedure designed to uncover
unconscious material by having a patient free associate to
dream images. ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONS
- Manifest Content: Surface meaning or the conscious  PHYLOGENETIC ENDOWMENT
description given by the dreamer. - Unconscious inherited images that have been passed down
- Latent Content: The unconscious material. to us through many generations of repetition. A concept used
by both Freud and Klein.
5) FREUDIAN SLIPS (SLIP OF THE TONGUE)
- Freud believed that many everyday slips of the tongue or
pen, misreading, incorrect hearing, misplacing objects, and
temporarily forgetting names or intentions are not chance
accidents but reveal a person’s unconscious intentions.
- Slips of the tongue or pen, misreading, incorrect hearing,
temporary forgetting of names and intentions, and the
misplacing of objects, all of which are caused by unconscious
wishes. Also called parapraxes.

USEFULNESS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
 Falsifiability is questionable
 Generated a lot of research
 Organizes Data
 Guides action
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY (ALFRED ADLER)
ALFRED ADLER
 He hates Freud.
 He was sickly when he was a child and nearly died.
 His older brother, Sigmund, was his childhood rival.
 Like Sigmund Freud, his little brother died when they
were young which motivated him to conquer death by
becoming a physician.

BIOGRAPHY OF ADLER
 Born in Rudolfsheim, Vienna in 1870
 Second son of middle class Jewish Parents
 Weak and sickly when he was young
 Nearly died of pneumonia at age of 5
 Received his medical degree in 1895
 Published Study of Organ Inferiority and its Physical
Compensation in 1907
 Charter member of Freud’s organization
 Rivalry with Freud’s organization
 Rivalry with Freud led to his departure from the group
 Founded the Society for Individual Psychology
 Died in Scotland in 1937
 At young age, his goal in life is to conquer death and INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

become a physician.  Ang focus ng theory ni Adler ay sa isang tao

 People are born with weak, inferior bodies - a condition

PSYCHOANALYSIS VS INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY that leads to feelings of inferiority and a consequent

 PSCYHOANALYSIS dependence on other people.

- Reduced all motivation to sex and aggression  Therefore, a feeling with unity with others (social

- People have little or no choice in shaping their personality interest) is interest in people and the ultimate standard

- Present behavior is shaped by past experiences for psychological health.

- Put high emphasis on unconscious  More specifically, the main tenets of Adlerian theory
can be stated in outline form.

 INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
- People are motivated by social influences and their striving TENETS OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

for superiority and success  The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the

- People are responsible for who they are striving for success (healthy side) or superiority

- Present behavior is shaped by people’s view of the future (unhealthy side).

- Psychologically healthy people are aware of what they are (Comparison: Kay Freud, ang nagmomotivate daw sa tao

like and why they are doing it ay sex and aggression, while kay Adler, ang
 nagmomotivate sa theory niya ay strive for success and
superiority.)
 People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior
and personality.
 Personality is unified and self-consistent.
 The value of all human activity must be seen from the
viewpoint of social interest.
 The self-consistent personality structure develops into a
person’s style of life.
 Style of life is molded by people’s creative power (the
power to chose for ourselves).
(1) Striving for Success or Superiority
- For Success: In contrast to people who strive for personal
gain are those psychologically healthy people who are
motivated by social interest and the success of all humankind.
- For Superiority: Some people strive for superiority with
little or no concern for others. Their goals are personal ones,
and their strivings are motivated largely by exaggerated
feelings of personal inferiority, or the presence of an
inferiority complex. Murderers, thieves, and con artists are
obvious examples of people who strive for personal gain.
(2) Subjective Perceptions
- Adler’s second tenet is: People’s subjective perceptions
shape their behavior and personality.
- People strive for superiority or success to compensate for
feelings of inferiority, but the manner in which they strive is
not shaped by reality but by their subjective perceptions of
reality, that is, by their fictions, or expectations of the future.
(3) Unity of Self-Consistency of Personality
- The third tenet of Adlerian theory is: Personality is unified
and self-consistent.
- Organ Dialect: Organs that speaks on behalf of you. The
deficient organ expresses the direction of the individual’s
goal. Through organ dialect, the body’s organs “speak a
language which is usually more expressive and discloses the
individual’s opinion more clearly than words are able to do”.
- Conscious and Unconscious: A second example of a unified
personality is the harmony between conscious and
unconscious actions. Adler (1956) defined the unconscious as
that part of the goal that is neither clearly formulated nor
completely understood by the individual. With this
definition, Adler avoided a dichotomy between the
unconscious and the conscious, which he saw as two
cooperating parts of the same unified system. Conscious
thoughts are those that are understood and regarded by the
individual as helpful in striving for success, whereas
unconscious thoughts are those that are not helpful.
(4) Social Interest
- The fourth of Adler’s tenets is: The value of all human
activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest.
- Social interest is Adler’s somewhat misleading translation of
his original German term, Gemeinschaftsgefühl. A better
translation might be “social feeling” or “community feeling,”
but Gemeinschaftsgefühl actually has a meaning that is not
fully expressed by any English word or phrase.
(5) Style of Life
- Adler’s fifth tenet is: The self-consistent personality
structure develops into a person’s style of life.
- Style of life is the term Adler used to refer to the flavor of a
person’s life. It includes a person’s goal, self-concept,
feelings for others, and attitude toward the world. It is the
product of the interaction of heredity, environment, and a
person’s creative power.
- Adler (1956) used a musical analogy to elucidate style of life.
The separate notes of a composition are meaningless without
the entire melody, but the melody takes on added
significance when we recognize the composer’s style or
unique manner of expression.
(6) Creative Power
- The final tenet of Adlerian theory is: Style of life is molded
by people’s creative power.
- Each person, Adler believed, is empowered with the
freedom to create her or his own style of life. Ultimately, all
people are responsible for who they are and how they
behave. Their creative power places them in control of their
own lives, is responsible for their final goal, determines their
method of striving for that goal, and contributes to the
development of social interest. In short, creative power
makes each person a free individual. Creative power is a
dynamic concept implying movement, and this movement is
the most salient characteristic of life. All psychic life involves
movement toward a goal, movement with a direction (Adler,
1964).
STRIVING FOR SUPERIORITY
 Before, Adler considered aggression as our prime
motivator just like Freud but became dissatisfied with it.
Pero para kay Adler hindi aggression ang dahilan kung
bakit tayo motivated, ang dahilan ay ang strive for
superiority. Kasi when we were all born, we are all weak
that’s why we strive for superiority and success. We
want to conquer all.
 He later used the term masculine protest which implied
will to dominate others.
 Adler said that we have the innate drive to become
superior since we are all inferior the moment we were
born.
- As a compensation, we strive for superiority.
 We are physically weak, and some have physical
deficiencies which contributes to the feelings of
inferiority complex.
 According to Adler, this drive to become superior will
lead us to reach out Final Goal which can be Personal
Superiority or Success of All Humanity, depending on
our choices.
FINAL GOAL
 FINAL GOAL: In either case, the final goal is fictional and
has no objective existence. Nevertheless, the final goal
has great significance because it unifies personality and
renders all behavior comprehensible. (Ito yung
panagarap natin sa buhay)
 Each person has the power to create a personalized
fictional goal, one constructed out of the raw materials
provided by heredity and environment.
 CREATIVE POWER: The capacity of a person to create
his/her own final goal. Reaches full capacity by 4-5 years
old (sa age na ito yung na-reach final goal).
 When an individual’s final goal is known, all actions
make senses and each sub-goal takes on new
significance.
 If a person know what he/she wants to accomplish,
everything this person does is always towards that final
goal.
 According to Adler, the final goal for an individual is to
become one with society.
2 TYPES OF FINAL GOAL
(1) PERSONAL SUPERIORITY
- If the child grew up in a pampered lifestyle, the final goal
would remain unconscious, therefore vague, and
misunderstood. Therefore, he child’s behavior or personality
that will develop is more centered to oneself rather than the
society. This path is striving for PERSONAL SUPERIORITY.
- According to Adler, the final goal for an individual is to
become one with society, pero kung hindi niya ito maachieve
magiging selfish yung tao na yon, kaya ang ending,
magkakaroon siya ng tinatawag na personal superiority. So
kumbaga imbis na ang society ang iserve niya, ang society
ang gusto niyang mag serve sa kanya. Papunta sa kanya yung
superiority imbis na palabas.
- Example ng mga ganon na tao ay yung mga taong lumaki in
a neglected family o yung mga spoiled ng pamilya nila.
PAMPERED LIFE FINAL GOAL
 The goal of superiority for a pampered girl, for example,
may be to make permanent her parasitic relationship
with her mother.
 As an adult, she may appear dependent and self-
deprecating and such behavior may seem inconsistent
with a goal of superiority.
 However, it is quite consistent with her unconscious and
misunderstood goal of being a parasite that she set at
age 4 or 5, a time when her mother appeared large and
powerful, and attachment to her became a natural
means of attaining superiority.
 Imbis na society ang final goal ng mga pampered girl,
ang mother niya yung naging final goal. Dapat maibigay
ng mother lahat dun sa pampered girl na anak niya.
(2) SUCCESS OF ALL HUMANITY
- If the child grew up in a loving and secured family, the goal
that will become conscious and clearly understood.
Psychologically secure children strive toward superiority
defined in terms of success and social interest. This path is
striving for SUCCESS and SOCIAL INTEREST.
SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS
- We are primarily motivated to strive for superiority but the
manner on how we accomplish that is affected buy our
subjective perceptions of reality, not reality itself. Adler
called this subjective perception as our fictions.
- Ito yung kung pano I-interpret nung tao yung mga
nangyayari sa kanya, to be precise, sa pamilya niya. For
example: OFW yung mga magulang, ang iisipin ng isang
pampered girl ay di siya love ng mga eto kaya magrerebelde
na lang siya para mapansin, on the other hand, ang iisipin
naman ng isang loved and secured na child ay mahal siya ng
mga magulang niya kasi naghihirap sila sa abroad para lang
mabigay yung mga pangangailangan niya so ang gagawin niya
ay mag aaral siya ng mabuti para maibalik at mabayaran lahat
ng pagod at hirap ng kaniyang mga magulang.
- Pano nirereceieve ng isang tao ang reality.
- FICTIONS: Our beliefs about the reality of life. They may not
be necessarily true, but they are true enough for us for it to
affect our overall personality and behavior.
An example of a fiction might be a belief in an omnipotent
God who rewards good and punishes evil. Such a belief
guides the daily lives of millions of people and helps shape
many of their actions. Whether true or false, fictions have a
powerful influence on people’s lives.
- Fictions have a great influence on how we act and how we
behave in our life.
PHYSICAL INFERIORITIES
 Adler (1929/1969) insisted that the whole human race
is “blessed” with organ inferiorities. These physical
handicaps have little or nor importance by themselves
but become meaningful when they stimulate subjective
feelings of inferiority, which serve as an impetus toward
perfection or completion.
 Some people compensate for these feelings of
inferiority by moving toward psychological health and a
useful of life, whereas others overcompensate and are
motivated to subdue or retreat from other people.
UNITY AND SELF-CONSISTENCY OF PERSONALITY
 Thoughts, feelings, and actions are all directed toward a
single goal and serve a single purpose.
 Although behaviors may appear inconsistent, when they
are viewed from the perspective of a final goal, they
appear as clever but probably unconscious attempts to
confuse and subordinate other people.
 The mind and body are one, as Adler proposed in his
concept of Organ Dialect. Through organ dialect, the
body’s organs “speak a language which is usually more
expressive and discloses the individual’s opinion more
 clearly than words are able to do”.
 Sometimes, it may feel inconsistent, yung mga
personalities ng mga tao, but if you will look at them at
the perspective ng mga final goal nila ay mag mamake
sense lahat ng ginagawa nila.
UNITY OF PERSONALITY
 The Unity of Conscious and Unconscious
- Conscious thoughts are those that are understood and
regarded by the individual as helpful in striving for
success, whereas unconscious thoughts are those that
are not helpful.
HOW DO WE KNOW IF THE PERSONALITY IS GOOD OR
HEALTHY?
- We must ask if that personality has a sense of social interest.
SOCIAL INTEREST - GEMEINSCHAFTSGEFUHL
 Roughly, it means a feeling of oneness with all
humanity; it implies membership in the social
community of all people.
 Social interest is the natural condition of the human
species and the adhesive that binds society together
(Adler, 1927). The natural inferiority of individuals
necessitates their joining together to form a society.
 This is the natural response in our inferiority complex. If
we want to feel superior, we have to unite with society
because society as a whole is very powerful, very
superior.
ORIGINS OF SOCIAL INTEREST
 Mother and Child Relationship during infancy: ideally,
she should have a genuine and deep rooted love for her
child --- a love that is centered on the child’s well-being,
not on her own needs or wants.
 Father: The ideal father cooperates on an equal footing
with the child’s mother in caring for the child and
treating the child as a a human being.
- A successful father avoids the dual errors of emotional
detachments and paternal authoritarianism.
IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL INTEREST
 Social interest was Adler’s yardstick of measuring
psychological health and is thus “the sole criterion of
human values”.
 Social interest is not anonymous with charity and
unselfishness. Acts of philanthropy and kindness may or
may not be motivated by Gemeinschaftsgefuhl.
- A wealthy woman may regularly give large sums of
money to the poor and needy, not because she feels a
oneness with them, but, quite to the contrary, because
she wishes to maintain a separateness from them.
CREATIVE POWER
 Each person, Adler believed, is empowered with the
freedom to create her or his own style of life (consistent
personality na gagawin natin).
 Their creative power places them in control of their own
lives, is responsible for their final goal, determines their
method of striving for that goal, and contributes to the
development of social interest.
 Each person uses heredity and environment as the
bricks and mortar to build personality, but the
architectural design reflects that person’s own style.
 Law of the Low Doorway
- You can duck down to pass through it
- You can bump your head until it breaks down so you
can pass through it (Neurotics do this)
- Whatever choice you will take depends on your
creative power

SUMMARY OF ADLER’S THEORY
- We have innate striving force to become superior because
we have physical deficiencies. When we have physical
deficiencies, we will have the feelings of inferiority. This
feelings of inferiority, it becomes too exaggerated feelings
(kumbaga imbis na tanggapin na lang natin or we cope up
with it ay nagkaroon pa ng exaggerated feelings na “ay hindi,
masyado akong inferior kaya kailangan kong maging superior
sa lahat ng bagay.”) Paano ka magiging superior, kung
ibababa mo yung ibang tao tapos itataas mo sarili mo --- this
is called personal gain. If your motivation is to gain personal
things then ang magiging method mo ay personal superiority
and ang final goal mo ay dimly perceived. Remember, the
final goal in Adler’s theory is to unite with the society. So
dahil masyadong exaggerated yung feelings mo, hindi nakita
ng maayos yung final goal, and therefore nagkaroon ng self-
centered naturem, at dahil self-centered yung na achieve mo,
personal superiority yung naging methoid mo. PERO, if these
feelings of inferiority is overcome, kumbaga magkakaroon ka
ng normal feelings of incompletion, dito mo marerealize na
you need other people, you need to contribute to other
people so that you will become more successful, and
therefore you’ll develop a social interest, having a social
interest will make you successful in perceiving the final goal,
which is to become united with the society (which is clearly
perceived - nakita ng maayos yung final goal).
 According to Freud, ang personality ng isang tao ay naka
base sa past experiences ng isang tao.
Sinabi din ni Freud na kontrolado tayo ng unconscious
natin at wala tayong magagawa dito.
 According to Adler, ang mga behaviors and personality
ng isang tao ay naka base sa future/final goals na iseset
ng isang tao sa kanilang buhay.
Sinabi ni Adler na may choice ang tao, dahil conscious
tayo, meron tayong pwedeng magawa, kung gugustuhin
natin magbago.
 According to Carl Jung, ang personality ay naka base sa
future goals (conscious) and past experiences
(unconscious)
ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT
 ABNORMAL PERSONALITY
- People develop abnormally when their social interest are
undeveloped. (Para kay Adler, if hindi nadevelop ng maayos
yung social interest ng isang tao, may possibility na hindi din
magiging maganda yung personality niya)
- They also set their goals too high, live in their own private
world and have a rigid and dogmatic lifestyle.
EXTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT
 EXAGGERATED PHYSICAL DEFICIENCIES
- Whether congenital or the result of injury or disease,
are not sufficient to lead to maladjustment. They must
be accompanied by accentuated feelings or inferiority.
These subjective feelings may be greatly encouraged by
a defective body, but they are progeny of the creative
 power.
- People develop exaggerated feelings pf inferiority
because they overcompensate for their inadequacy.
 PAMPERED STYLE OF LIFE
- Pampered people have weak social interest but a
strong desire to perpetuate the pampered, parasitic
relationship they originally had with one or both of their
parents.
- They expect others to look after them, overprotect
them, and satisfy their needs.
- They are characterized by extreme discouragement,
inclusiveness, oversensitivity, impatience, and
exaggerated emotion, especially anxiety.
- They see the world with private vision and believe that
they are entitled to be first in everything.
 NEGLECTED STYLE OF LIFE
- Children who feel unloved and unwanted are likely to
borrow heavily from these feelings in creating a
neglected style of life.
- Abused and mistreated children develop little social
interest and tend to create a neglected style of life.
- Neglected children have many of the characteristics of
pampered ones, but generally they are more suspicious
and more likely to be dangerous to others.
- The fact that the child survived infancy is proof that
someone cared for the child and the seed of interest has.
SAFEGUARDING TENDENCIES
- Adler believed that people create patterns of behavior to
protect their exaggerated sense of self-esteem (the
superiority feelings) against public disgrace. (kasi hindi
maaccept ng society yung superiority feelings ng isang tao
kung ipapakita niya ito sa kanila)
- Almost the same with Freud’s Defense Mechanisms but
Safeguarding Tendencies are conscious.
- Same with defense mechanisms, too much use of these can
lead to inauthenticity which makes the final goal less clear
therefore having abnormal development.
- Examples: Excuses - if only… and Yes but…
- If only I am more confident
- If only I was in the right place and the right time
- If only I did this and that
- Yes I agree, but my husband don’t.
Other examples:
 AGGRESSION
- Adler (1956) held that some people use aggression to
safeguard their exaggerated superiority complex, that is,
to protect their fragile self-esteem.
- Depreciation: Tendency to undervalue other people’s
achievements and to overvalue one’s own.
- Accusation: Tendency to blame others for one’s failure.
- Self-accusation: Some people use self-torture,
including masochism, depression, and suicide, as means
of hurting people who are close to them.
- With self-accusation, people devalue themselves in
order to inflict suffering on others while protecting their
own magnified feelings of self-esteem.
- Mga sinasabi ng mga mayayabang.
 WITHDRAWAL
- Personality development can be halted when people
run away from difficulties.
- Moving Backward: Tendency to safeguard one’s
fictional goal of superiority by psychologically reverting
to a more secure period of life (like regression).
- Standing Still: People who stand still simply do not
move in any direction thus, they avoid all responsibility
 by ensuring themselves against any threat of failure. family and what he learns about finding a place in the
(Yung mga “ay hindi, okay na ako dito, kasi baka mag fail world.
ako dun sa isa” moments)
- Hesitating: AKA Procrastination
- Constructing Obstacles: Some people build a straw
house to show that they can knock it down. By
overcoming obstacle, they protect their self-esteem and
their prestige. If they fall to hurdle the barrier, they can
always resort to an excuse.
 MASCULINE PROTEST
- In contrast to Freud, Adler (1930, 1956) believed that
he psychic life of women is essentially the same as that
of men and that a male-dominated society is not natural
but rather an artificial product of historical development.
- According to Adler, cultural and social practices - not
anatomy - influence many men and women to
overemphasize the importance of being manly, a
condition he called the masculine protest.
- Boys: Being masculine means being courageous, strong - Mas favor si Adler sa mga second child kasi ganun din siya

and dominant. Epitome of success for boys is to win, to

be powerful, to be on top.  EARLY RECOLLECTIONS

- Girls: To be passive, and to accept an inferior position - Adler (1929/1969, 1931) insisted that early

in society. recollections are always consistent with people’s

- Alfred Adler like powerful women. present style of life and that their subjective account of
these experiences yields clues to understanding both

APPLICATION PART their final goal and their present style of life.

- Favorite of most students kasi relatable. - It is not about the validity of the memory, but the

 FAMILY CONSTELLATION theme of the memory that will resonate with a person’s

- Although people’s perception of the situation into style of life.

which they were born is more important than the - Adler believed that our personality is consistent and

numerical rank, Adler did form some general the memory we “choose” to remember is something

hypotheses about birth order. that is consistent with our current style of life.

- Refers to birth order of siblings and age spread - Early Memories and Career

between them. - Early Childhood and Health-related Issues

- The number and birth order, as well as the personality - It is a tool for those therapists to know more about the

characteristics of members of a family is important in style of life of their patients.

determining lifestyle.  PSYCHOTHERAPY

- The family and reciprocal relationships with siblings - The chief purpose of Alderian psychotherapy is to

and parents determine how a person finds a place in the enhance courage, lessen feelings of inferiority, and the
 encourage social interest. CARL JUNG
- Through the use of humor and warmth, Adler tried to  His family tree is both religious and most of them are
increase the patient’s courage, self-esteem, and social doctors.
interest.  Lived as an only child for 9 years before his sister was
- Although Adler was quite active in setting the goal and born.
direction of psychotherapy, he maintained a friendly  His father according to him is an idealist with strong
and permissive attitude toward a patient. doubts on his faith while his mother has 2 sides; the
realistic side and the mystical side.
USEFULNESS OF THE THEORY  He said that he has personality 1 (extraverted;
 Generates Research external/objective world) and personality 2 (introverted;
 Organizes data/knowledge subjective world).
 It guides action  So habang lumalaki si Carl Jung, sinabi niya na may
 Internal consistency is a bit clunky dalwa siyang personality:
 Definitions are not precise PERSONALITY 1: Childhood to adulthood. Extraverted.
 Somewhat parsimonious More concerned sa external world.
PERSONALITY 2: Mild adulthood to old age. Introverted.
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY Mas pinipiling pumunta sa sarili niyang subjective world
 People have free-will despite having determined imbis na makihalubilo sa ibang tao.
genes/biology  He was best friends with Freud before, talking for 13
 Teleological, low causality hours straight when they first met. He confessed that it
 Moderate unconscious influence was somehow a religious crush or something.
 Optimistic  Freud believed that Jung will become his successor
 Social Factors (crown prince), but of course he was disappointed. They
 People are unique (subjective perception) broke up and some biographers think that Jung’s
previous experience of sexual assault by a man he once
TRINITY OF PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE worshiped may have a contribution to this break up.
1. Sigmund Freud  Tinawag ni Freud na “Crown Prince of Psychoanalysis”
2. Alfred Adler or taga pagmana ng school of thought na ginawa ni
3. Carl Jung Sigmund Fred. Pero na disappoint siya kasi in the end,
nag break apart si Jung and Freud.
 His mother complex may have affected his relationship
with his wife, Emma Jung then started an external
marital affair with Toni Wolff.
 Swiss Psychoanalyst
 Puno ng duality yung buhay ni Carl Jung, ang sabi niya
ang tatay niya ay very idealistic but at the same time
doubts his religious beliefs. While his mother, ang tingin
niya sa nanay niya ay may dalwang side daw ito, on one
hand very caring, very warm, and very loving. While on
 the other hand, feeling ni Jung may destructive
tendencies yung nanay niya (Kumbaga may dalwang
version yung nanay according kay Jung).
ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY (CARL JUNG)
 Jung believed that each of us is motivated not only by
repressed experiences but also by certain emotionally
toned experiences inherited from our ancestors. These
inherited images make up what Jung called the
collective unconscious.
 The collective unconscious includes those elements that
we have never experienced individually but which have
come down to use from our ancestors.
 The theme of Duality is pervasive in Jung’s Theory.
LEVELS OF PSYCHE
- Katulad ni Freud, naniniwala din si Jung na meron ang isang
tao ng conscious and unconscious part of our personality.
(1) Conscious
(2) Personal Unconscious
(3) Collective Unconscious
1) CONSCIOUS PART OF THE PERSONALITY
- Conscious: According to Jung, conscious images are those
that are sensed by the ego, whereas unconscious elements
have no relationship with the ego.
- Ego: The center of consciousness, but not the core
of personality.
- Ego is not the whole personality, but must be
completed by the more comprehensive self, the
center of personality that is largely unconscious.
- Healthy individuals are in contact with their
conscious world, but they also allow themselves to
experience their unconscious self and thus to
achieve individuation, a concept we discuss in the
section titled self-realization.
- Where the ego resides. But unlike Freud’s ego, Jung’s ego is
not the core of personality, though it is the center of
consciousness.
- According kay Jung, makukumpleto lang daw ang
personality kung mamemerge na ng ego ang kaniyang sarili
sa center ng personality na nasa unconscious.
- Ego pa din ang naka merge sa reality, siya pa din ang
responsible sa communication sa outside world.
- Si ego o ang conscious part ng personality natin ay pwedeng
mag manifest ng iba’t-ibang klase ng personality types,
depende sa attitude at functions na dominant sa isang tao.
PERSONALITY: ATTITUDES AND FUNCTIONS
- Sa theory ni Jung, may general attitude ang tao sa
pageexperience ng mga bagay bagay sa paligid niya.
- Conscious is the way point from the external world papunta
sa ating internal world, so therefore, our consciousness or
our ego must have some communication/connection with
the external world. And usually the external world is full of
information and that information must go to the conscious
part, so kailangan may magpro-process sa mga information
na yon, and ang magpro-process sa kanila ay yung mga
attitudes and functions. And these attitudes and functions
make up the personality type of a person. Kumbaga, sinasabi
yung mga way of thinking ng isang tao. They are the means of
connecting with the outside world.
 ATTITUDES
- A predisposition to act or react in a characteristic direction.
- Introversion: The turning inward of psychic energy
with an orientation toward the subjective.
- Introverts are tuned to their inner world with all its
biases, fantasies, dreams, and individualized
perceptions.
- Extraversion: The attitude distinguished by the
turning outward of psychic energy so that a person
is oriented toward the objective and away from the
subjective.
(1) INTROVERSION
- ATTITUDE: Type characterized by orientation in life through
subjective psychic contents.
- Kapag introverted ang attitude ng isang tao, ang tendency
ay ang psychic flow ay paloob. So more on subjective ang
attitude ng mga introverts. Mas focus sa own interpretations.
- Introverts tend to absorbs information and interpret them
on their own.
- Introverts choose people more carefully than extroverts kasi
they don’t want to waste their energy sa ibang tao kasi kaya
naman nilang sila lang ang gumagawa ng lahat.
(2) EXTRAVERSION
- ATTITUDE: Type characterized by concentration of interest
on the external object.
- Kapag extraverts ang attitude ng isang tao, ang flow ng
psychic energy ay palabas. So more on objective side sila sa
pag eexperience ng reality.
- Extroverts gain energy when they are with other people.
Kumbaga mas nagagamit nila yung psyhic energy nila kapag
nilalabas nila yung energy with other people.
 People are neither completely introverted nor
completely extraverted.
 At some points of our lives, we tend to go one direction
and sometimes, in some parts of our lives we may be
introverted but sometimes extraverted.
 Freud’s theory is extraverted because of too much focus
about the external world of a person while Adler’s
theory is introverted as it focuses on the subjective
perception of a person.
 But personally, Freud is more introverted (focuses on
his own fantasies/desires) while Adler is more
extraverted since he likes to be with people and is
generally welcoming of them.
 Jung’s theory is in the middle. Although some think it is
more introverted.
 Attitudes modifies the functions. So if the attitudes are
the orientation/direction of how we deal with
information, then the functions are all about how we
see and how we judge the information.
EXTRAS
 Adler’s Theory: Subjective reality. Introverted.
 Freud’s Theory: External World. Extroverted.
 Ang mga attitudes na ito ang nagmomodify sa mga
functions na meron ang consciousness.
 Adler’s Libido: General Psychic Energy
 Freud Libido: Sexual Drives
 FUNCTIONS
- The psyche is an apparatus for adaptation and orientation
and consists of a number of different psychic functions. Both
introversion and extraversion can combine with any one or
more of four functions, forming eight possible orientations,
or types.
- Functions is basically how we perceived and see information.
- Function also use information to judge whether that
information is good or bad for us.
- Perception/Non-Rational Functions: Sensing &
Intuiting.
- Judging/Rational Functions: Thinking & Feeling.
(1) PERCEIVING FUNCTION (NON-RATIONAL FUNCTION)
- Perceiving the information in the outside world through
sensing or intuition.
- Sensation: The way of perceiving things using the five
senses in observing the reality.
For example: I see a person standing OR I heard this person
said I look good.
- Intuition: A perception in an unconscious way. (Yung mga
tanong na hinihingi uyng opinyon mo about something you
are about to guess, “Ano sa palagay mo ang mangyayari
bukas?”
Hindi ka necessarily tumitingin sa kung anong nasa harap mo.
Ang way of perceiving things mo ay more on unconscious.
For example: This person will ask a favor from me OR This
person likes me.
 SENSING
- The function that receives physical stimuli and transmits
them to perceptual consciousness. Perception by means of 5
senses.
- Extraverted Sensing: People perceived external
stimuli objectively, in much the same way that these
stimuli exist in reality.
- Proofreader, house painter, wine taster, or any
other job demanding sensory discrimination
congruent with those of most people.
- Introverted Sensing: People are largely influenced
by their subjective sensation of sight, sound, taste,
touch, and so forth. They are guided by their
interpretation of senses stimuli rather than the
stimuli themselves.
- Portrait artists, especially those whose paintings
are extremely personalized, rely on an introverted-
sensing attitude.
 In sensation, we depend on our sense organs in
perceiving the world. In intuition, we rely on our own
hunches/hinala from our unconscious.
 INTUITING/INTUITION
- Involves perception beyond the workings of consciousness.
Intuiting differs from sensing in that it is more creative, often
adding or subtracting elements from conscious sensation.
More unconscious.
- Intuition is perceiving the information through unconscious.
(Example: Mga hinala ng boyfriend/girlfriend mo.)
- Extraverted Intuitive: People are oriented toward
facts in the external world.
- Inventors who must inhibit distracting sensory data
and concentrate on unconscious solutions to
objective problems.
- Introverted Intuitive: People are guided by
unconscious perception of facts that are basically
subjective and have little or no resemblance to
external reality.
- Mystics, prophets, surrealistic artists, religious
fanatics, often appears peculiar to people of other
typed who have little comprehension of their
motives.
(2) IRRATIONAL FUNCTION (JUDGING FUNCTION)
- Ang tao ay may irrational function, which include thinking
and feeling. This includes how we judge information.
- Thinking: It is the logical way of thinking of things, maybe
the processing of information.
For example: I like this guy because he is rich, intelligent and
can provide for the family.
- Feeling: More on valuing the information. Hindi natin
necessarily tinitingnan yung logical step-by-step processing
but we just kinda feel.
For example: I like this guy because I feel a special connection
with him.
 THINKING
- Logical intellectual activity that produces a chain of ideas. A
way of judging things in terms of logical process.
- Extraverted Thinking: People rely heavily on
concrete thoughts, but they may also use abstract
ideas if theses ideas have been transmitted to them
from without, for example, from parents or teachers.
- Mathematicians, accountants and engineers do
this.
- Introverted Thinking: Introverted thinking people
react to external stimuli, but their interpretation of
an event is colored more by the internal meaning
they bring with them than by the objective facts
themselves.
- Inventors and Philosophers and some extent
psychologists do this. Although psychologists can be
argued to row on two rivers at the same time.
 FEELING
- Feeling is the evaluation of every conscious activity, even
those valued as indifferent. This is not emotion but may
involve some. More abstract and fluid than thinking.
- Extraverted Feeling: People use objective data to
make evaluations.
- Business people or politicians because these
professions demand and reward the making of value
judgments based on objective information.
- Introverted Feeling: People base their value
judgments primarily on subjective perceptions
rather than objective facts.
- Critics of the various art forms make much use of
introverted feeling, making value judgments on the
basis of subjective individualized data.
- They ignore traditional opinions and beliefs, and
their nearly complete indifference to the objective
world (including people) often causes persons
around them to feel uncomfortable and to cool their
attitude toward them.
 Combining these four functions (sensation, intuition,
thinking, and feeling) with two attitudes (introvert and
extrovert), will make an 8 Personality Types.
daw kapag napopossess natin yung lahat ng personality
types ayon kay Jung.
 According to Jung, more on extrovert ang mga bata at
habang tumatanda sila, lalo silang nagiging introvert.
HIERARCHY OF FUNCTION
- The four functions usually appear in a hierarchy, with one
occupying a superior position, another a secondary position,
and the other two inferior positions.
- We usually use our dominant functions (For example, mine
is introverted thinking); some develop two and some develop
three.
- Psychologically healthy people use all four of them and are
highly developed.
WHY DO WE HAVE TO DEVELOP ALL FOUR FUNCTIONS?
- We have to develop those four functions because all the
four functions have strengths/advantages and
weaknesses/disadvantages, so we must learn or possess all of
those four functions to cancel all those disadvantages. And if
those disadvantages are all canceled, people will achieve
psychologically healthy personality according to Jung.
JUNGIAN TYPES

PERSONALITY TYPES/FOUR FUNCTIONS

- Personality types are the conscious part of our personality.
Ito yung mga nakikita ng mga tao.
 Introvert Feeling/Extrovert Feeling
 Introvert Thinking/Extrovert Thinking
 Introvert Sensing/Extrovert Sensing
 Introvert Intuiting/Extrovert Intuiting

 According kay Jung, ang mga tao, whether sila ay

introvert o extrovert, ay may isang dominant function
na lagi nilang ginagamit. Yung iba pwede sila makapag
develop ng dalwa o tatlo pero ideally daw, according kay
Jung, dapat madevelop ng isang tao yung apat na
partner type ng personality. Mas psychological healthy
 - Mother Complex: A person’s experiences with
Mother may become grouped around an emotional
core so that the person’s mother, or even the word
“mother.” sparks,” an emotional response that
blocks the smooth flow of thought.
- For example, nakakita ka ng isang nanay and you
have these thoughts about a mother being warm
and caring katulad ng nanay mo which you respect a
lot, so kapag nakakakita ka ng nanay, you respect
them too and that’s your mother complex affecting
 UNCONSCIOUS PART OF THE PERSONALITY
your behaviors.
- Ayon kay Jung, may dalwang part ang unconscious:
- Complexes are largely personal in nature, but they may
Personal Unconscious and Collective Unconscious.
have derived from some humanity’s collective experiences.
- Maybe partly conscious too.
2) PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS
- Ang tawag sa mga namerge na memories, emotions, and
- Embraces all repressed, forgotten, or subliminally perceived
ideas about a particular topic or particular person.
experiences of one particular individual.
- Is an emotionally toned conglomeration of associated ideas.
- Almost the same with Freud’s unconscious.
- Complexes are unique for each person since it came from
- Contents of the personal unconscious are called complexes.
personal experiences.
- Ang personal unconscious ay halos kaparehas sa concept ni
- An emotionally toned conglomeration of ideas that
Freud na kung saan andito yung mga repressed memories,
comprise the contents of the personal unconscious. Jung
emotions, and ideas na particular sa isang tao.
originally used the word association test to uncover
- Contains our repressed memories, emotions and ideas from
complexes.
our own past experiences.
- For example: Mother Complex --- this mother complex or
- Usually yung mga memories, emotions, and ideas sa
yung mga complex na meron tayo is different with the others.
personal unconscious ay nagmemerge sa bawat isa.
For example, yung mga past experiences natin with our
3) COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS
mother katulad ng mga pag-aaruga niya, yung kanyang
- Contains memories and experiences from our ancestors
tender loving care, female word, and protective ay
from the past.
nagmemerge. And as it merge, nagkakaroon tayo ng mga
- In contrast to the personal unconscious, which results from
iba’t-ibang ideas with regards to our experience with our
individual experiences, the collective unconscious has roots
mother. So ang tendency, kapag narinig natin yung word na
in the ancestral part of the entire species.
mother, iba’t-ibang ideas na yung naiisip natin about dun sa
- Distant ancestor’s experiences with universal concepts such
mother.
as God, mother, water, earth, and so forth have been
transmitted through the generations so that people in every
COMPLEX(ES)
clime and time have been influenced by their primitive
- Complex is a core pattern of emotions, memories,
ancestors’ primordial experiences.
perceptions, and wishes in the personal unconscious
- Galing sa experiences ng sangkatauhan (as a whole). So
organized around a common theme, such as power or status.
yung mga experiences ng mga distant ancestors natin with
regards sa concept of God, father, mother, water, earth, etc.
ay napapasa daw generation to generation. And yung
experience na ito, yung mga memories natin about these
kinds of experiences ay nakakaapekto sa mga personality and
behavior natin as a whole.
- The contents of the collective unconscious do not lie
dormant but are active and influence a person’s thoughts,
emotions, and actions.
- The collective unconscious is responsible for people’s many
myths, legends, and religious belief.
- The collective unconscious does not refer to inherited ideas
but rather to human’s innate tendency to react in a particular
way whenever their experiences stimulate a biologically
inherited response tendency. (For example, Mother
Archetype)
- Young Mothers tend to react with love and tenderness to
babies even though technically, the mother do not know the
fetus. This behavior is always repeated throughout the
history of our species, which will become a biological
blueprint in us. This blueprint is present in all of us and can
be activated once we experienced something similar.
- There are a lot of blueprints that resides within us that are
just there, waiting to be activated.
- These blueprints of typical reactions or behaviors can
develop and emerge as relatively autonomous archetypes.
- According to Jung, those specific images of those blueprints
of experiences are called Archetypes.
ARCHETYPES
- Jung’s concept that refers to the contents of the collective
unconscious. Archetypes, also called primordial images or
collective symbols, represent psychic patterns of inherited
behavior and are thus distinguished from instincts, which are
physical impulses toward action. Typical archetypes are the
anima, animus, and shadow.
- These are like the built-in applications in our phones that
we need to activate in order to use them. So those
blueprints/archetypes within the collective unconscious must
be activated in order to use them. HOW DO WE ACTIVATE
THEM? If we experience something that is related to that
particular archetype.
- Archetypes are ancient or archaic images that derive from
the collective unconscious. Almost the same with complexes
but is more general for all of humanity, not just the personal
unconscious.
- Ancient images na nagsisilbing blueprints sa mga
experiences natin na naranasan na noong mga distant
ancestors na nabuhay noong sinaunang panahon pa.
- Unlike complexes na nabubuo as we grow old, ang mga
archetypes is naka built in na sa atin, pero hindi sila naka
activate. Para maging activate yung mga archetypes na iyon,
kailangan muna natin magkaroon ng experiences na related
dun sa mga archetypes na yon.
- For example: Mother Archetype --- kunwari may isang
babae na nanganak and nakita niya yung anak niya.
Technically hindi niya kilala yung bagong silang niyang anak,
pero meron siyang urge na alagaan, bigyang pansin, at
mahalin yung baby na yon. Ayon kay Jung, on that moment
na napanaganak yung baby ay naactivate yung mother
archetype dun sa babaeng yon kahit never pa siyang naging
nanay sa talambuhay niya, mayroon pa din siyang idea na
maging nanay since yung distant ancestors natin ay
nagkaroon na ng experiences bilang isang nanay.
- According kay Jung, marami tayong archetypes since
madaming naging experiences yung mga distant ancestors
natin.
- The archetype itself cannot be directly represented, but
when activated, it expresses itself through several modes,
primarily dreams, fantasies, and delusions.
- Archetypes shows in our myths and legends. Why do you
think people from the ancient times, with no means of
instantaneous communication, almost have the same
concepts of how gods and goddesses will be?
- Archetypes, when activated, has their own autonomous
personality which also affects the personality of a person as a
whole.
- There are some archetypes that are developed enough to
be conceptualized which are the persona, shadow, anima,
animus, great mother, wise old man, hero, and self.
KINDS OF ARCHETYPES
(1) PERSONA(Mask)
- Side of our personality which we let other people see
- The “mask” we wear in public
- If we identify too closely with our persona, we remain
unconscious of our individuality and are blocked from
attaining self-realization.
- To become psychologically healthy, Jung believed, we must
strike a balance between the demands of society and what
we truly are. (WHICH IS FREAKING HARD).
- (Book’s Definition) Jungian archetype that represents the
side of personality that one shows to the rest of the world.
Also, the mask worn by ancient Roman actors in the Greek
theater and thus the root of the word “personality.”
(2) SHADOW (Dark Side)
- Side of personality that we cannot accept and hide from
other people
- The archetype of darkness and repression, represents those
qualities we do not wish to acknowledge but attempt to hide
from ourselves and others.
- This is not necessarily bad, they are just our qualities that
we are reluctant to face.
- Jung contended that, to be whole, we must continually
strive to know our shadow and that this quest is our first test
of courage.
- It is easier to project the dark side of our personality onto
others, to see in them the ugliness and evil we refuse to see
in ourselves.
- People who burn too bright casts the darkest shadows.
- (Book’s Definition) Jungian archetype representing the
inferior or dark side of personality.
- One of the most important step in self-realization is to
confront your shadow.
- If a person don’t want to confront their shadows then lalaki
si persona, and kapag lumaki si persona, that person won’t
be aware of their unconscious, and if hindi siya aware sa
unconscious niya, therefore hindi siya magiging
psychologically healthy.
(3) ANIMUS
- Masculine side of women. Whereas the anima represents
irrational moods and feelings, the animus is symbolic of
thinking and reasoning.
- Jung believed that the animus is responsible for thinking
and opinion in women just as the anima produces feelings
and moods in men.
- This is quite controversial now due to the rise of feminism.
- (Book’s Definition) Jungian archetype that represents the
masculine component in the personality of females and
originates from women’s inherited experiences with men.
(4) ANIMA
- The feminine side of men
- Few men become well acquainted with their anima because
this task requires great courage and is even more difficult
than becoming acquainted with their shadow.
- Jung believed that the anima originated from early men’s
experiences with women --- mothers, sisters, and lovers ---
that combined to form a generalized picture of woman.
- (Book’s Definition) Jungian archetype that represents the
feminine component in the personality of males and
originates from men’s inherited experiences with women.
(5) WISE OLF MAN (Wisdom)
- Derivative of the animus, archetype of wisdom and
meaning, symbolizes humans’ preexisting knowledge of the
mysteries of life.
- Gandalf, Dumbledore, Master Roshi, Obi Wan Kenobi and
other figures of history and mythology with long white
beards.
- It represents the wisdom of people living in this world
- (Book’s Definition) Jungian archetype of wisdom and
meaning.
(6) GREAT MOTHER
- It represents fertility and destruction
- Derivative of anima (kumbaga mas greater sa anima), this is
present among men and women.
- Represents two opposing forces --- fertility and
nourishment on the one hand and power and destruction on
the other hand. She is capable of producing and sustaining
life (fertility and nourishment), but she may also devour or
neglect her offspring (destruction).
- May have been conceptualized due to Jung’s own
experience with his mother.
- The concept of Mother Nature, Mother Earth, Mother of
God is in line with this archetype.
- (Book’s Definition) Jungian archetype of the opposing
forces of fertility and destruction
(7) HERO
- The journey of the hero represents our journey of self-
discovery and self-realization
- Archetype that is represented in mythology and legends as
a powerful person, sometimes part god, who fights against
great odds to conquer or vanquish evil in the form of dragons,
monsters, serpents, or demons.
- In the end, however, the hero often is undone by some
seemingly insignificant person or event (Achilles, Samson).
- The image of the hero touches an archetype within us, as
demonstrated by our fascination with the heroes of movies,
novels, plays, and television programs.
- In conquering the villain, the hero is symbolically
overcoming the darkness of prehuman unconsciousness.
- (Book’s Definition) A Jungian archetype representing the
myth of the godlike man who conquers or vanquishes evil,
usually in the form of a monster, dragon, or serpent.
- We all have this kind of archetype, kasi for example, idol
natin si wonder woman o iron man kasi we somehow want to
be like them, a hero.
 These archetypes are activated throughout our life and
the goal is to unify all the archetypes to achieve
INDIVIDUATION (self-realization).
INDIVIDUATION (self-realization).
 Sa prosesong ito, ina acknowledge ng tao yung mga
naging past experiences niya, kung bakit naging ganun
yung ugali niya and at the same time, naglolook forward
siya in developing his personality along having a goal to
be unified with oneself. Dito din binabalanse ng tao
yung pagdedepende niya sa conscious at sa unconscious.
 Ayon kay Jung, masyado daw tayong naka side sa
conscious part natin eh masyado tayong boring kasi
walang sole spark galing sa unconscious. Ang
unconscious kasi yung nagbibigay ng creativity or
novelty sa personality natin. Meanwhile, kung masyado
naman tayong magsiside sa unconscious side natin ay
magiging masyadong chaotic yung buhay natin, so kung
chaotic ang buhay natin, may tendency na magkaroon
ng psychopathological personality.
 Sa individuation, dito narerecoignize ng tao ang
kaniyang duality or ang two sides ng kaniyang
personality. Dito natin pinag memerge ang persona at
shadow, ang animus at anima. Dito din natin
pinagmemerge yung thinking side at feeling side, ang
ating intuition and yung ating sensation, and of course,
yung pagiging extroverted and introverted natin.
 Kapag nabalanse na natin ang duality ng personality
natin, doon natin malilive ang life natin to the fullest.
 Kapag na unify na lahat ng archetypes, mabubuo yung
tinatawag ni Jung na archetype of all archetype o yung
SELF.
(8) THE SELF
- Kapag nagkaroon na ng unification ang mga archetypes ay
sign na ito ng magandang mental health. Kaso ayon kay Jung,
konti lang daw ang nakaka achieve ng individuation.
- The self is the archetype of archetypes because it pulls
together the other archetypes and unites them in the process
of self-realization.
- Jung believed that each person possess an inherited
tendency to move toward growth, perfection,
completion.
- Represented as mandala
- Mandala: The ultimate symbol of the self.
- The goal is to unite all the archetype and find balance.
- Archetype must become conscious, while maintaining its
presence in personal unconscious and collective unconscious.
- The ideal personality is both conscious and unconscious.
- If a person is too conscious, that person lacks the soul spark,
in short boring.
- If a person is too much controlled by the unconscious, that
person is pathological.
- (Book’s Definition) The most comprehensive of all
archetypes, the self includes the whole of personality,
although it is mostly unconscious. The self is often
symbolized by the mandala motif.
 Archetypes is both conscious and unconscious, and
those archetypes must work together/must be merge
together in order for us to become a healthy person.
 We all have dominant archetypes, and those dominant
archetypes are the sources of our complexes and our
personality types.
DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY
 CAUSALITY AND TELEOLOGY
- Jung believed that our behaviors are influenced by both our
past experiences and future goals. Balance is the theme of
and Jung’s theory.
- Freud is causality, Adler is Teleology and then Jung said,
“Why not both?”
 PROGRESSION
- Adaptation to the outside world involves the forward flow
of psychic energy. (Papuntang future ang psychic energy, pa
forward kumbaga)
- Progression inclines a person to react consistently to a given
set of environmental conditions.
- We usually progress from the moment we were born, from
being unconscious to becoming more conscious about our
external world as we grow old.
- Progression peaks at midlife and from there on, people
usually regress.
- In progression, dapat daw narerealize na ng isang tao kung
anong klaseng attitudes and functions ang meron siya.
 REGRESSION
- Adaptation to the inner world relies on a backward flow of
psychic energy.
- At midlife, people usually turn their attention inwards,
exploring their own unconscious therefore regressing
towards what is inside their psyche.
- At this point, we confront our complexes and archetype and
start aiming for self-realization or the unity of self.
- Sa regression naman, dito na magdidig deep sa unconscious
part natin.
DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
1) CHILDHOOD
- Jung divided childhood into three sub-stages: (1) the
anarchic, (2) the monarchic, and (3) the dualistic.
(1) The Anarchic Phase is characterized by chaotic and
sporadic consciousness.
 (2) The Monarchic Phase of childhood is characterized by
the development of the ego and by the beginning of logical
and verbal thinking.
- Third person reference of the self.
(3) The Ego as perceiver arises during the Dualistic Phase
of childhood when the ego is divided into the objective and
subjective.
- Pa expand ang consciousness.
2) YOUTH
- The period from puberty until middle life is called youth.
Young people strive to gain psychic and physical
independence from their parents, find a mate, raise a family,
and make a place in the world.
- According to Jung (1931/1960s), the youth is, or should be,
a period of increased activity, maturing sexuality, growing
consciousness, and recognition that the problem-free era of
childhood is gone forever. (and now life is suffering)
- Pa expand din ang consciousness katulad ng sa childhood.
3) MIDDLE AGE
- Dito na nagsisimula ang regression
- Jung believed that middle life begins at approximately age
35 or 40, by which time the sun has passed its zenith and
begins its downward descent.
- If middle-aged people retain the social and moral values of
their early life, they become rigid and fanatical in trying to
hold on to their physical attractiveness and agility.
- People who have lived youth by neither childish nor middle-
aged values are well prepared to advance to middle life and
to live fully during that stage.
- This step often, but not always, involves a mature religious
orientation, especially a belief in some sort of life after death.
- Kung ang lahat ng regrets mo sa buhay ay napunta sa
unconscious, haharapin at haharapin mo sila ulit. So kung
hindi mo siya hinarap noong una pa lang, noong nasa
conscious pa lang yung mga regrets mo, it will haunt you
forever. All those regrets in unconscious will always haunt
you.
- Pa shrink ang consciousness, kumbaga papunta na sa
unconsciousness. And sa unconscious, dito na icoconfront
yung mga complexes, regrets sa buhay, archetypes at yung
mga repress emotions natin sa buhay.
- If the middle-aged adults is still not accepting the fact that
they’re middle aged already, then they will cling to their
youth and will not move on. So the tendency, they will try to
hold on to their once physical attractiveness and agility by
exercising and taking lots of vitamins.
- Sa middle age din nagsisimula maging more religious ang
isang tao.
- The healthiest to do for the middle age is to accept the fact
that their consciousness are shrinking kasi dapat paloob
naman, more on unconscious na dapat. And they must learn
how to support not control the next generation.
4) OLD AGE
- As the evening of life approaches, people experiences a
diminution of consciousness just as the light and warmth of
the sun diminish at dusk.
- If people fear life during the early years, then they will
almost certainly fear death during the later ones.
- Fear of death is often taken as normal, but Jung believed
that death is the goal of life and that life can be fulfilling only
when death is seen in this light.
- Those people who have peace tend to let go their life
peacefully without regrets, but those people who are full of
regrets tend to have hard time letting go of their life because
they want to correct those regrets, that’s why they tend to
live longer than those who have peace.
- In old age, this is also the time where we merge everything,
from conscious to unconscious, personal unconscious and
collective unconscious, and complexes and archetypes. And
upon doing this, we are actually being psychologically rebirth
or self-realization.
SELF-REALIZATION
- Psychological rebirth, also called self-realization or
individuation, is the process of becoming an individual or
whole person.
- Self-realization is extremely rare and is achieved only by
people who are able to assimilate their unconscious into their
total personality.
- When we are born, we are more focus on our conscious,
and then as we grow old we explore our unconscious. And if
we are successful in merging the archetypes within us, and
also the complexes, and the personality types that we have,
we can say that we are becoming more whole as a person.
(kumbaga mas nabubuo tayo bilang isang tao)
JUNG’S METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
- He basically scoured every humanities field (sociology,
anthropology, philosophy, mythology, religion and also
biology) in studying human personality since he believed that
if we want to know more about humans, psychology is just
one side, we have to know the whole.
 In order to know more the complexes of a person, Jung
employed the test called Word Association Test.
 WORD ASSOCIATION
- Word Association Test: In which Jung will say a word and
the patient will say a word that he/she thinks after hearing
it….
- The basic purpose of the test in Jungian psychology today is
to uncover feeling toned complexes.
- Jung recorded each verbal response, time taken to make a
response, rate of breathing, and galvanic skin response.
- Usually, he would repeat the experiment to determine test-
retest consistency.
 DREAM ANALYSIS
- Jung objected to Freud’s notion that nearly all dreams are
wish fulfillment and that most dream symbols represent
sexual urges.
- Jung (1964) believed that people used symbols to represent
a variety of concepts --- not merely sexual ones --- to try to
comprehend the “innumerable things beyond the range of
human understanding”
- The purpose of Jungian dream interpretations is to uncover
elements from the personal and collective unconscious and
to integrate them into consciousness in order to facilitate the
process of self-realization.
 ACTIVE IMAGINATION
- His method requires a person to begin with any impression -
--- a dream image, vision, picture, or fantasy --- and to
concentrate until the impression begins to “move.”
- The purpose of active imagination is to reveal archetypal
images emerging from the unconscious.
- As a variation to active imagination, Jung sometimes asked
patients who were so inclined to draw, paint, or express in
some other nonverbal manner the progression of their
fantasies.
JUNG’S PSYCHOTHERAPY
- Psychotherapy: Jung (1931/1945) identified four basic
approaches to therapy, representing four developmental
stages in the history of psychotherapy.
1. The first is confession of a pathogenic secret. For patients
who merely have a need to share their secrets, catharsis is
effective.
- Catharsis: The process of removing or lessening
psychological disorders by talking about one’s problems.
2. The second stage involves interpretation, explanation,
and elucidation.
- Gives the patients insight into the causes of their neuroses,
but may still leave them incapable of solving social problems.
3. The third stage is the approach adopted by Adler and
includes the education of patients as social beings.
- Unfortunately, says Jung, this approach often leaves
patients merely socially well adjusted.
4. Fourth Stage - Transformation
- Only after transformation and an established philosophy of
life is the therapist able to help patients move toward
individuation, wholeness, or self-realization.
- Jung was quite eclectic in his theory and practice
psychotherapy.
CRITIQUE OF JUNG
- Falsifiability is questionable, common with psychodynamic
theories.
- Generated some research (For example: MBTI)
- Organized Data
- Practically is a bit low? Maybe because most people do not
fully grasp Jung’s theory (hindi siya nagagamit ng lahat)
- Internal consistency and parsimony is a bit low (because the
theory is complex, it is not enough to simplify it in a straight
line since Jung’s theory is a web of connections about
humanity.
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
- Always in the middle ground. (Between conscious and
unconscious; between causality and teleology; between free-
will and determination)
- Although in biology vs social factors, he is leaning more on
biology
OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY (MELANIE KLEIN)
 Object relations refer to the objects which is objects of
the drives.
 Klein insisted that the infant’s drives (hunger, sex, and
so forth) are directed to an object --- a breast, a penis, a
vagina, and so on. (bawat drives ay may object para
marelieve yung tensions nila para mak achieve ng
pleasure)
 According to Klein, the child’s relation to the breast is
fundamental and serves as a prototype for alter
relations to whole objects, such as mother and father.
(According to Klein, ang pinaka first object ng isang
infant ay breast ng kaniyang nanay)
 Thus, Klein’s ideas tend to shift the focus of
psychoanalytic theory from organically based stages of
development to the role of early fantasy in the
formation of interpersonal relationships (social
associations, connections, or affiliations between two or
more people).
MELANIE KLEIN
 Claimed that her theories are quite Freudian but Freud
himself do not acknowledge her.
 Her daughter, Melitta, was also a psychoanalyst and was
hostile to her.
 She focused on analyzing children as opposed to
Freudian tradition of analyzing adults.
 Her rival was Anna Freud.
BASIC PREMISE AND ASSUMPTIONS
- Object relations theory places less emphasis on biologically
based drives and more importance on consistent patterns of
interpersonal relationships.
- As opposed to Freud’s rather paternalistic theory that
emphasizes the power and control of the father, object
relations theory tends to be more maternal, stressing the
intimacy and nurturing of the mother.
- Object relations theorists generally see human contact and
relatedness --- not sexual pleasure --- as the prime motive of
human behavior.
- Although different drives may seem to have separate aims,
their underlying aim is always the same - to reduce tension:
that is, to achieve pleasure.
- The object of the drive is any person, any part of a
person, or thing through which the aim is satisfied.
- Klein and other object relations theorists begin with this
basic assumptions of Freud and then speculate on how the
infant’s real or fantasized early relations with the mother or
the breast become a model for all later interpersonal
relationships.
- An important portion of any relationship is the internal
psychic representation of early significant objects, such as
the mother’s breast or the father’s penis, that have been
introjected or taken into the infant’s psychic structure, and
then projected onto one’s partner.
- In Klein’s theory, nakadepende yung future relationship ng
isang mother and child sa good and bad breast.
PSYCHIC LIFE OF AN INFANT
- Whereas Freud emphasized the first few years of life, Klein
stressed the importance of the first 4 or 6 months.
- Infants do not begin life with a blank slate but with an
inherited predisposition to reduce the anxiety they
experience as a result of the life instinct and the power of
the death instinct. (this means that children knows what
they’re doing, because they emotionally remember things. So
hindi daw totoo yung “ay okay lang yan, bata lang yan, di niya
pa alam ginagawa niya)
(1) PHANTASIES
- They are psychic representations of unconscious id instincts;
they should not be confused with the conscious fantasies of
older children and adults.
- She simply meant that they possess unconscious images of
“good” and “bad.”
- For example, a full stomach is good; an empty stomach is
bad. (Walang pakialam yung mga baby sa mother, sa breast
lang sila naka focus. At kung nabubusog lagi sila sa breast
then it’s a good breast, if not naman, then it’s a bad breast)
- Klein would say that infants who fall asleep while sucking
their fingers are phantasizing about having their mother’s
good breast inside themselves. (life instinct)
- Hungry infants who cry an kick their legs are phantasizing
that they are kicking or destroying the bad breast. (death
instinct)
(2) OBJECTS
- Drives forces us to do something to relieve tension. Usually
to relieve tension, we need an object to achieve that.
- The hunger drive has the good breast as its object, the sex
drive has a sexual organ as its object, and so on.
- The earliest object relations are with the mother’s breast,
but “very soon interest develops in the face and in the
hands which attend to his needs and gratify them.”
(hanggang sa maging whole na ang isang mother)
POSITIONS (Developmental Stages)
- In their attempt to deal with this dichotomy of good and
bad feelings (life instinct and death instinct), infants organize
their experiences into positions, or ways of dealing with both
internal and external objects. (When a baby is born, may
dalwa silang positions)
(1) Paranoid-schizoid Position: A way of organizing
experiences that includes both paranoid feelings of being
persecuted and a splitting of internal and external objects
into the good and the bad. (3-4 months old)
- Paranoid ang isang bata kasi nga mayroon silang life and
death instinct, and ayaw ng bata na mafeel yung death
instinct. And dahil ayaw niyang maramdaman yon internally
(aggressive tendencies) and externally (yung breast ay hindi
ibinibigay yung gusto ng baby), para hindi siya maapektuhan
ng bad breast, ang gagawin ng baby ay isplit niya yung breast
into good breast and bad breast. So yung good breast ay
introject niya (it means iaabsorb nung bata sa loob niya yung
good breast) and then yung bad breast ay iproproject niya. So
kapag ginawa niya to, mawawala na yung death instincts sa
baby.
(2) Depressive Position: The feelings of anxiety over losing a
loved object coupled with a sense of guilt for wanting to
destroy that object. (5 months old)
- Dito marerealize ng isang bata na ayaw niyang mawala ang
isang object, takot siyang maiwan ng isang object, and yung
object dito ay not only yung breast pero yung mother na din,
so parang nadedepress yung isang baby kapag naiiwan sila o
nawawala ang isang object nila.
(1) PARANOID-SCHIZOID POSITION
- The infant desires to control the breast by devouring and
harboring it. At the same time, the infant’s innate
destructive urges create fantasies of damaging the breast by
biting, tearing, or annihilating it.
- In order to tolerate both these feelings toward the same
object at the same time, the ego splits itself, retaining parts
of its life and death instincts while deflecting parts of both
instincts onto the breast.
- Now, rather than fearing its own death instinct, the
infant fears the persecutory breast. But the infant
also has a relationship with the ideal breast, which
provides love, comfort, and gratification.
- This preverbal splitting of the world into good and bad
serves as a prototype (model) for the subsequent
development of ambivalent feelings toward a single person.
- According kay Klein, a person who only see the world as
black and white (basically good and bad) ay hindi daw sila
naka move on sa paranoid-schizoid position nila. So they
have these tendencies to be perfectionist or narrow-minded.
(2) DEPRESSIVE POSITION
- The infant develops a more realistic picture of the mother
and recognizes that she is an independent person who can be
both good and bad.
- The ego is beginning to mature to this point at which it can
tolerate some of its own destructive feelings rather than
projecting them outward.
- The infant also realizes that the mother might go away and
be lost forever. Fearing the possible lost of the mother, the
infant desires to protect her and keep her from the dangers
of its own destructive forces, those cannibalistic impulses
that had previously been projected onto her.
- But the infant’s ego is mature enough to realize that it lacks
the capacity to protect the mother, and thus the infant
experiences guilt for its previous destructive urges toward
the mother.
- The depressive position is resolved when children fantasize
that they have made reparation for their previous
transgression and when they recognize that their mother
will not go away permanently but will return after each
departure.
- They are able not only to experience love from their mother,
but also to display their own love for her. (Yung love ng
mother na binigay sa isang baby ay magrereflect in the near
future)
- An incomplete resolution of the depressive position can
result in lack of trust, morbid mourning at the loss of a loved
one, and a variety of other psychic disorders. (Kapag
narealize ng bata na hindi na babalik o hindi niya siya
pinapansin ng kaniyang magulang ay magkakaroon siy ng lack
of trust and some psychic disorders, and dala dala niya yon
hanggang sa pagtanda.)
PSYCHIC DEFENSE MECHANISM
- From very early infancy, children adopt several psychic
defense mechanisms to protect their ego against the anxiety
aroused by their own destructive fantasies. (Children use
defense mechanism to protect themselves from their own
death instincts)
(1) Introjection: Infants fantasize taking into their body those
perceptions and experiences that they have had with the
external object, originally the mother’s breast. (For example,
dahil good ang breast, iaabsorb yun ng bata)
(2) Projection: The fantasy that one’s own feelings and
impulses actually reside in another person and not within
one’s body. (For example, dahil may death instinct ang isang
bata, iproproject niya yung mga death instincts sa bad breast)
(3) Splitting: Infants can only manage the good and bad
aspects of themselves and of external objects by splitting
them, that is, by keeping apart incompatible impulses. (By
splitting the breast, children can hold two incompatible
beliefs --- the good and bad breast)
(4) Projective Identification: Psychic defense mechanism in
which infants split off unacceptable parts of themselves,
project them into another object, and finally introject them
back into themselves in a changed or distorted form.
- Combination of Projection and introjection. Project the bad
impulse to another person who the infant think is good, then
introject that impulse again to the infant’s own psyche in a
purer form as purified by the other person. (kumbaga parang
pinahugas niya lang sa ibang tao yung bad impulse nila then
kinuha ulit after mahugasan/malinis)
INTERNALIZATIONS
- The person takes in (introjects) aspects of the external
world and then organizes those introjections into a
psychologically meaningful framework.
(1) Ego: Klein (1959) believed that although the ego is mostly
unorganized at birth, it nevertheless is strong enough to feel
anxiety, to use defense mechanisms, and to form early object
relations in both phantasy and reality.
(2) Superego: Emerges earlier than Freud assumed, not an
outgrowth of Oedipal Complex, it is more harsh and cruel.
(3) Oedipus Complex:
- Female Oedipal Development
- Male Oedipal Development
(1) EGO
- Ego determines whether a breast is good or bad.
- The ego begins to evolve with the infant’s first experience
with feeding, when the good breast fills the infant not only
with milk but with love and security.
- Klein assumed that infants innately strive for integration,
but at the same time, they are forced to deal with the
opposing forces of life and death, as reflected in their
experiences with the good breast and the bad breast.
- As infants mature, their perceptions become more realistic,
they no longer see the world in terms of partial objects, and
their egos become more integrated.
(2) SUPEREGO
- Early superego produces Terror.
- To Klein, young children fear being devoured, cut up, and
torn into pieces --- fears that are greatly out of proportion to
any realistic dangers.
- Klein rejected Freud’s notion that the superego is a
consequence of the Oedipus Complex. Instead, she insisted
that it grows along with the Oedipus Complex and finally
emerges as realistic guilt after the Oedipus complex is
resolved. (Mas harsh daw ang superego sa una pero dahil sa
Oedipus Complex, mag totone down siya)
(3) OEDIPUS COMPLEX
- Klein believed that Oedipal Complex starts at earliest
months of the infants and climaxes during the genital stage
(3-4 years old).
- Superego grows with Oedipus Complex.
- She hypothesized that during its early stages, the Oedipus
Complex serves the same need for both genders, that is, to
establish a positive attitude with the good or gratifying
object (breast or penis) and to avoid the bad or terrifying
object (breast or penis).
- For both girls and boys, a healthy resolution of the Oedipus
Complex depends on their ability to allow their mother and
father to come together and to have sexual intercourse with
each other. No remnant of rivalry remains. Children’s
positive feelings toward both parents later serve to enhance
their adult sexual relations (Ito yung point/end goal ng
Oedipus Complex sa theory ni Klein, ang magkaroon ang bata
ng positive feelings towards the both parents).
 FEMALE OEDIPUS COMPLEX
- The female child fantasizes about her father’s penis as the
giver of gifts (a baby) to her mother and will develop a good
relationship with it. If it goes smoothly, the child will have a
good relationship with both parents.
- In a less favorable development, the female child will see
her mother as a rival with the penis and will try to rob the
penis from the mother. She will then project this impulse to
her mother and then fear that her mother will retaliate by
injuring her or stealing the child’s babies. (Ang ending
magkakaroon ng bad relationship)
 MALE OEDIPUS COMPLEX
- After some time, the boy’s oral desires from his mother’s
breast will be shifted to his father’s penis.
- This is called feminine position wherein the male child
adopts a passive homosexual relationship with the father.
- Next, he moves to a heterosexual relationship with his
mother, but because of his previous homosexual feeling for
his father, he has no fear that his father will castrate him.
- The boy must have a good feeling about his father’s penis
before he can value his own.
- As the boy matures, however, he develops oral-sadistic
impulses toward his father and wants to bite off his penis and
to murder him.
- These feelings arouse castration anxiety and the fear that
his father will retaliate against him by biting off his penis
which will convince him not to have sexual intercourse with
her mother because it will be dangerous.
- The boy’s Oedipus Complex is resolved only partially by his
castration anxiety. A more important factor is his ability to
establish positive relationships with both parents at the same
time. At that point, the boy sees his parents as whole
objects, a condition that enables him to work through his
depressive position.
 All the paranoid-schizoid position, the splitting, the
depressive position, the introjection, the projection, etc.,
they all happen at the same time.
 So kapag kapanganak ng bata ay may drive na agad siya,
and those drives ay nagcocompete, so therefore
mapipilitan ang bata na magkaroon ng paranoid-
schizoid position wherein ginagawa niya yung plitting ng
breast: Introject niya yung good breast and project niya
yung bad breast. And then eventually marerealize ng
bata na ambivalent ang mundo, may mga good and bad.
So magkakaroon siya ngayong ng depressive position,
magkakaroon siya ng thinking na baka iwan siya ng
kaniyang mga magulang kasi nga narealize niya na
independent yung mga magulang na pwede silang
maging good and bad. And then the Oedipus Complex
will rise there. And after Oedipus Complex, dun na
makokompleto yung personality development ng isang
bata. So ang point dito, if something went wrong with
the relationship between a child and the breast and
eventually with the mother and father, magkakaroon ng
problem personality nung bata.
 Our relationship with our objects will determine our
personality. If nagkaroon ka ng bad relationship with the
breast then when you grow up magkakaroon ka ng
abnormal/somehow bad personality. And if naman
nagkaroon ka ng good relationship with breast then
magkakaroon ka ng good personality.
LATER THEORIES IN OBJECT RELATIONS
1) MARGARET MAHLER
- To Mahler, an individual’s psychological birth (means that
the child becomes an individual separate from his primary
caregiver) begins during the first weeks of postnatal life and
continues for the next 3 years or so.
- By psychological birth, Mahler meant that the child
becomes an individual separate from his or her primary
caregiver, an accomplishment that leads ultimately to a sense
of identity.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
(1) First Stage - Normal Autism (0-4 weeks old)
- A newborn infant satisfies various needs within the all-
powerful protective orbit of a mother’s care.
- Neonates have a sense of omnipotence, because, like
unhatched birds, their needs are cared for automatically and
without their having to expend any effort. (Ang tingin ng mga
bata sa kanilang sarili ay very powerful kasi isang iyak lang ay
andyan na agad yung caregivers niya para ibigay yung gusto
niya)
- Kumbaga lahat ng kailangan ng bata ay nasa mother and
dapat binibigay ito lahat.
- She referred to normal autism as an “objectless” stage, a
time when an infant naturally searches for the mother’s
breast. (kumbaga hindi pa nakikita ng bata yung breast as an
object, parang nakikita niya ito as part of them)
(2) Second Stage - Normal Symbiosis (4-5 weeks old)
- During this time, “the infant behaves and functions as
though he and his mother were an omnipotent system --- a
dual unity within one common boundary” (Mahler, 1967, p.
741) [So kumbaga, dito sa stage na ito narerealize ng bata na
may another being pa na tumutulong sa kaniya which is yung
mother niya]
- By this age, the infant can recognize the mother’s face and
can perceive her pleasure or distress.
- However, object relations have not yet begun --- mother
and others are still “preobjects.” (kumbaga may something
na kumukonek sa mother and sa bata)
(3) Third Stage - Separation-Individuation (5-36 months old)
- Children become psychologically separated from their
mothers, achieve a sense of individuation, and begin to
develop feelings of personal identity.
- Young children in the separation-individuation stage
experience the external world as being more dangerous than
it was during the first two stages.
- Dito na nawawala yung sense of power ng bata kasi
narerealize niya na that the world is dangerous.
- Overlapping Four Sub-stages.
SUBSTAGES OF SEPARATION-INDIVIDUATION
1. Differentiation (5-10 months) - marked by a bodily
breaking away from the mother-infant symbiotic orbit. (Sa
una kasi parang connected lang ang bata and yung mother
pero dito ay binibigyan na ng mother ng independence yung
kaniyang baby)
2. Practicing (7-16 months) - children easily distinguish their
body from their mother’s, establish a specific bind with their
mother, and begin to develop an autonomous ego. (Dito na
marerealize ng bata na separate siya sa nanay, and dito na
nagsisimulang maglakad yung bata)
3. Rapprochement (16-25 months) - they desire to bring
their mother and themselves back together, both physically
and psychologically. (Dito bumabalik yung bata sa mother
kasi gusto niya ulit maranasan yung omnipotence)
4. Libidinal Object Constancy - during this time, children
must develop a constant inner representation of their
mother so that they can tolerate being physically separate
from her. (Ang solution ng bata sa rapprochment ay gumawa
ng inner representation ng kaniyang nanay para lagi niyang
maisip na hindi mawawala ang kaniyang nanay at lagi ang
itong andyan)
 Any errors made during the first 3 years - The time of
psychological birth --- may result in later regressions to
a stage when a person had not yet achieved separation
from the mother and thus a sense of personal identity.
2) HEINZ KOHUT
- Kohut emphasized the process by which the self evolves
from a vague and undifferentiated image to a clear and
precise sense of individual identity.
- Para kay Kohut, ang self ay naguumpisa na vague and
walang identity. Eventually magkakaroon ng identity yung
bata with the help of the parents.
- Infants require adult caregivers not only to gratify physical
needs but also to satisfy basic psychological needs.
- In caring for both physical and psychological needs, adults,
or selfobjects, treat infants as if they had a sense of self.
- Sinabi ni Kohut na para magkaroon ng sense of identity ang
isang bata, dapat itreat mo siya as having a sense of identity
na agad.
- The self gives unity and consistency to one’s experiences,
remains relatively stable over time, and is “the center of
initiative (meaning you know what you will be doing) and a
recipient of impressions (meaning you can feel what others
are doing to you).”
- The self is also the child’s focus of interpersonal relations,
shaping how he or she will relate to parents and other
selfobjects. (So kung wala kang self, anong ikokonek mo sa
iba kung wala kang ikokonek na self?)
- Infants are self-centered, looking out exclusively for their
own welfare and wishing to be admired for who they are and
what they do. They have two narcissistic needs: (1) the need
to exhibit the grandiose self and (2) the need to acquire an
idealized image of one of both parents.
NARCISSISTIC NEEDS (Psychological Needs)
- The grandiose-exhibitionistic self is established when the
infant relates to a “mirroring” selfobject who reflects
approval of its behavior. (Ito yung times na ginagaya na ng
mga bata yung matatanda kasi feeling nila yung mga
matatanda ang magbibigay sa kanila ng approval sa self and
identity nila. So kapag nagpapasikat ang isang bata tapos
hindi mo siya pinapansin, ang tendency bababa yung self-
esteem niya. Pero kung binibigyan mo siya ng too much
attention/praise tuwing magpapasikat siya, then
madedevelop yung narcissistic personality sa bata) (If you see
me as perfect then I am perfect)
- The idealized parent image is opposed to the grandiose self
because it implies that someone is perfect. (Kumbaga
nagkakaroon ng idealized imaga yung bata sa parents nila, so
kung perfect yung parents nila then perfect din sila) (You are
perfect, but I’m a part of you, so therefore I am also perfect)
- Both narcissistic self-images are necessary for healthy
personality development. Both, however, must change as the
child grows older. If they remain unaltered, they result in a
pathologically narcissistic adult personality. (So dapat laging
balance lang lagi)
3) JOHN BOWLBY’S ATTACHMENT THEORY
- Bowlby firmly believed that the attachments formed during
childhood have an important impact on adulthood. Because
childhood attachments are crucial to later development.
Bowlby argued that investigators should study childhood
directly and not rely on distorted retrospective accounts from
adults.
THREE STAGES OF SEPARATION ANXIETY
1. Protest - When their caregiver is first out of sight, infants
will cry, resist soothing by other people, and search for their
caregiver.
2. Despair - As separation continues, infants become quiet,
sad, passive, listless, and apathetic.
3. Detachment - During this stage, infants become
emotionally detached from other people, including their
caregiver.
ASSUMPTIONS OF ATTACHMENT THEORY
 First, a responsive and accessible caregiver (usually the
mother) must create a secure base for the child. The
infant needs to know that the caregiver is accessible and
dependable. If this dependability is present, the child is
better able to develop confidence and security in
exploring the world.
 A second assumption of attachment theory is that a
bonding relationship (or lack thereof) becomes
internalized and serves as a mental working model on
which future friendships and love relationship are built.
 (Kung anong naging relationship mo with your mother,
yung din ang magiging relationship mo with others -
good or bad)
4) MARY AINSWORTH
- The Strange Situation
- Secure Attachment: when their mother returns, infants are
happy and enthusiastic and initiate contact; for example,
they will go over to their mother and want to be held.
- Anxious-Resistant Attachment: infants are ambivalent.
When their mother leaves the room, they become unusually
upset, and when their mother returns, they seek contact with
her but reject attempts at being soothed.
- Anxious-Avoidant Attachment: with this style, infants stay
calm when their mother leaves; they accept the stranger, and
when their mother returns, they ignore and avoid her.
 Kung ano mang attachment ang nabuo between a child
and a mother ay magrereflect yun sa future relationship
ng bata with others.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
- Klein insisted that negative transference was an essential
step toward successful treatment.
- Children are her main clients. To foster negative
transference, she used Play Therapy as substitute to dream
analysis and free-association.
PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY (KAREN HORNEY)
 The psychoanalytic social theory of Karen Horney
(pronounced Horn-eye) was built on the assumption
that social and cultural conditions, especially childhood
experiences, are largely responsible for shaping
personality.
 People who do not have their needs for love and
affection satisfied during childhood develop basic
hostility toward their parents and, as a consequence,
suffer from basic anxiety.
- Kapag nakulangan ka sa aruga ng magulang mo, may
tendency na magiging galit ka sa mundo and you’ll also
experience basic anxiety. And dahil galit ka sa mundo,
kailangan mong mag adjust. Pero dahil hindi ka
nagkaroon ng wide variety when it comes to dealing
with anxiety, edi gagamitin mo lang yung isang neurotic
trend na feeling mo ay pinaka effective, and dahil sa
patuloy mong pag gamit ng trend na yon ay
magkakaroon ka ng idealized self-image, then eventually
self-hatred kapag di mo naachieve yung perfect version
mo.
 Kaya according to Horney, it’s important for each
individual to have a good childhood kasi kung hindi ay
madaming consequences.
 Horney theorized that people combat basic anxiety by
adopting one of three fundamental styles of relating to
others:
3 Neurotic Trends
- Moving towards people
- Moving against people
- Moving away from people
- Normal individuals may use any of these modes of
relating to other people, but neurotics are compelled to
rigidly rely on only one.
- Neurotics means abnormal personality development
 Neurotics’ compulsive behavior generates a basic
intrapsychic conflict that may take the form of either an
idealized self-image or self-hatred.
 As neurotic goes on doing one neurotic trend
throughout his/her life, ang tendency ay magkakaroon
ang isang tao ng idealized self-image, so kumbaga hindi
na siya magiging in touch sa kaniyang true self (Idealized
self-image = perfect version). Dahil nga may idealized
self-image ang isang tao, gusto niyang iachieve lagi yung
perfect version na yon. But no one is perfect so ang
tendency, mag fafail yung pag achieve niya don. Dahil
hindi niya marereach yon kasi neurotic siya, very
irrational yung kaniyang processes, ang tendency ay
magkakaroon siya ng self-hatred to the point na
magkakaroon ng iba’t-ibang expression yung self-hatred.
 The idealized self-image is expressed as (1) Neurotic
search for glory, (2) Neurotic claims, or (3) Neurotic
pride.
 Self-hatred is expressed as either self-contempt or
alienation from self. (May 6 forms)
KAREN HORNEY
 Complicated Family
 Childhood was rough
 She considered her father a religious hypocrite
 She was one of the first women to be enrolled in a
medicine school
 She had many love affairs (isa si Erich Fromm don)
HORNEY VS FREUD
- First, she cautioned that strict adherence to orthodox
psychoanalysis would lead to stagnation in both theoretical
thought and therapeutic practice (Horney, 1937). (Kung
masyadong strict ang isang school of thought, hindi na siya
maituturing na scientific school of thought. It becomes
dogmatic that it turns into a religion.)
- Second, Horney (1937, 1939) objected to Freud’s ideas on
feminine psychology, a subject we return to later.
- Third, she stressed the view that psychoanalysis should
move beyond instinct theory and emphasize the importance
of cultural influences in shaping personality.
- She claimed that neuroses are not the result of instincts but
rather of the person’s “attempt to find paths through a
wilderness full of unknown dangers.”
- Her main quarrel with Freud was not so much the accuracy
of his observations but the validity of his interpretations.
- Her view of humanity is an optimistic one and is centered
on cultural forces that are amenable to change (Horney,
1950).
- Unlike Freud, Horney believed that everyone can change.
IMPACT OF CULTURE
- Modern culture, she contended, is based on competition
among individuals. “Everyone is a real or potential
competitor of everyone else.”
- Competitiveness and the basic hostility it spawn result in
feelings of isolation.
- These feelings of being alone in a potentially hostile world
lead to intensifies needs for affection, which, in turn cause
people to overvalue love. (lahat ng sobra ay masama)
- Genuine love, of course, can be a healthy, growth-producing
experience; but the desperate need for love (such as that
shown by Horney herself) provides a fertile ground for the
development of neurosis (excessive and irrational anxiety or
obsession).
- Western society (and even in the Philippines) contributes to
the vicious circle in several respects.
- People of this society are imbued with the cultural teachings
of kinship and humility. These teachings, however, run
contrary to another prevailing attitude, namely,
aggressiveness and the drive to win or be superior.
- Second, society’s demands for success and achievement are
nearly endless, so that even when people achieve their
material ambitions, additional goals are continually being
placed before them.
- Third, Western Society tells people that they are free, that
they can accomplish anything through hard work and
perseverance.
- In reality, however, the freedom of most people is greatly
restricted by genetics, social position, and the
competitiveness of others.
- Utang na loob
- Children as Retirement Plan
IMPORTANCE OF CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCE
 A variety of traumatic events, such as sexual abuse,
beatings, open rejection, or pervasive neglect, may
leave their impressions on a child’s future development;
but Horney (1937) insisted that these debilitating
experiences can almost invariably be traced to lack of
genuine warmth and affection.
 Horney (1939) hypothesized that a difficult childhood is
primarily responsible for neurotic needs.
 The totality of early relationships molds personality
development. “Later attitudes to others, then, are not
repetitions of infantile ones but emanate from the
character structure, the basis of which is laid in
childhood.”
BASIC HOSTILITY AND BASIC ANXIETY
- Basic hostility: Because you didn’t receive love and
affection from your parents, you tend to be insecure. You
feel that against sayo yung world kasi wala kang feelings of
security, wala kang feelings of satisfaction regarding your
needs for love and affection. Basic hostility breeds basic
anxiety.
(Book’s Definition) Basic Hostility is the repressed feelings of
rage that originate during childhood when children fear that
their parents will not satisfy their needs for safety and
satisfaction. Unconscious.
- If a child grew up in a family with genuine love, they will
grow up with feelings of security and satisfaction which will
permit them to grow in accordance to their real self.
- Unfortunately, not all children grow in that kind of
environment.
- If parents do not satisfy the child’s needs for safety
and satisfaction, the child develops feelings of basic
hostility toward the parents.
- However, children seldom overtly express this
hostility as rage; instead, they repress their hostility
toward their parents and have no awareness of it.
Repressed hostility then leads to profound feelings
of insecurity and a vague sense of apprehension.
 BASIC ANXIETY
- Horney (1950) defined as “a feeling of being isolated and
helpless in a world conceived as potentially hostile”. Earlier,
she gave a more graphic description, calling basic anxiety “a
feeling of being small, insignificant, helpless, deserted,
endangered, in a world that is out to abuse, cheat, attack,
humiliate, betray, and envy.”
- Basic anxiety itself is not a neurosis, but “it is the nutritive
soil out of which a definite neurosis may develop at any
time”
- (Book’s Definition) Feelings of isolation and helplessness in
a potentially hostile world.
MANAGING BASIC ANXIETY
- To manage this anxiety, Horney initially conceptualized four
general ways of managing this:
 Affection
 Submissiveness
 Power, Prestige, Possession
 Withdrawal
COMPULSIVE DRIVES
- Whereas normal individuals are able to use a variety of
defensive maneuvers in a somewhat useful way, neurotics
compulsively repeat the same strategy in an essentially
unproductive manner.
- This defensive strategy traps them in a vicious circle in
which their compulsive needs to reduce basic anxiety lead to
behaviors that perpetuate low self-esteem, generalized
hostility, inappropriate striving for power, inflated feelings of
superiority, and persistent apprehension, all of which result
in more basic anxiety.
NEUROTIC NEEDS
- Horney tentatively identified 10 categories of neurotic
needs that characterize neurotics in their attempts to combat
basic anxiety.
 The neurotic need for affection an approval
 The neurotic need for a powerful partner
 The neurotic need to restrict one’s life within narrow
borders
 The neurotic need for power
 The neurotic need to exploit others
 The neurotic need for social recognition or prestige
 The neurotic need for personal admiration
 The neurotic need for ambition and personal
achievement
 The neurotic need for self-sufficiency and
independence
 The neurotic need for perfection and unassailability
NEUROTIC TRENDS
- As her theory evolved, Horney began to see that the list of
10 neurotic needs could be grouped into three general
categories, each relating to a person’s basic attitude toward
self and others.
- Whereas normal people are mostly or completely conscious
of their strategies toward other people, neurotics are
unaware of their basic attitude; although normal are free to
choose their actions, neurotics are forced to act; whereas
normal experience mild conflict, neurotics experience severe
and insoluble conflict; and whereas normal can choose from
a variety of strategies, neurotics are limited to a single trend.
(1) MOVING TOWARDS PEOPLE
- In their attempts to protect themselves against feelings of
helplessness, compliant people employ either or both of the
first two neurotic needs; that is, they desperately strive for
affection and approval of others, or they seek a powerful
partner who will take responsibility for their lives.
- Co-dependent partners: Those partners that satisfies each
other’s neurotic needs.
(2) MOVING AGAINST PEOPLE
- Just as compliant people assume that everyone is nice,
aggressive people take for granted that everyone is hostile.
- Rather than moving toward people in a posture of
submissiveness and dependence, these people move against
others by appearing tough or ruthless.
- They are motivated by a strong need to exploit others and
to use them for their own benefit. They seldom admit their
mistakes and are compulsively driven to appear perfect,
powerful, and superior.
- Example: Karens, not the Horney. Karens in the internet.
(3) MOVING AWAY FROM PEOPLE
- In order to solve the basic conflict of isolation, some people
behave in a detached manner and adopt this trend.
- This strategy is an expression of needs for privacy,
independence, and self-sufficiency. Again, each of these
needs can lead to positive behaviors, with some people
satisfying these needs in a healthy fashion.
- However, these needs become neurotic when people try to
satisfy them by compulsively putting emotional distance
between themselves and other people.
 1) IDEALIZED SELF-IMAGE
- Idealized self-image is an attempt to solve conflicts by
painting a godlike picture of oneself.
- Horney believed that human beings, if given an
environment of discipline and warmth, will develop feelings
of security and self-confidence and a tendency to move
toward self-realization.
- Unfortunately, early negative influences often impede
people’s natural tendency toward self-realization, a situation
that leaves them with feelings of isolation and inferiority.
- Feeling alienated from themselves, people need desperately
to acquire a stable sense of identity.
- This dilemma can be solved only by creating an idealized
self-image, an extravangantly positive view of themselves
that exists only in their personal belief system.
- Neurotics glorify and worship themselves in different ways.
- Compliant people see themselves as good and saintly.
- Aggressive people build an idealized image of themselves as
INTRAPSYCHIC CONFLICTS
strong, heroic, and omnipotent.
- As we use our neurotic trends, then ang nangyayari ay
- Detached neurotics paint their self-portraits as wise, self-
nagkakaroon ng intrapsychic conflicts. Kasi when you have
sufficient, and independent.
neurotic trends, ang tendency ay you will be too focused on
- Rather than growing toward self-realization, they move
the outside. When you’re too focused on the outside, you’ll
toward actualizing their idealized self.
have this tendency to be disconnected with your own self.
Kumbaga hindi mo na kilala sarili mo. At dahil hindi mo na
THREE ASPECTS OF IDEALIZED SELF-IMAGE
kilala sarili mo, ang tendency ay mag gagawa ka ng perfect
(1) Neurotic Search for Glory
version ng sarili mo (idealized self-image) para mameet yung
- As neurotics come to believe in the reality of their idealized
demands ng external world. Kasi nga the world is your enemy
self, they begin to incorporate it into all aspects of their lives
that’s why you need to be powerful.
--- their goals, their self-concept, and their relations with
- As her theory evolved, she began to place greater emphasis
others.
on the inner conflicts that both normal and neurotic
 Need for Perfection - Tyranny of the Should (I
individuals experience.
should be like this, I should be like that, I should do
- Intrapsychic processes originate from interpersonal
this, I should do that)
experiences; but as they become part of a person’s belief
 Neurotic Ambition - Compulsive drive towards
system, they develop a life of their own --- an existence
superiority
separate from the interpersonal conflicts that gave them life.
 Drive toward Vindicative Triumph - It is not
enough to just win, neurotics needs to drive the
point and humiliate their enemy to the ground
(Babangon ako at dudurugin kita)
(2) Neurotic Claims
- In their search for glory, neurotics build a fantasy world - a
world that is out of sync with the real world.
- Believing that something is wrong with the outside world,
they proclaim that they are special and therefore entitled to
be treated in accordance with their idealized view of
themselves.
- Example: Karens, and students who demand unrealistic
grades.
(3) Neurotic Prides
- A false pride based not on a realistic view of the true self
but on a spurious image of the idealized self.
- Neurotics imagine themselves to be glorious, wonderful,
and perfect, so when others fail to treat them with special
considerations, their neurotic pride is hurt.
- To prevent the hurt, they avoid people who refuse to yield
to their neurotic claims, and instead, they try to become
associated with socially prominent and prestigious
institutions and acquisitions.
- Example: Those who are moving away from people says “I
am independent.” --- this is their neurotic pride
2) SELF-HATRED
- People with a neurotic search for glory can never be happy
with themselves because when they realize that their real
self does not match the insatiable demands of their idealized
self, they will begin to hate and despise themselves.
- There are 6 major ways of expressing Self-Hatred.
SELF-HATRED EXPRESSIONS
1. Relentless demands on the self (Tyranny of the Should)
2. Merciless self-accusation (Impostor Syndrome)
3. Self Contempt - Which might be expressed as belittling,
disparaging, doubting, discrediting, and ridiculing
oneself.
4. Self-frustration - Horney (1950) distinguished between
healthy self-discipline and neurotic self-frustration. The
former involves postponing or forgoing pleasurable
activities in order to achieve reasonable goals. Self-
frustrations stems from self-hatred and is designed to
actualize an inflated self-image.
5. Self-torment, or Self-torture - Some people attain
masochistic satisfaction by anguishing over a decision,
exaggerating the pain of a headache, cutting themselves
with a knife, starting a fight that they are sure to lose, or
inviting physical abuse.
6. Self-destructive actions and impulses - Which may be
either physical or psychological, conscious or
unconscious, acute or chronic, carried out in action or
enacted only in the imagination.
- Overeating, abusing alcohol and other drugs, working
too hard, driving recklessly, and suicide are common
expressions of physical self-destruction.
- Can also be psychological: for example, quitting job
just when it begins to be fulfilling, breaking off a healthy
relationship in favor of a neurotic one, or engaging in
promiscuous sexual activities.
 The more na nagkakaroon ang isang tao ng basic
hostility, the more na nag ooccur yung basic anxiety sa
kaniya. And the more basic anxiety yung nararamdaman
ng isang tao, the more na gagamit siya ng neurotic trend.
And the more na gagamit ang isang tao ng neurotic
trend, the more na magkakaroon ng idealized self-image
yung tao that will surely fail and end up in being self-
hatred. And dahil hate ng tao yung sarili niya, feeling mo
hostile na nga yung mundo tapos hostile ka pa sa sarili
mo, then magkakaroon na yung tao ng basic hostility
and so on hanggang sa sumabog na yung tao lalo na
kapag di naagapan. And the main cause is yung parents
daw, kung anong naging trato ng parents nung tao.
FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY
- For Horney, psychic differences between men and women
are not the result of anatomy but rather of cultural and social
expectations.
- Horney (1937) insisted that basic anxiety is at the core of CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
men’s need to subjugate women and women’s wish to - Unlike Freud, Horney believed that people can change (Free
humiliate men. will)
- Although Horney (1939) recognized the existence of the - Optimistic
Oedipus Complex, she insisted that it was due to certain - Middle position in causality and teleology
environmental conditions and not to biology. - Middle position in unconscious and unconscious
- Boys sometimes do express a desire to have a baby, but this - Social influence over biology
desire is not the result of a universal male “womb envy.” - Highlights similarities over differences
- Horney agreed with Adler that many women possess a
masculine protest; that is, they have a pathological belief that
men are superior to women.
- The desire, however, is not an expression of penis envy but
rather “a wish for all those qualities or privileges which in
our culture are regarded as masculine.”
- Standards of masculinity and femininity are artificial
standards.

PSYCHOTHERAPY
- The aim is to have patients give up their idealized self-
image, relinquish their neurotic search for glory, and change
self-hatred to an acceptance of the real self.
- Self-understanding must go beyond information; it must be
accompanied by an emotional experience. Patients must
understand their pride system, their idealized image, their
neurotic search for glory, their self-hatred, their shoulds,
their alienation from self, and their conflicts.

CRITIQUE OF HORNEY
- Falsifiability is of course a problem as it is based in
psychoanalysis.
- The theory did not generate much research.
- Organization of knowledge is almost only limited to
neurotics/abnormal personality.
- It guides action but only a little (only for neurotics)
- High internal consistency and precise (parsimony)
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS (ERICH FROMM)
- Erich Fromm’s basic thesis is that modern-day people have
been torn away from their prehistoric union with nature and
also with one another, yet they have the power of reasoning,
foresight, and imagination.
- Self-awareness contributes to feelings of loneliness,
isolation, and homelessness.
- Reasoning and self-awareness yung source dito ng basic
anxiety.
- To escape from these feelings, people strive to become
reunited with nature and with their fellow human beings.
- His humanistic psychoanalysis assumes that humanity’s
separation from the natural world has produced feelings of
loneliness and isolation, a condition called basic anxiety.
- A more recent event in human history has been the rise of
capitalism, which on one hand has contributed to the growth
of leisure time and personal freedom, but on the other hand,
it has resulted in feelings of anxiety, isolation, and
powerlessness.
- The isolation wrought by capitalism has been unbearable,
leaving people with two alternatives:
1. To escape from freedom into personal dependencies
2. To move to self-realization through productive love
and work.
ERICH FROMM
 Childhood experience that shaped his life: Jewish Family
Life, Suicide of a young woman, extreme nationalism of
Germany
 Heavily influenced by Freud, Marx, Old Testament.
 His first wife was Freida Reichmann (his analyst), 10
years older than him.
 Had a relationship with Karen Horney, who was 15
years older than Fromm.
 He later married Henny Gurland. 2 years younger than
him, she died in 1952.
 He then remarried again a year after to Annis Freeman.
 Fromm died on March 18, 1980, few days before his 80th
birthday.
 He was an eloquent essayist.
FROMM’S BASIC ASSUMPTION
 Human Dilemma
- Fromm (1947) believed that humans, unlike other
animals, have been “torn away” from their prehistoric
union with nature (It is believed that reasoning is the
main cause why people were torn away from nature
before. So reasoning here is considered a curse and a
blessing. Why is it considered a blessing? Because
reasoning and self-awareness allowed us to become a
dominating species in the planet). They have no
powerful instincts to adapt to a changing world; instead,
they have acquired the facility to reason.
 Curse and Blessing of Reason
- Blessing since we became more efficient in surviving,
it’s a curse because it forces human beings to solve the
unsolvable dichotomies of life which are called
Existential Dichotomies.
- Reasoning is explaining things. Why this things occurs?
Why is this happening?
- Self-awareness suggest that humans are aware that
they are living. They aware of their existence, identity,
and self.
EXISTENTIAL DICHOTOMIES
 Life and Death: Self-awareness and reason tell us that
we will die, but we try to negate this dichotomy
(division between two things) by postulating life after
death, an attempt that does not alter the fact that our
lives end with death. Futile attempt to solve these two.
 Humans are capable of conceptualizing the goal of
complete self-realization, but we also are aware that life
is too short to reach that goal.
 The third existential dichotomy is that people are
ultimately alone, yet we cannot tolerate isolation.
 Human nature suggest that they want to be with other
people, but because of self-awareness, kumbaga parang
sabi ng rational side mo na “hindi ka naman pwede
 mareunite with other people kasi nag-iisa ka lang.” That
is how reasoning works, very logical and very cold wala
siyang feelings katulad ng crush mong walang feelings
sayo choz)
 This existential dichotomies produce the human
dilemma (problems) and existential needs.
 Part ng existential dichotomies natin na alam natin
bilang isang tao na someday we’ll die. And di natin
kayang tanggapin na mamamatay tayo ng walang
ginagawa o walang maglealeave na mark sa mundo
about satin. So parang we want to preserve our
memories. Pero paano? By rising above our current
status and going beyond human para matandaan ng
ibang tao.
EXISTENTIAL NEEDS
 As animals, humans are motivated by such physiological
needs as hunger, sex, and safety; but they can never
resolve their human dilemma by satisfying these animal
needs. Only the distinctive human needs can move
people toward a reunion with the natural world.
 These existential needs have emerged during the
evolution of human culture, growing out of their
attempts to find an answer to their existence and to
avoid becoming insane.
 Healthy people are those who found meaning to their
existence and neurotic people are those who are still
confused about their existence.
 Healthy individuals are better able to find ways of
reuniting to the world by productively solving human
needs of relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, a
sense of identity, and a frame of orientation.
RELATEDNESS
- The drive for union with another person or other person.
Since na turn away tayo with other people, we yearn to be
reunited and relate with them.
- Relatedness is satisfied through love.
- Three ways to relate to the world:
1. Submission (Negative)
- A person can submit to another, to a group, or to an
institution in order to become one with the world.
2. Domination (Negative)
- Domineering people, power seekers welcome submissive
partners.
- When a submissive person (gusto nila na may ibang taon na
magtatake over sa buhay nila) and a domineering person
(sila yung mga tao na gustong mag take over sa buhay ng iba)
find each other, they frequently establish a symbiotic
relationship, one that is satisfying to both partners. (They
provide for each other’s needs)
- Although such symbiosis may be gratifying, it blocks growth
toward integrity and psychological health. Why? Because
you two will become dependent with each other. And
dependency is not healthy because being too submissive can
be limiting as a person.
- Similar to the concept of co-dependence (Horney’s Theory)
- In submissive and domination, you’re just fulfilling one side
which is the irrational side because you’re just fulfilling the
reuniting with other people. So dapat balance yung reuniting
with other people and achieving individuality para healthy.
To balance that, we reunite with people and at the same time
use love.
3. Love (Positive)
- The only route by which a person can become united with
the world and, at the same time, achieve individuality and
integrity.
- He defined love as a “union with somebody, or something
outside oneself under the condition of retaining the
separateness and integrity of one’s own self.”
- In love, two people become one yet remain two.
- If you love someone, you support and trust them, and not
control and change them because controlling them will lead
to domination (and kapag yung tao naman ay
nagpapakontrol, it’ll be submission), and that’s not love.
TRANSCENDENCE (going beyond)
- Defined as the urge to rise above a passive and accidental
existence and into “the realms of purposefulness and
freedom”.
- Ito yung ways para matandaan ka ng ibang tao, para
mapreserve yung memories mo sa mundo kapag nawala ka
na.
- There are two ways to transcend.
1. Destruction (Negative)
- We can transcend life by destroying it and thus rising above
our slain victims.
- Malignant Aggression: Only humans can kill others for
reason other than survival.
2. Creation (Positive)
- Although other animals can create life through reproduction,
only humans are aware of themselves as creators.
- Also, humans can be creative in other ways. They can create
art, religions, ideas, laws, material production, and love.
- Creating something bigger than you will help you to be as
big as what you’ve created. (Ganito mag transcend in a
positive and good way)
ROOTEDNESS
- The need to establish roots or to feel at home again in the
world.
- This is based to the fact that we humans were torn away
from nature and we feel homeless, so we want to have a
home again. We still want to be in the world again, we still
want to root ourselves with the nature.
- There are two ways to feel our home again.
1. Independence from Mother (Positive)
- People are weaned from the orbit of their mother and
become fully born; that is, they actively and creatively relate
to the world and become whole or integrated.
- If people becomes independent, they’ll have more ways to
explore the world and they’ll have more time to spend with
world, kumbaga kung mag spend time sila sa world, mas
kinikilala nila yung world and mas magiging feel at home na
sila kasi nga kilala na nila yung mundo nila. (ako din eh kilala
ko na mundo ko, si crush uwu choz)
2. Fixation (Negative)
- A tenacious reluctance to move beyond the protective
security provided by one’s mother. People who strive for
rootedness through fixation are “afraid to take the next step
of birth, to be weaned from the mother’s breast.
[They]…have a deep craving to be mothered, nursed,
protected by a motherly figure; they are the externally
dependent ones, who are frightened and insecure when
motherly protection is withdrawn.”
- This can be applied to personal level and cultural level.
- Personal level: People who are fixated on the security
provided by the mother tends to be limited on their life.
Ayaw nilang mag step out sa kanilang comfort zone kasi
natatakot sila kumbaga hindi sila secure, so they have a deep
connection with their mother, gusto nila binababy pa sila
ganurn. (Mga mama’s boy hanggang tumanda HAHAHAHAjk)
- Cultural Level/Societal Level: Yung mother substitute, it can
be mother land.
- Fromm believed that incestual desire is universal but not
sexual in nature. Incestuous feelings are based in “the deep-
seated craving to remain in, or to return to, the all-
enveloping womb, or to the all-nourishing breasts.”
- He believed that ancients societies are matriarchal and this
tendency of Fromm to revere mother figures is evident in his
relationship with women. (This suggest that Fromm kinda
have neurosis, kasi naka fixated siya sa mga mother figure)
- It’s best for a person to not be fixated para hindi siya
natatakot lumabas sa comfort zone niya.
SENSE OF IDENTITY
- Mainly from the reasoning and self-awareness. The ironic
part of this topic is that we want to be with other people but
at the same time, we want to be ourselves too.
- Because of those awareness and reasoning we have this
tendency or desire to become someone, kumbaga to call
ourselves “I”.
- The capacity to be aware of ourselves as a separate entity.
Because we have been torn away from nature, we need to
form a concept of our self, to be able to say “I am,” or “I am
the subject of my actions.”
- Without a sense of identity, people could not retain their
sanity, and this threat provides a powerful motivation to do
almost anything to acquire a sense of identity. So if wala kang
sense of identity, pwede kang mabaliw. (Crazyyyyy parang
ako crazy 4 u krasshhh)
- There are two ways to achieve this:
1. Adjustment to a Group (Negative)
- Neurotics try to attach themselves to powerful people or to
social or political institutions.
- Example: Pinoy Pride - Nanalo yung Blacklist sa international
game, so feeling ng mga Filipino na nanood ay nanalo din sila.
2. Individuality (Positive)- Healthy people, however, have
less need to conform to the herd, less need to give up their
sense of self.
- They do not have to surrender their freedom and
individuality in order to fit into society because they possess
an authentic sense of identity.
- How can you create your individual self? To attach your
identity to multiple things and that multiple things will create
something new. For example: I attach myself to being a
Kabitenya, to being a Filipina, to being a gamer, or to being a
student. So yung na create na something new ay naging self
identity ko na.
- If you’re comfortable with your identity that you’ve created,
you won’t be affected to what other people might say about
you.
 Neurotic people tends to follow the trends (yung mga
uso).
FRAME OF ORIENTATION
- Being split off from nature, humans need a road map, a
frame of orientation, to make their way through the world.
- Without such a map, human would be “confused and
unable to act purposefully and consistently”. Basically, a
philosophy in life.
- Like the Final Goal of Adler
- A need to have a direction
1. Irrational Goals (Negative)
- Those who lack a reliable frame of orientation will strive to
put these events into some sort of framework in order to
make sense of them.
- People will do nearly anything to acquire and retain a frame
of orientation, even to the extreme of following irrational or
bizarre philosophies such as those espoused by fanatical
political and religious leaders.
- All they do is wonder kasi walang direction yung buhay nila.
2. Rational Goals (Positive)
- People who possess a solid frame of orientation can make
sense of these events and phenomena.
- According to Fromm, this goal or object of devotion focuses
people’s energies in a single direction, enables us to
transcend our isolated existence, and confers meaning to
their lives.
- Alam nila yung kung anong dapat gawin at hindi dapat
gawin. Kumbaga may direction na.
EXISTENTIAL NEEDS
 Fromm believed that lack of satisfaction of any of these
needs is unbearable and results in insanity.
 Existential needs is the Basic Hostility of Fromm’s
Theory.
 Same with Basic Hostility, it also breeds Basic Anxiety
 Some people solve this Basic Anxiety by subordinating
or being subordinated by people or Positive Freedom.
 Most people choose the former rather than the latter.
Why? Because there’s a burden of freedom.
BURDEN OF FREEDOM
 Historically, as people gained more and more economic
and political freedom, they came to feel increasingly
more isolated.
 In the past, the moment you were born, you already
have a role of being an artisan, blacksmith, laborer, king,
 queen, nobleman/noblewoman, warrior, scholar, etc.
which is more less forced to you.
 Nowadays, we have so much freedom to choose what
we want to become and where we want to be. We
became separated from their roots and isolated from
one another.
 On a more personal level, as children become more
independent of their mothers, they gain more freedom
to express their individuality, to move around
unsupervised, to choose their friends, clothes, and so on.
 On both a social and an individual level, this burden of
freedom results in basic anxiety, the feeling of being
alone in the world.
 Freedom is too tiring, exhausting and daunting that is
why people unconsciously desires to escape from it.
 It’s hard to be free, it is much easier to be dominated by
others.
MECHANISMS OF ESCAPE
- Because basic anxiety produces a frightening sense of
isolation and aloneness, people attempt to flee from
freedom through a variety of escape mechanisms. Fromm’s
mechanisms of escape are the driving forces in normal
people, both individually and collectively. There are three
primary mechanisms of escape.
- Authoritarianism, Destructiveness, Conformity, Positive
Freedom
AUTHORITARIANISM
- The “tendency to give up the independence of one’s own
individual self and to fuse one’s self with somebody or
something outside oneself, in order to acquire the strength
which the individual is lacking.” Can manifest in two forms:
1. Masochism
- Masochism results from basic feelings of powerlessness,
weakness, and inferiority and is aimed at joining the self to a
more powerful person or institution.
2. Sadism
- Sadism is aimed at reducing basic anxiety through achieving
unity with another person or persons. Three kids of sadistic
tendencies:
1) The need to make others dependent on oneself
and to gain power over those who are weak.
2) The compulsion to exploit others, to take
advantage of them, and to use them for one’s
benefit or pleasure.
3) The desire to see others suffer, either physically
or psychologically.
DESTRUCTIVENESS
- Unlike sadism and masochism, however, destructiveness
does not depend on a continuous relationship with another
person; rather, it seeks to do away with other people.
- Both individuals and nations can employ destructiveness as
a mechanism of escape (Example: World Wars)
- Destroying in an individual level is more like being
aggressive to them (Example: Karens)
CONFORMITY
- People who conform try to escape from a sense of
aloneness and isolation by giving up their individuality and
becoming whatever other people desire them to be.
- People in the modern world are free from many external
bonds and are free to act according to their own will, but at
the same time, they do not know what they want, think, or
feel.
- We are free to do what we want, but we are also free to do
what others want use to do.
POSITIVE FREEDOM
- A person “can be free and not alone, critical and yet not
filled with doubts, independent and yet an integral part of
mankind”, a spontaneous and full expression of both their
rational and their emotional potentialities.
- Positive freedom represents a successful solution to the
human dilemma of being part of the natural world and yet
separate from it.
- Through active love and work, humans unite with one
another and with the world without sacrificing their integrity.
They affirm their uniqueness as individuals and achieve full
realization of their potentialities.
CHARACTER ORIENTATIONS
 Character orientations is similar with Horney’s Neurotic
trends, it is defined as the way a person relate to the
world in response to how a person solves his/her
existential dilemma and existential needs that comes
with it.
 Character: “the relatively permanent system of all
noninstinctual strivings through which man relates
himself to the human and natural world.”
 Characterized into two: Nonproductive and Productive
NONPRODUCTIVE ORIENTATION
 Fromm used the term “nonproductive” to suggest
strategies that fail to move people closer to positive
freedom and self-realization. Personality is always a
blend or combination of several orientations, even
though one orientation is dominant.
RECEPTIVE CHARACTER
- Receptive: Receptive characters feel that the source of all
good lies outside themselves and that the only way they can
relate to the world is to receive things, including love,
knowledge, and material possessions.
- The Negative Qualities: Passivity, submissiveness,
and lack of self-confidence.
- Positive Traits: Loyalty, acceptance, and trust.
EXPLOITATIVE CHARACTER
- Exploitative: Exploitative character believe that the source
of all good is outside themselves. They aggressively take what
they desire rather than passively receive it. They steal people,
ideas and other properties from other people just for the joy
of it.
- Negative Traits: Exploitative characters are
egocentric, conceited, arrogant, and seducing
- Positive Traits: Impulsive, proud, charming, and
self-confidant
HOARDING CHARACTER
- Hoarding: Hoarding character seek to save that which they
have already obtained. They hold everything inside and do
not let go of anything. They keep money, feelings, and
thoughts to themselves. They do not like change.
- Almost the same with Anal Personality
- Negative Traits: Rigidity, sterility, obstinacy,
compulsivity, and lack of creativity
- Positive Traits: Orderliness, cleanliness, and
punctuality
MARKETING CHARACTER
- Marketing: Marketing character see themselves as
commodities, with their personal value dependent on their
exchange value, that is, their ability to sell themselves. Their
personal security rests on shaky ground because they must
adjust their personality to that which is currently in fashion.
- Marketing people are without a past or a future and have
no permanent principles or values.
- They have fewer positive traits than the other orientations
because they are basically empty vessels waiting to be filed
with whatever characteristics is most marketable.
- We see the influence of Karl Marx here (galit sa kapitalismo
si lolo Fromm)
- Negative Traits: Aimless, opportunistic,
inconsistent, and wasteful.
- Positive Traits: Changeability, open-mindedness,
adaptability, and generosity.
PRODUCTIVE ORIENTATION
 The single productive orientation has three dimensions -
-- working, loving, and reasoning.
 Only through productive activity can people solve the
basic human dilemma: that is to unite with the world
 and with others while retaining uniqueness and
individuality.
 Healthy people value work not as an end in itself, but as
means of creative self-expression.
 They do not work to exploit others, to market
themselves, to withdraw from others, or to accumulate
needless material possessions. They are neither lazy nor
compulsively active, but use work as means of
producing life’s necessities.
 Productive love is characterized by the four qualities of
love discussed earlier --- care, responsibility, respect,
and knowledge.
 Biophilia: A passionate love of life and all that is alive.
Biophilic people desire to further all life --- the life of
people, animals, plants, ideas, and cultures. They are
concerned with the growth and development of
themselves as well as others.
 Fromm believed that love of others and self-love are
inseparable but that self love must come first. All people
have the capacity for productive love, but most do not
achieve it because they cannot first love themselves.
 Productive thinking, which cannot be separated from
productive work and love, is motivated by a concerned
interest in another person or object. Healthy people see
others as they are and not as they would wish them to
be. Similarly, they know themselves for who they are
and have no need for self-delusion.
 Fromm (1947) believed that healthy people rely on
some combination of all five-character orientations.
Their survival as healthy individuals depend on their
ability to receive things from other people, to take
things when appropriate, to preserve things, to
exchange things, and to work, love, and think
productively.
 Syndrome of Growth: People with biophilia, love, and
positive freedom.
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
- If healthy people are able to work, love, and think
productively, then unhealthy personalities are marked by
problems in these three areas, especially failure to love
productively.
NECROPHILIA
- Fromm (1964, 1973) used necrophilia in a more generalized
sense to denote any attraction to death. Necrophilia is an
alternative character orientation to biophilia.
- Necrophilic personalities hate humanity; they are racists,
warmongers, and bullies; they love bloodshed, destruction,
terror, and torture; and they delight in destroying life.
- They are strong advocates of law and order; love to talk
about sickness, death, and burials; and they are fascinated by
dirt, decay, corpses, and feces.
MALIGNANT NARCISSISM
- In its malignant form, narcissism impedes the perception of
reality so that everything belonging to a narcissistic person is
highly valued and everything belonging to another is
devalued.
- Preoccupation with one’s body often leads to
hypochondriasis, or an obsessive attention to one’s health.
- Fromm (1964) also discussed moral hypochondriasis, or a
preoccupation with guilt about previous transgressions.
- Narcissistic people possess what Horney called “neurotic
claims”.
INCESTUOUS SYMBIOSIS
- An extreme dependence on the mother or mother
surrogate. People are inseparable from the host person; their
personalities are blended with the other person and their
individual identities are lost.
- Fromm agreed more with Harry Stack Sullivan than with
Freud in suggesting that attachment to the mother rests on
the need for security not for sex.
- People living in incestuous symbiotic relationships feel
extremely anxious and frightened if that relationship is
threatened. They believe that they cannot live without their
mother substitute.
- The host need not be another human --- it can be a
family a business, a church, or a nation.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
- Compared with Freud, Fromm was much more concerned
with the interpersonal aspects of a therapeutic encounter. He
believed that the aim of therapy is for patients to come to
know themselves.
- Fromm believed that patients come to therapy seeking
satisfaction of their basic human needs --- relatedness,
transcendence, rootedness, a sense of identity, and a frame
of orientation. Therefore, therapy should be built on a
personal relationship between therapist and patient.
- Because accurate communication is essential to therapeutic
growth, the therapist must relate “as one human being to
another with utter concentration and utter security.”
- His dream analysis is almost the same with Jung with its
cultural/mythological interpretations.
- The therapist should not view the patient as an illness or a
thing but as a person with the same human needs that all
people possess.
 Guide to action is almost the same with Jung, it is
challenging but far from practical
 Internally consistency is a bit clunky due to unclear
definition of some concepts/terms
 Parsimony is low, same with Jung
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 Determinism and Free will - middle ground
 Pessimistic and Optimistic - middle ground
 Causality and Teleology - slightly on teleology
 Conscious and Unconscious - middle ground
 Social Influence and Biology - slightly on social influence
 Similarity and uniqueness - moderately on similarity
TAKE NOTE
- A phenomena cannot be explained by only one theory. Just
like with the personality of a person, it can’t be explained by
only one theory.

FROMM’S METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

- Same with Jung, he also studied many fields in humanities
including sociology, psychohistory and cultural anthropology.
- Social Character in a Mexican Village: He found out that
marketing character is not present here since capitalism was
not yet heavily influences by capitalism.
- Psychohistory of Hitler: According to Fromm, Hitler is the
embodiment of syndrome of decay.

CRITIQUE OF FROMM
 Falsifiability - of course you know the drill since this is
based in psychoanalysis
 Did not generate much research
 Organizes knowledge well since it covers much about
human personality
INTERPERSONAL THEORY (HARRY STACK SULLIVAN)
 Emphasized similarities among people rather than
differences.
 Sullivan believed that people develop their personality
within a social context.
 Without other people, Sullivan contended, humans
would have no personality. “A personality can never be
isolated from the complex of interpersonal relations in
which the person lives and has his being.”
 His interpersonal theory emphasizes the importance of
various developmental stages—infancy, childhood, the
juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, late
adolescence, and adulthood.
 Healthy human development rests on a person’s ability
to establish intimacy with another person, but
unfortunately, anxiety can interfere with satisfying
interpersonal relations at any age.
 The most crucial stage of development is
preadolescence—a period when children first possess
the capacity for intimacy but have not yet reached an
age at which their intimate relationships are
complicated by lustful interests.
 Sullivan believed that people achieve healthy
development when they are able to experience both
intimacy and lust toward the same other person.
HARRY STACK SULLIVAN
- Sullivan’s theory was well accepted back then but he was
accused for being homosexual (not proven). And before,
homosexuality was considered as a psychopathology. So
doubts regarding his theories were inevitable back then. (Ito
yung naging dahilan kung bakit naging controversial siya dati)
- Most scholars believe that the relationship between Harry
Stack Sullivan and Clarence Bellinger was at least in some
ways homosexual, but others believed that the two boys
were never sexually intimate.
- He was a loner and introvert since childhood to adulthood,
which is ironic because his theory is focused on interpersonal
theory, meaning it is focused on the relationship of a person
to others.
Why is it important to know about Sullivan’s sexual
orientation?
1) A personality theorist’s early life history, including gender,
birth order, religious beliefs, ethnic background, schooling, as
well as sexual orientation, all relate to that person’s adult
beliefs, conception of humanity, and the type of personality
theory that that person will develop.
2) In Sullivan’s case, his sexual orientation may have
prevented him from gaining the acceptance and recognition
he might have had if others had not suspected that he was
homosexual.
TENSIONS: NEEDS AND ANXIETY
- Personality is an energy system that has the potential to
produce actions.
- Energy can exist either as tension (potentiality for action)
or as actions themselves (energy transformations). Energy
transformations transform tensions into either covert or
overt behaviors and are aimed at satisfying needs and
reducing anxiety.
- Tension is a potentiality for action that may or may not be
experienced in awareness.
- Many tensions, such as anxiety, premonitions, drowsiness,
hunger, and sexual excitement, are felt but not always on a
conscious level.
- Tensions are like Freud’s drive (Libido), but in Sullivan’s case,
he called that drives as tensions.
- Tensions refers to the potential to action.
TWO TYPES OF TENSION
1. Needs - Kind of tension that leads to productive actions.
- Have extra needs called Interpersonal Needs.
2. Anxiety - Kind of tension that leads to nonproductive
actions.
(1) NEEDS
- Needs are tensions brought on by biological imbalance
between a person and the physiochemical environment,
both inside and outside the organism.
- Needs are episodic—once they are satisfied, they
temporarily lose their power, but after a time, they are
likely to recur.
- Although needs originally have a biological component,
many of them stem from the interpersonal situation. The
most basic interpersonal need is tenderness.
TENDERNESS
- An infant develops a need to receive tenderness from its
primary caretaker (called by Sullivan “the mothering one”).
- Unlike some needs, tenderness requires actions from at
least two people.
- For example, an infant’s need to receive tenderness may be
expressed as a cry, smile, or coo, whereas the mother’s need
to give tenderness may be transformed into touching,
fondling, or holding. In this example, the need for tenderness
is satisfied through the use of the infant’s mouth and the
mother’s hands.
- Tenderness is a general need because it is concerned with
the overall well being of a person.
- General needs, which also include oxygen, food, and water,
are opposed to zonal needs.
- Zonal needs arise from a particular area of the body.
- Several areas of the body are instrumental in satisfying both
general and zonal needs. For example, the mouth satisfies
general needs by taking in food and oxygen, but it also
satisfies the zonal need for oral activity. Also, the hands may
be used to help satisfy the general need of tenderness, but
they can likewise be used to satisfy the zonal need for
manual activity. Similarly, other body zones, such as the anus
and the genitals, can be used to satisfy both kinds of needs.
- Dynamism(s): While satisfying general needs for food,
water, and so forth, an infant expends more energy than
necessary, and the excess energy is transformed into
consistent characteristic modes of behavior.
(2) ANXIETY
- “Anxiety is a tension in opposition to the tensions of needs
and to action appropriate to their relief.”
Anxiety, differs from tensions of needs in that it is disjunctive,
is more diffuse and vague, and calls forth no consistent
actions for its relief.
- If infants lack food (a need), their course of action is clear;
but if they are anxious, they can do little to escape from that
anxiety.
- How does anxiety originate? Sullivan (1953b) postulated
that it is transferred from the parent to the infant through
the process of empathy.
- Anxiety in the mothering one inevitably induces anxiety in
the infant. Because all mothers have some amount of anxiety
while caring for their babies, all infants will become anxious
to some degree.
- Just as the infant does not have the capacity to reduce
anxiety, the parent has no effective means of dealing with
the baby’s anxiety. Any signs of anxiety or insecurity by the
infant are likely to lead to attempts by the parent to satisfy
the infant’s needs.
- For example, a mother may feed her anxious, crying baby
because she mistakes anxiety for hunger. If the baby
hesitates in accepting the milk, the mother may become
more anxious herself, which generates additional anxiety
within the infant. Finally, the baby’s anxiety reaches a level at
which it interferes with sucking and swallowing. Anxiety, then,
operates in opposition to tensions of needs and prevents
them from being satisfied.
- Anxiety has a deleterious effect on adults too. It is the chief
disruptive force blocking the development of healthy
interpersonal relations.
- Sullivan (1953b) likened severe anxiety to a blow on the
head. It makes people incapable of learning, impairs
memory, narrows perception, and may result in complete
amnesia.
- Other tensions result in actions directed specifically toward
their relief, but anxiety produces behaviors that (1) prevent
people from learning from their mistakes, (2) keep people
pursuing a childish wish for security, and (3) generally
ensure that people will not learn from their experiences.
- Sullivan (1954) summarized this concept by stating simply
that “the presence of anxiety is much worse than its absence”.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANXIETY AND FEAR
(1) Anxiety usually stems from complex interpersonal
situations and is only vaguely represented in awareness; fear
is more clearly discerned and its origins more easily
pinpointed.
(2) Anxiety has no positive value. Only when transformed
into another tension (anger or fear, for example) can it lead
to profitable actions.
(3) Anxiety blocks the satisfaction of needs, whereas fear
sometimes helps people satisfy certain needs.
ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
- Tensions that are transformed into actions, either overt or
covert, are called energy transformations.
- Awkward term simply refers to our behaviors that are
aimed at satisfying needs and reducing anxiety—the two
great tensions.
- Not all energy transformations are obvious, overt actions;
many take the form of emotions, thoughts, or covert
behaviors that can be hidden from other people.
DYNAMISMS
- Energy transformations become organized as typical
behavior patterns that characterize a person throughout a
lifetime. Sullivan (1953b) called these behavior patterns
dynamisms, a term that means about the same as traits or
habit patterns.
- Dynamisms are of two major classes:
1. First, those related to specific zones of the body, including
the mouth, anus, and genitals;
2. Second, those related to tensions. This second class is
composed of three categories—the disjunctive, the isolating,
and the conjunctive.
(1) DISJUNCTIVE DYNAMISMS: Include those
destructive patterns of behavior that are related to the
concept of malevolence.
(2) ISOLATING DYNAMISMS: Include those behavior
patterns (such as lust) that are unrelated to
interpersonal relations.
(3) CONJUNCTIVE DYNAMISMS: Include beneficial
behavior patterns, such as intimacy and the self-system.
FOUR TYPES OF DYNAMISMS
1) MALEVOLENCE
- The disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred, characterized
by the feeling of living among one’s enemies.
- It originates around age 2 or 3 years when children’s
actions that earlier had brought about maternal tenderness
are rebuffed, ignored, or met with anxiety and pain.
- Malevolent actions often take the form of timidity,
mischievousness, cruelty, or other kinds of asocial or
antisocial behavior.
- Sullivan expressed the malevolent attitude with this colorful
statement: “Once upon a time everything was lovely, but
that was before I had to deal with people.”
- When parents attempt to control their children’s behavior
by physical pain or reproving remarks, some children will
learn to withhold any expression of the need for tenderness
and to protect themselves by adopting the malevolent
attitude. Parents and peers then find it more and more
difficult to react with tenderness, which in turn solidifies the
child’s negative attitude toward the world.
2) INTIMACY
- Grows out of the earlier need for tenderness but is more
specific and involves a close interpersonal relationship
between two people who are more or less of equal status.
- According to Sullivan, Intimacy is an antidote for anxiety
because with intimacy, we feel love and more secure.
- Kapag hindi nadevelop ng maayos yung intimacy ng isang
tao ay maaring mag resulta ito sa anxiety.
- Intimacy must not be confused with sexual interest. In fact,
it develops prior to puberty, ideally during preadolescence
when it usually exists between two children, each of whom
sees the other as a person of equal value.
- Intimacy is a dynamism that requires an equal partnership,
it does not usually exist in parent-child relationships unless
both are adults and see one another as equals.
- Intimacy is an integrating dynamism that tends to draw out
loving reactions from the other person, thereby decreasing
anxiety and loneliness, two extremely painful experiences.
Because intimacy helps us avoid anxiety and loneliness, it is a
rewarding experience that most healthy people desire.
3) LUST
- Lust is an isolating tendency, requiring no other person for
its satisfaction. It manifests itself as autoerotic behavior
even when another person is the object of one’s lust.
- Lust is an especially powerful dynamism during adolescence,
at which time it often leads to a reduction of self-esteem.
- Attempts at lustful activity are often rebuffed by others,
which increases anxiety and decreases feelings of self-worth.
- In addition, lust often hinders an intimate relationship,
especially during early adolescence when it is easily confused
with sexual attraction.
4) SELF-SYSTEM
- The most complex and inclusive of all the dynamisms is the
self-system.
- A consistent pattern of behaviors that maintains people’s
interpersonal security by protecting them from anxiety.
- Like intimacy, the self-system is a conjunctive dynamism
that arises out of the interpersonal situation. However, it
develops earlier than intimacy, at about age 12 to 18 months.
- As children develop intelligence and foresight, they become
able to learn which behaviors are related to an increase or
decrease in anxiety. This ability to detect slight increases or
decreases in anxiety provides the self-system with a built-in
warning device.
- The warning, however, is a mixed blessing. On one hand, it
serves as a signal, alerting people to increasing anxiety and
giving them an opportunity to protect themselves. On the
other hand, this desire for protection against anxiety makes
the self-system resistant to change and prevents people
from profiting from anxiety-filled experiences.
- The primary task of the self-system is to protect people
against anxiety, it is “the principal stumbling block to
favorable changes in personality.”
- Sullivan (1964), however, believed that personality is not
static and is especially open to change at the beginning of
the various stages of development.
- As the self-system develops, people begin to form a
consistent image of themselves. Thereafter, any
interpersonal experiences that they perceive as contrary to
their self-regard threatens their security. As a consequence,
people attempt to defend themselves against interpersonal
tensions by means of security operations, the purpose of
which is to reduce feelings of insecurity or anxiety that result
from endangered self-esteem.
SECURITY OPERATIONS (Defense Mechanism)
- The purpose of security operations is to reduce feelings of
insecurity or anxiety that result from endangered self-
esteem.
- Sullivan (1953b) called security operations “a powerful
brake on personal and human progress.”
- Two important security operations are dissociation and
selective inattention.
1. DISSOCIATION
- Dissociation includes those impulses, desires, and needs
that a person refuses to allow into awareness.
- Some infantile experiences become dissociated when a
baby’s behavior is neither rewarded nor punished, so those
experiences simply do not become part of the self-system.
- Adult experiences that are too foreign to one’s standards of
conduct can also become dissociated.
- These experiences do not cease to exist but continue to
influence personality on an unconscious level.
- Dissociated images manifest themselves in dreams,
daydreams, and other unintentional activities outside of
awareness and are directed toward maintaining
interpersonal security.
- “Hindi ako yan/yun” moments.
2. SELECTIVE INATTENTION
- The control of focal awareness.
- Selective inattention is a refusal to see those things that we
do not wish to see.
- Selectively inattended experiences are more accessible to
awareness and more limited in scope.
- They originate after we establish a self-system and are
triggered by our attempts to block out experiences that are
not consistent with our existing self-system.
- For example, people who regard themselves as scrupulously
law-abiding drivers may “forget” about the many occasions
when they exceeded the speed limit or the times when they
failed to stop completely at a stop sign. Like dissociated
experiences, selectively inattended perceptions remain active
even though they are not fully conscious. (So kinalamitan na
lang nila yung ginawa nilang mali para hindi masira yung self
image nila as law-abiding drivers)
- They are crucial in determining which elements of an
experience will be attended and which will be ignored or
denied.
PERSONIFICATIONS
 Beginning in infancy and continuing throughout the
various developmental stages, people acquire certain
images of themselves and others --- these images are
called Personifications.
 Personifications may be relatively accurate, or because
they are colored by people’s needs and anxieties, they
may be grossly distorted.
 Sullivan (1953b) described three basic personifications
that develop during infancy—the bad-mother, the
good-mother, and the me. In addition, some children
acquire an eidetic personification (imaginary playmate)
during childhood.
THREE BASIC PERSONIFICATIONS
(1) BAD-MOTHER
- Sullivan’s notion of the bad-mother and good-mother is
similar to Klein’s concept of the bad breast and good breast.
- The bad-mother personification, in fact, grows out of the
infant’s experiences with the bad-nipple: that is, the nipple
that does not satisfy hunger needs.
- Whether the nipple belongs to the mother or to a bottle
held by the mother, the father, a nurse, or anyone else is not
important.
- It is not an accurate image of the “real” mother but merely
the infant’s vague representation of not being properly fed.
(2) GOOD-MOTHER
- After the bad-mother personification is formed, an infant
will acquire a good-mother personification based on the
tender and cooperative behaviors of the mothering one.
 These two personifications, one based on the infant’s
perception of an anxious, malevolent mother (Bad-
mother) and the other based on a calm, tender mother
(Good-mother), combine to form a complex
personification composed of contrasting qualities
projected onto the same person. Until the infant
develops language, however, these two opposing
images of mother can easily coexist.
(3) ME PERSONIFICATIONS
- During midinfancy a child acquires three me
personifications (bad-me, good-me, and not-me) that form
the building blocks of the self personification. Each is related
to the evolving conception of me or my body.
 BAD-ME PERSONIFICATION: It is fashioned from
experiences of punishment and disapproval that infants
receive from their mothering one.
- The resulting anxiety is strong enough to teach infants
that they are bad, but it is not so severe as to cause the
experience to be dissociated or selectively inattended.
- Like all personifications, the bad-me is shaped out of
the interpersonal situation; that is, infants can learn
that they are bad only from someone else, ordinarily the
bad-mother.
 GOOD-ME PERSONIFICATION: The good-me
personification results from infants’ experiences with
reward and approval.
- Infants feel good about themselves when they
perceive their mother’s expressions of tenderness. Such
experiences diminish anxiety and foster the good-me
personification.
 NOT-ME PERSONIFICATION: Sudden severe anxiety,
may cause an infant to form the not-me personification
and to either dissociate or selectively inattend
experiences related to that anxiety.
- An infant denies these experiences to the me image so
that they become part of the not-me personification.
- These shadowy not-me personifications are also
encountered by adults and are expressed in dreams,
schizophrenic episodes, and other dissociated reactions.
ADDITIONAL PERSONIFICATION
(4) EIDETIC PERSONIFICATIONS
- Not all interpersonal relations are with real people; some
are eidetic personifications: that is, unrealistic traits or
imaginary friends that many children invent in order to
protect their self-esteem.
- Sullivan (1964) believed that these imaginary friends may
be as significant to a child’s development as real playmates.
- Eidetic personifications, however, are not limited to
children; most adults see fictitious traits in other people.
- Eidetic personifications can create conflict in interpersonal
relations when people project onto others imaginary traits
that are remnants from previous relationships. They also
hinder communication and prevent people from functioning
on the same level of cognition.
LEVELS OF COGNITION
- Levels of cognition refer to ways of perceiving, imagining,
and conceiving.
- Experiences on the prototaxic level are impossible to
communicate; parataxic experiences are personal, prelogical,
and communicated only in distorted form; and syntaxic
cognition is meaningful interpersonal communication.
- Sullivan divided cognition into three levels or modes of
experience: prototaxic, parataxic, and syntaxic.
1. PROTOTAXIC LEVEL
- The earliest and most primitive experiences of an infant
take place on a prototaxic level. Because these experiences
cannot be communicated to others, they are difficult to
describe or define.
- One way to understand the term is to imagine the earliest
subjective experiences of a newborn baby. These experiences
must, in some way, relate to different zones of the body. A
neonate feels hunger and pain, and these prototaxic
experiences result in observable action, for example, sucking
or crying.
- The infant does not know the reason for the actions and
sees no relationship between these actions and being fed. As
undifferentiated experiences, prototaxic events are beyond
conscious recall.
- In adults, prototaxic experiences take the form of
momentary sensations, images, feelings, moods, and
impressions. These primitive images of dream and waking life
are dimly perceived or completely unconscious.
- Although people are incapable of communicating these
images to others, they can sometimes tell another person
that they have just had a strange sensation, one that they
cannot put into words.
2. PARATAXIC LEVEL
- Parataxic experiences are prelogical and usually result when  In
a person assumes a cause-and-effect relationship between
two events that occur coincidentally.
- Parataxic cognitions are more clearly differentiated than
prototaxic experiences, but their meaning remains private.
Therefore, they can be communicated to others only in a
distorted fashion.
- An example of parataxic thinking takes place when a child is
conditioned to say “please” in order to receive candy. If
“candy and “please” occur together a number of times, the
child may eventually reach the illogical conclusion that her
supplications caused the candy’s appearance. This conclusion
is a parataxic distortion, or an illogical belief that a cause-
and-effect relationship exists between two events in close
temporal proximity.
- However, uttering the word “please” does not, by itself,
cause the candy to appear. A dispensing person must be
present who hears the word and is able and willing to honor
the request. When no such person is present, a child may ask
God or imaginary people to grant favors. A good bit of adult
behavior comes from similar parataxic thinking.
SUMMARY OF SULLIVAN’S THEORY
summary, Sullivan identified two kinds of
experience—tensions and energy transformations.
Tensions, or potentiality for action, include needs and
anxiety. Whereas needs are helpful or conjunctive when
satisfied, anxiety is always disjunctive, interfering with
the satisfaction of needs and disrupting interpersonal
relations. Energy transformations literally involve the
transformation of potential energy into actual energy
(behavior) for the purpose of satisfying needs or
reducing anxiety. Some of these behaviors form
consistent patterns of behavior called dynamisms.
Sullivan also recognized three levels of cognition—
prototaxic, parataxic, and syntaxic.

3. SYNTAXIC LEVEL
- Experiences that are consensually validated and that can
be symbolically communicated take place on a syntaxic level.
- Consensually validated experiences are those on whose
meaning two or more persons agree. Words, for example, are
consensually validated because different people more or less
agree on their meaning. The most common symbols used by
one person to communicate with another are those of
language, including words and gestures.
- Sullivan hypothesized that the first instance of syntaxic
cognition appears whenever a sound or gesture begins to STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
have the same meaning for parents as it does for a child. - Sullivan (1953b) postulated seven epochs or stages of
- The syntaxic level of cognition becomes more prevalent as development, each crucial to the formation of human
the child begins to develop formal language, but it never personality.
completely supplants prototaxic and parataxic cognition.
Adult experience takes place on all three levels.
- Sullivan hypothesized that, “as one passes over one of these
more-or-less determinable thresholds of a developmental era,
everything that has gone before becomes reasonably open to
influence”.
- His seven stages are infancy, childhood, the juvenile era,
preadolescence, early adolescence, late adolescence, and
adulthood.
(1) INFANCY
- Infancy begins at birth and continues until a child develops
articulate or syntaxic speech, usually at about age 18 to 24
months.
- Sullivan believed that an infant becomes human through
tenderness received from the mothering one. The
satisfaction of nearly every human need demands the
cooperation of another person.
- Infants cannot survive without a mothering one to provide
food, shelter, moderate temperature, physical contact, and
the cleansing of waste materials.
- Whenever infants feel anxious (a condition originally
transmitted to it by the mother), they try whatever means
available to reduce anxiety. These attempts typically include
rejecting the nipple, but this neither reduces anxiety nor
satisfies the need for food. An infant’s rejection of the nipple,
of course, is not responsible for the mother’s original anxiety
but now adds to it. Eventually the infant discriminates
between the good-nipple and the bad nipple: the former
being associated with relative euphoria in the feeding
process; the latter, with enduring anxiety.
- An infant expresses both anxiety and hunger through
crying. The mothering one may mistake anxiety for hunger
and force the nipple onto an anxious (but not hungry) infant.
- The opposite situation may also take place when a mother,
for whatever reason, fails to satisfy the baby’s needs. The
baby then will experience rage, which increases the mother’s
anxiety and interferes with her ability to cooperate with her
baby.
- With mounting tension, the infant loses the capacity to
receive satisfaction, but the need for food, of course,
continues to increase. Finally, as tension approaches terror,
the infant experiences difficulty with breathing. The baby
may even stop breathing and turn a bluish color, but the
built-in protections of apathy and somnolent detachment
keep the infant from death.
- Apathy and somnolent detachment allow the infant to fall
asleep despite the hunger.
- During the feeding process, the infant not only receives
food but also satisfies some tenderness needs. The
tenderness received by the infant at this time demands the
cooperation of the mothering one and introduces the infant
to the various strategies required by the interpersonal
situation.
- The mother-infant relationship, however, is like a two-
sided coin. The infant develops a dual personification of
mother, seeing her as both good and bad; the mother is
good when she satisfies the baby’s needs and bad when she
stimulates anxiety.
- Around midinfancy, infants begin to learn how to
communicate through language.
- In the beginning, their language is not consensually
validated but takes place on an individualized or parataxic
level. This period of infancy is characterized by autistic
language, that is, private language that makes little or no
sense to other people.
- Early communication takes place in the form of facial
expressions and the sounding of various phonemes. Both are
learned through imitation, and eventually gestures and
speech sounds have the same meaning for the infant as they
do for other people. This communication marks the
beginning of syntaxic language and the end of infancy.
(2) CHILDHOOD
- The era of childhood begins with the advent of syntaxic
language and continues until the appearance of the need for
playmates of an equal status. The age of childhood varies
from culture to culture and from individual to individual, but
in Western society it covers the period from about age 18 to
24 months until about age 5 or 6 years.
- During this stage, the mother remains the most significant
other person, but her role is different from what it was in
infancy. The dual personifications of mother are now fused
into one, and the child’s perception of the mother is more
congruent with the “real” mother.
- Nevertheless, the good-mother and bad-mother
personifications are usually retained on a parataxic level. In
addition to combining the mother personifications, the child
differentiates the various persons who previously formed the
concept of the mothering one, separating mother and father
and seeing each as having a distinct role.
- At about the same time, children are fusing the me-
personifications into a single self-dynamism. Once they
establish syntaxic language, they can no longer consciously
deal with the bad-me and good-me at the same time; now
they label behaviors as good or bad in imitation of their
parents.
- Good and bad now imply social or moral value and no
longer refer to the absence or presence of that painful
tension called anxiety.
- During childhood, emotions become reciprocal; a child is
able to give tenderness as well as receive it. The relationship
between mother and child becomes more personal and less
one-sided.
- Rather than seeing the mother as good or bad based on
how she satisfied hunger needs, the child evaluates the
mother syntaxically according to whether she shows
reciprocal tender feelings, develops a relationship based on
the mutual satisfaction of needs, or exhibits a rejecting
attitude.
- Besides their parents, preschool-aged children often have
one other significant relationship—an imaginary playmate.
This eidetic friend enables children to have a safe, secure
relationship that produces little anxiety.
- Imaginary Playmate: Sullivan insisted that having an
imaginary playmate is not a sign of instability or pathology
but a positive event that helps children become ready for
intimacy with real friends during the preadolescence stage.
These playmates offer children an opportunity to interact
with another “person” who is safe and who will not increase
their level of anxiety. This comfortable, nonthreatening
relationship with an imaginary playmate permits children to
be more independent of parents and to make friends in
later years.
- Sullivan (1953b) referred to childhood as a period of rapid
acculturation. Besides acquiring language, children learn
cultural patterns of cleanliness, toilet training, eating habits,
and sex-role expectancies. They also learn two other
important processes: dramatizations and preoccupations.
DRAMATIZATIONS
- Dramatizations are attempts to act like or sound like
significant authority figures, especially mother and father.
PREOCCUPATIONS
- Preoccupations are strategies for avoiding anxiety and fear-
provoking situations by remaining occupied with an activity
that has earlier proved useful or rewarding.
- The malevolent attitude reaches a peak during the
preschool years, giving some children an intense feeling of
living in a hostile or enemy country.
- At the same time, children learn that society has placed
certain restraints on their freedom. From these restrictions
and from experiences with approval and disapprobation,
children evolve their self-dynamism, which helps them
handle anxiety and stabilize their personality. In fact, the self-
system introduces so much stability that it makes future
changes exceedingly difficult.
(3) JUVENILE ERA
- The juvenile era begins with the appearance of the need for
peers or playmates of equal status and ends when one finds
a single chum to satisfy the need for intimacy.
- In the United States, the juvenile stage is roughly parallel to
the first 3 years of school, beginning around age 5 or 6 and
ending at about age 8 1/2. (It is interesting that Sullivan was
so specific with the age at which this period ends and the
preadolescent stage begins. Remember that Sullivan was 8
1/2 when he began an intimate relationship with a 13-year-
old boy from a nearby farm.)
- During the juvenile stage, Sullivan believed, a child should
learn to compete, compromise, and cooperate.
- The degree of competition found among children of this age
varies with the culture, but Sullivan believed that people in
the United States have generally overemphasized
competition. Many children believe that they must be
competitive to be successful.
- Compromise, too, can be overdone. A 7-year-old child who
learns to continually give in to others is handicapped in the
socialization process, and this yielding trait may continue to
characterize the person in later life.
- Cooperation includes all those processes necessary to get
along with others. The juvenile-age child must learn to
cooperate with others in the real world of interpersonal
relationships. Cooperation is a critical step in becoming
socialized and is the most important task confronting
children during this stage of development.
- By the end of the juvenile stage, a child should have
developed an orientation toward living that makes it easier
to consistently handle anxiety, satisfy zonal and tenderness
needs, and set goals based on memory and foresight. This
orientation toward living readies a person for the deeper
interpersonal relationships to follow.
(4) PREADOLESCENCE
- Preadolescence, which begins at age 81/2 and ends with
adolescence, is a time for intimacy with one particular person,
usually a person of the same gender. All preceding stages
have been egocentric, with friendships being formed on the
basis of self-interest.
- A preadolescent, for the first time, takes a genuine interest
in the other person. Sullivan (1953a) called this process of
becoming a social being the “quiet miracle of
preadolescence”, a likely reference to the personality
transformation he experienced during his own
preadolescence.
- The outstanding characteristic of preadolescence is the
genesis of the capacity to love.
- All interpersonal relationships were based on personal
need satisfaction, but during preadolescence, intimacy and
love become the essence of friendships.
- Intimacy involves a relationship in which the two partners
consensually validate one another’s personal worth.
- Love exists “when the satisfaction or the security of
another person becomes as significant to one as is one’s own
satisfaction or security”.
- A preadolescent’s intimate relationship ordinarily involves
another person of the same gender and of approximately the
same age or social status. Infatuations with teachers or
movie stars are not intimate relationships because they are
not consensually validated. The significant relationships of
this age are typically boy-boy or girl-girl chumships. To be
liked by one’s peers is more important to the preadolescent
than to be liked by teachers or parents. Chums are able to
freely express opinions and emotions to one another without
fear of humiliation or embarrassment. This free exchange of
personal thoughts and feelings initiates the preadolescent
into the world of intimacy. Each chum becomes more fully
human, acquires an expanded personality, and develops a
wider interest in the humanity of all people.
- Sullivan believed that preadolescence is the most
untroubled and carefree time of life.
- Parents are still significant, even though they have been
reappraised in a more realistic light.
- Preadolescents can experience unselfish love that has not
yet been complicated by lust. The cooperation they acquired
during the juvenile era evolves into collaboration or the
capacity to work with another, not for self-prestige, but for
the well-being of that other.
- Experiences during preadolescence are critical for the future
development of personality. If children do not learn intimacy
at this time, they are likely to be seriously stunted in later
personality growth.
- Mistakes made during earlier stages of development can be
overcome during preadolescence, but mistakes made during
preadolescence are difficult to surmount during later stages.
The relatively brief and uncomplicated period of
preadolescence is shattered by the onset of puberty.
(5) EARLY ADOLESCENCE
- Early adolescence begins with puberty and ends with the
need for sexual love with one person. It is marked by the
eruption of genital interest and the advent of lustful
relationships.
- In the United States, early adolescence is generally parallel
with the middle-school years.
- The need for intimacy achieved during the preceding stage
continues during early adolescence, but is now accompanied
by a parallel but separate need—lust.
- In addition, security, or the need to be free from anxiety,
remains active during early adolescence.
- Thus, intimacy, lust, and security often collide with one
another, bringing stress and conflict to the young adolescent
in at least three ways.
1. First, lust interferes with security operations because
genital activity in American culture is frequently
ingrained with anxiety, guilt, and embarrassment.
2. Second, intimacy also can threaten security, as when
young adolescents seek intimate friendships with
othergender adolescents. These attempts are fraught
with self-doubt, uncertainty, and ridicule from others,
which may lead to loss of self-esteem and an increase in
anxiety.
3. Third, intimacy and lust are frequently in conflict
during early adolescence. Although intimate friendships
with peers of equal status are still important, powerful
genital tensions seek outlet without regard for the
intimacy need. Therefore, young adolescents may retain
their intimate friendships from preadolescence while
feeling lust for people they neither like nor even know.
- Because the lust dynamism is biological, it bursts forth at
puberty regardless of the individual’s interpersonal readiness
for it.
- EXAMPLE: A boy with no previous experience with intimacy
may see girls as sex objects, while having no real interest in
them. An early adolescent girl may sexually tease boys but
lack the ability to relate to them on an intimate level.
- Sullivan (1953b) believed that early adolescence is a turning
point in personality development. The person either emerges
from this stage in command of the intimacy and lust
dynamisms or faces serious interpersonal difficulties during
future stages. Although sexual adjustment is important to
personality development, Sullivan felt that the real issue lies
in getting along with other people.
(6) LATE ADOLESCENCE
- Late adolescence begins when young people are able to feel
both lust and intimacy toward the same person, and it ends
in adulthood when they establish a lasting love relationship.
- Late adolescence embraces that period of self-discovery
when adolescents are determining their preferences in
genital behavior, usually during secondary school years, or
about ages 15 to 17 or 18.
- The outstanding feature of late adolescence is the fusion of
intimacy and lust.The troubled attempts at self-exploration
of early adolescence evolve into a stable pattern of sexual
activity in which the loved one is also the object of lustful
interest. People of the other gender are no longer desired
solely as sex objects but as people who are capable of being
loved nonselfishly. Unlike the previous stage that was
ushered in by biological changes, late adolescence is
completely determined by interpersonal relations.
(7) ADULTHOOD
- The successful completion of late adolescence culminates
in adulthood, a period when people can establish a love
relationship with at least one significant other person.
Writing of this love relationship, Sullivan (1953b) stated that
“this really highly developed intimacy with another is not
the principal business of life, but is, perhaps, the principal
source of satisfaction in life”.
- Sullivan had little to say about this final stage because he
believed that mature adulthood was beyond the scope of
interpersonal psychiatry; people who have achieved the
capacity to love are not in need of psychiatric counsel. His
sketch of the mature person, therefore, was not founded on
clinical experience but was an extrapolation from the
preceding stages.
- Mature adults are perceptive of other people’s anxiety,
needs, and security. They operate predominantly on the
syntaxic level, and find life interesting and exciting.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
- Sullivan believed that all psychological disorders have an
interpersonal origin and can be understood only with
reference to the patient’s social environment. He also held
that the deficiencies found in psychiatric patients are found
in every person, but to a lesser degree. There is nothing
unique about psychological difficulties; they are derived from
the same kind of interpersonal troubles faced by all people.
Sullivan (1953a) insisted that “everyone is much more simply
human than unique, and that no matter what ails the
patient, he is mostly a person like the psychiatrist”.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
- In general terms, Sullivanian therapy is aimed at uncovering
patients’ difficulties in relating to others. To accomplish this
goal, the therapist helps patients to give up some security in
dealing with other people and to realize that they can
achieve mental health only through consensually validated
personal relations. The therapeutic ingredient in this process
is the face-to-face relationship between therapist and
patients, which permits patients to reduce anxiety and to
communicate with others on the syntaxic level.
RELATED RESEARCH
- Sullivan’s interpersonal theory of personality rests on the
assumption that unhealthy personality development results
from interpersonal conflicts and difficulties. Beginning
around the age of 6, and especially by the age of 9, children’s
relationships with peers their own age become increasingly
important for personality development. Sullivan particularly
emphasized the importance of same-sex friends and used the
term “chums” to describe this specific category of peers. In
this section we review some recent research on the dynamics
of same-sex friendships in childhood and how they can be
simultaneously helpful and harmful for healthy development
depending on certain factors.
- Chums: Childhood friends with whom we develop intimacy.
THE PROS AND CONS OF “CHUMS” FOR GIRLS AND BOYS
- Harry Stack Sullivan, like countless other psychologists,
considered friends during childhood and adolescence to be
crucial to developing into a healthy adult. Friends are a
source of social support, and it is comforting to lean on them
when times are tough or when you’re having a bad day.
Friends may be particularly important during childhood
because children do not have the same advanced coping
mechanisms that adults have and sometimes struggle to deal
with issues like being rejected by a peer. In situations like
these it is important to have a friend, or a “chum” to use
Sullivan’s language, to talk to. But recently, psychologists
have begun investigating the potentially harmful aspects of
social support in childhood. It may seem counterintuitive to
suggest that having friends can be a bad thing, but
sometimes the dynamics of a particular friendship can
actually be damaging.
IMAGINARY FRIENDS
- Research tends to support Sullivan’s assumptions that
having an imaginary playmate is a normal, healthy experience.
It is neither a sign of pathology nor a result of feelings of
loneliness and alienation from other children. Indeed,
imaginary friends not only may serve as a source of
enjoyment but also may have the more important purpose of
modeling for children what a truly good, mutually enjoyable
friendship should be so that they can avoid bad relationships
as they grow and mature into healthy adults.
CRITIQUE OF SULLIVAN
 Generates Research
 Falsifiable
 Organize Knowledge
 Practical guide for parents, teachers, psychotherapists,
and others concerned with the care of children and
adolescents.
 His theory is consistent, but it lacks the organization he
might have achieved if he had committed more of his
ideas to the printed page.
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
- Sullivan’s basic conception of humanity is summed up in his
one-genus hypothesis, which states that “everyone is much
more simply human than otherwise”. This hypothesis was his
way of saying that similarities among people are much more
important than differences. People are more like people than
anything else.
POST FREUDIAN THEORY - PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
(ERIK ERIKSON)
- Erikson was famous for coining the term Identity Crisis.
- Post-Freudian theory extended Freud’s Psychosexual
Development.
- He suggested that at each stage, a specific psychosocial
struggle contributes to the formation of personality.
- Erikson place more importance in social and historical
influences.
ERIK ERIKSON
- He never knew his biological father.
- Speaks mostly German despite speaking English (as he
immigrated in America during the rise of fascism in Germany)
being his main language for 60 years and at his house, he has
a flag of Denmark.
- He has no formal training in Psychoanalysis.
- Undergone psychoanalysis with Anna Freud.
- Had a child with Down Syndrome, told his other children
that he died. Only the eldest knew about it. When the child
died at the age of 20, the other two children of Erikson were
the one who arranged the burial of the sibling they never
knew existed.
THE EGO IN POST FREUDIAN THEORY
 EGO
- In contrast with Freud’s concept of Ego (being a diplomat
with no power of its own), Erikson’s conception of Ego is
more powerful. It is a positive force that creates a self-
identity or a sense of “I”.
- As the center of our personality, our ego helps us adapt to
the various conflicts and crises of life and keeps us from
losing our individuality to the leveling forces of society.
- During childhood, the ego is weak, pliable, and fragile; but
by adolescence it should begin to take form and gain
strength.
- Throughout our life, it unifies personality and guards against
indivisibility.
- He defined the ego as a person’s ability to unify experiences
and actions in an adaptive manner.
ASPECTS OF EGO
 BODY EGO
- Refers to experiences with our body; a way of seeing
our physical self as different from other people.
 EGO IDEAL
- Represents the image we have of ourselves in
comparison with an established ideal; it is responsible
for our being satisfied or dissatisfied not only with our
physical self but with our entire personal identity.
 EGO IDENTITY
- It is the image we have of ourselves in the variety of
social roles we play.
 Rapid changes in these aspects happen during
adolescence.
 SOCIETY’S INFLUENCE
- To Erikson, the ego exists as potential at birth, but it must
emerge from within a cultural environment.
- Different societies, with their variations in child-rearing
practices, tend to shape personalities that fit the needs and
values of their culture.
- Philippines’ way of child-rearing is very different with the
west therefore the ego develops in a certain way that is
different with the West.
- Erikson (1968, 1974) argued that historically all tribes or
nations, including the United States, have developed what he
called a pseudospecies: that is, an illusion perpetrated and
perpetuated by a particular society that it is somehow chosen
to be the human species.
 EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE
- Epigenetic development implies a step-by-step growth of
fetal organs. The embryo does not begin as a completely
formed little person, waiting to merely expand its structure
and form.
- Rather, it develops, or should develop, according to a
predetermined rate and in a fixed sequence.
- If the eyes, liver, or other organs do not develop during that
critical period for their development, then they will never
attain proper maturity.
- In similar fashion, the ego follows the path of epigenetic
development, with each stage developing at its proper time.
- One stage emerges from and is built upon a previous stage,
but it does not replace that earlier stage.
- This implies that failure or success on each stage will
contribute greatly on the next stage of development.
ASSUMPTIONS OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
 First, growth takes place according to the epigenetic
principle.
 Second, in every stage of life there is an interaction of
opposites—that is, a conflict between a syntonic
(harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive)
element.
 Third, at each stage, the conflict between the dystonic
and syntonic elements produces an ego quality or ego
strength, which Erikson referred to as a basic strength.
 Fourth, too little basic strength at any one stage results
in a core pathology for that stage.
 Fifth, although Erikson referred to his eight stages as
psychosocial stages, he never lost sight of the biological
aspect of human development.
 Sixth, events in earlier stages do not cause later
personality development. Ego identity is shaped by a
multiplicity of conflicts and events—past, present, and
anticipated.
 Seventh, during each stage, but especially from
adolescence forward, personality development is
characterized by an identity crisis, which Erikson (1968)
called “a turning point, a crucial period of increased
vulnerability and heightened potential”.
STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
(1) INFANCY (0-1 Years Old) - Parallel to Oral Stage
- Oral Sensory: Expanded form of oral stage of Freud;
whereas Freud said that children are focused only in the
mouth, Erikson said that all sensory organs also “take in” the
world.
- They can take in air through the lungs and can receive
sensory data without having to manipulate others (biological).
- Infants not only must get, but they also must get someone
else to give. This early training in interpersonal relations
helps them learn to eventually become givers (social).
- Basic Trust (Syntonic) vs Basic Mistrust (Dystonic): Infants’
most significant interpersonal relations are with their primary
caregiver, ordinarily their mother.
- If they realize that their mother will provide food regularly,
then they begin to learn basic trust.
- In contrast, they learn basic mistrust if they find no
correspondence between their oral-sensory needs and their
environment.
- Hope (The Basic Strength of Infancy): By having both
painful and pleasurable experiences, infants learn to expect
that future distresses will meet with satisfactory outcomes.
- Withdrawal (Core Pathology): With little to hope for, they
will retreat from the outside world and begin the journey
toward serious psychological disturbance.
(2) EARLY CHILDHOOD (2-3 Years Old) - Anal Stage
- Anal-urethral-muscular mode: Erikson took a broader view.
To him, young children receive pleasure not only from
mastering the sphincter muscle but also from mastering
other body functions such as urinating, walking, throwing,
holding, and so on.
- At this time, children learn to control their body, especially
in relation to cleanliness and mobility. Early childhood is
more than a time of toilet training; it is also a time of learning
to walk, run, hug parents, and hold on to toys and other
objects.
- Autonomy (Syntonic) vs Shame and Doubt (Dystonic):
- Autonomy = Self-expression
- Shame is a feeling of self-consciousness, of being looked at
and exposed.
- Doubt is the feeling of not being certain, the feeling that
something remains hidden and cannot be seen.
- As children stubbornly express their anal-urethral-msucular
mode, they are likely to find a culture that attempts to inhibit
some of their self-expression. (The “nakakahiya” attitude of
child-rearing in the Philippines.)
- Will (The Basic Strength of Early Childhood): This step is the
beginning of free will and willpower—but only a beginning.
Mature willpower and a significant measure of free will are
reserved for later stages of development, but they originate
in the rudimentary will that emerges during early childhood.
- Compulsion (Core Pathology): Too little will and too much
compulsivity carry forward into the play age as lack of
purpose and into the school age as lack of confidence.
(3) PLAY AGE (3-5 Years Old) - Phallic Stage
- Genital-Locomotor Mode: Erikson believed that the
Oedipus complex is but one of several important
development during the play age.
- Erikson (1968) contended that, in addition to identifying
with their parents, preschool age children are developing
locomotion, language skills, curiosity, imagination, and the
ability to set goals.
- Oedipus Complex: A drama played out in the child’s
imagination and includes the budding understanding of such
basic concepts as reproduction, growth, future, and death.
- Unless sexual interest is provoked by cultural sex play or by
adult sexual abuse, the Oedipus complex produces no
harmful effects on later personality development.
- Para kay Erikson, ang Oedipus Complex ay isang play/drama
lamang para sa mga bata at dito nila nakuha yung thoughts
ng bahay-bahayan.
- The interest that play-age children have in genital activity is
accompanied by their increasing facility at locomotion. They
can now move with ease, running, jumping, and climbing
with no conscious effort; and their play shows both initiative
and imagination.
- Initiative (Syntonic) vs Guilt (Dystonic): Although they
begin to adopt initiative in their selection and pursuit of
goals, many goals, such as marrying their mother or father or
leaving home, must be either repressed or delayed. The
consequence of these taboo and inhibited goals is guilt.
- Purpose (The Basic Strength of the Play Age): Children now
play with a purpose, competing at games in order to win or
to be on top.
- Play age is also the stage in which children are developing a
conscience and beginning to attach labels such as right and
wrong to their behavior. This youthful conscience becomes
the “cornerstone of morality”.
- Inhibition (Core Pathology): If guilt is the dominant element,
children may become compulsively moralistic or overly
inhibited.
(4) SCHOOL AGE (12-13 Years Old) - Latency Period
- At this age, the social world of children is expanding beyond
family to include peers, teachers, and other adult models.
- Latency: Sexual latency is important because it allows
children to divert their energies to learning the technology of
their culture and the strategies of their social interactions.
- As children work and play to acquire these essentials, they
begin to form a picture of themselves as competent or
incompetent.
- These self images are the origin of ego identity—that feeling
of “I” or “me-ness” that evolves more fully during
adolescence.
- Industry vs Inferiority: Although school age is a period of
little sexual development, it is a time of tremendous social
growth.
- Industry a syntonic quality, means industriousness, a
willingness to remain busy with something and to finish a job.
- Inferiority refers to the feelings of inadequacy if their work
is insufficient to accomplish their goals.
- Competence: The Basic Strength of the School Age: The
confidence to use one’s physical and cognitive abilities to
solve the problems that accompany school age. Competence
lays the foundation for “co-operative participation in
productive adult life”.
- Inertia (Core Pathology): If the struggle between industry
and inferiority favors either inferiority or an overabundance
of industry, children are likely to give up and regress to an
earlier stage of development. They may become preoccupied
with infantile genital and Oedipal fantasies and spend most
of their time in nonproductive play.
(5) ADOLESCENCE (14-18 Years Old) - Genital Stage
- The period from puberty to young adulthood, is one of the
most crucial developmental stages because, by the end of
this period, a person must gain a firm sense of ego identity.
- Erikson (1982) saw adolescence as a period of social latency,
just as he saw school age as a time of sexual latency.
- Adolescence is an adaptive phase of personality
development, a period of trial and error.
- Puberty: Defined as genital maturation, plays a relatively
minor role in Erikson’s concept of adolescence.
- Puberty is important psychologically because it triggers
expectations of adult roles yet ahead—roles that are
essentially social and can be filled only through a struggle to
attain ego identity.
- Identity (Syntonic) vs Identity Confusion (Dystonic): The
search for ego identity reaches a climax during adolescence
as young people strive to find out who they are and who they
are not.
- In this search, young people draw from a variety of earlier
self-images that have been accepted or rejected.
- Thus, the seeds of identity begin to sprout during infancy
and continue to grow through childhood, the play age, and
the school age.
- Two Source of Identity: (1) adolescents’ affirmation or
repudiation of childhood identifications, and (2) their
historical and social contexts, which encourage conformity to
certain standards. --- What society demands them to be.
- Identity is defined both positively and negatively, as
adolescents are deciding what they want to become and
what they believe while also discovering what they do not
wish to be and what they do not believe.
- Identity confusion is a syndrome of problems that includes
a divided self-image, an inability to establish intimacy, a
sense of time urgency, a lack of concentration on required
tasks, and a rejection of family or community standards.
- Although identity confusion is a necessary part of our search
for identity, too much confusion can lead to pathological
adjustment in the form of regression to earlier stages of
development.
- We may postpone the responsibilities of adulthood and drift
aimlessly from one job to another, from one sex partner to
another, or from one ideology to another.
- Conversely, if we develop the proper ratio of identity to
identity confusion, we will have (1) faith in some sort of
ideological principle, (2) the ability to freely decide how we
should behave, (3) trust in our peers and adults who give us
advice regarding goals and aspirations, and (4) confidence in
our choice of an eventual occupation.
- Fidelity (The Basic Strength of Adolescence): Faith in one’s
ideology. / Faith in one’s own belief system.
- After establishing their internal standards of conduct,
adolescents are no longer in need of parental guidance but
have confidence in their own religious, political, and social
ideologies.
- Role Repudiation (Core Pathology): Blocks one’s ability to
synthesize various self-images and values into a workable
identity. Role repudiation can take the form of either
diffidence or defiance.
- Diffidence is an extreme lack of self-trust or self-confidence
and is expressed as shyness or hesitancy to express oneself.
- Defiance: Defiant adolescents stubbornly hold to socially
unacceptable beliefs and practices simply because these
beliefs and practices are unacceptable.
(6) YOUNG ADULTHOOD (19-30 Years Old)
- For some people, this stage is a relatively short time, lasting
perhaps only a few years. For others, young adulthood may
continue for several decades.
- Genitality: Much of the sexual activity during adolescence is
an expression of one’s search for identity and is basically self-
serving.
- True genitality can develop only during young adulthood
when it is distinguished by mutual trust and a stable sharing
of sexual satisfactions with a loved person.
- Intimacy (Syntonic) vs Isolation (Dystonic):
- Intimacy is the ability to fuse one’s identity with that of
another person without fear of losing it.
- Because intimacy can be achieved only after people have
formed a stable ego, the infatuations often found in young
adolescents are not true intimacy.
- People who are unsure of their identity may either shy away
from psychosocial intimacy or desperately seek intimacy
through meaningless sexual encounters.
- Mature Intimacy involves sacrifice, compromise, and
commitment within a relationship of two equals.
- Isolation the incapacity to take chances with one’s identity
by sharing true intimacy.
- Again, some degree of isolation is essential before one can
acquire mature love.
- Too much togetherness can diminish a person’s sense of
ego identity, which leads that person to a psychosocial
regression and an inability to face the next developmental
stage.
- Love (The Basic Strength of Young Adulthood):
- Erikson (1968, 1982) defined love as mature devotion that
overcomes basic differences between men and women.
- Mature love means commitment, sexual passion,
cooperation, competition, and friendship.
- Although love includes intimacy, it also contains some
degree of isolation, because each partner is permitted to
retain a separate identity.
- Exclusivity (Core Pathology): Some exclusivity, however, is
necessary for intimacy; that is, a person must be able to
exclude certain people, activities, and ideas in order to
develop a strong sense of identity.
- Exclusivity becomes pathological when it blocks one’s ability
to cooperate, compete, or compromise—all prerequisite
ingredients for intimacy and love.
(7) ADULTHOOD (31-60 Years Old)
- The time when people begin to take their place in society
and assume responsibility for whatever society produces.
- Procreativity: Refers to more than genital contact with an
intimate partner. It includes assuming responsibility for the
care of offspring that result from that sexual contact.
- Ideally, procreation should follow from the mature intimacy
and love established during the preceding stage.
- Obviously, people are physically capable of producing
offspring before they are psychologically ready to care for the
welfare of these children.
- Generativity vs Stagnation: The generation of new beings
as well as new products and new ideas.
- Self-absorption or Stagnation: The generational cycle of
productivity and creativity is crippled when people become
too absorbed in themselves, too self-indulgent.
- Some elements of stagnation and self-absorption, however,
are necessary. Creative people must, at times, remain in a
dormant stage and be absorbed with themselves in order to
eventually generate new growth.
- Care (The Basic Strength of Adulthood): A widening
commitment to take care of the persons, the products, and
the ideas one has learned to care for.
- One must have hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity,
and love in order to take care of that which one cares for.
Care is not a duty or obligation but a natural desire emerging
from the conflict between generativity and stagnation or self-
absorption.
- Rejectivity (Core Pathology): The unwillingness to take care
of certain persons or groups.
- Rejectivity is manifested as self-centeredness, provincialism,
or pseudospeciation: that is, the belief that other groups of
people are inferior to one’s own.
- It is responsible for much of human hatred, destruction,
atrocities, and wars.
(8) OLD AGE (60-Death)
- Generalized Sensuality: One may infer that it means to take
pleasure in a variety of different physical sensations—sights,
sounds, tastes, odors, embraces, and perhaps genital
stimulation.
- Men become more nurturant and more acceptant of the
pleasures of nonsexual relationships, including those with
their grandchildren and great-grandchildren.
- Women become more interested and involved in politics,
finance, and world affairs.
- A generalized sensual attitude, however, is dependent on
one’s ability to hold things together, that is, to maintain
integrity in the face of despair.
- Integrity (Syntonic) vs Despair (Dystonic): At the end of life,
the dystonic quality of despair may prevail, but for people
with a strong ego identity who have learned intimacy and
who have taken care of both people and things, the syntonic
quality of integrity will predominate.
- Integrity means a feeling of wholeness and coherence, an
ability to hold together one’s sense of “I-ness” despite
diminishing physical and intellectual powers.
- Ego integrity is sometimes difficult to maintain when people
see that they are losing familiar aspects of their existence: for
example, spouse, friends, physical health, body strength,
mental alertness, independence, and social usefulness.
- Despair literally means to be without hope; the last
dystonic quality of the life cycle, is in the opposite corner
from hope, a person’s first basic strength.
- Once hope is lost, despair follows and life ceases to have
meaning.
- Wisdom (The Basic Strength of Old Age): Erikson (1982)
defined wisdom as “informed and detached concern with life
itself in the face of death itself”.
- Wisdom draws from and contributes to the traditional
knowledge passed from generation to generation. In old age,
people are concerned with ultimate issues, including
nonexistence.
- Disdain (Core Pathology): A reaction to feeling (and seeing
others) in an increasing state of being finished, confused,
helpless.
- Disdain is a continuation of rejectivity, the core pathology of
adulthood.
SUMMARY OF THE LIFE CYCLE
 The psychosocial crisis is stimulated by a conflict
between the predominating syntonic element and its
antithetical dystonic element.
 From this conflict emerges a basic strength, or ego
quality. Each basic strength has an underlying antipathy
that becomes the core pathology of that stage.
 Humans have an ever-increasing radius of significant
relations, beginning with the maternal person in infancy
and ending with an identification with all humanity
during old age.
CRITIQUE OF ERIKSON
 Generalized a lot of research in Human Development
 Average in Falsifiability (unlike Freudian Theories)
 Only organized knowledge in a developmental
perspective
 Guide to action is too general (no therapy even)
 Focused more on old age
 Internally consistent
 Moderate parsimony
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 Free will and Determination - Middle
 Pessimism and Optimism - Optimistic
 Causality and Teleology - N/A
 Conscious and Unconscious - Mixed
 Social Influence and Biology - Social Influence
 Similarities and Difference - More on differences (per
culture/society)
 MASLOW’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
 HOLISTIC APPROACH TO MOTIVATION
- Motivation is why we do what we do to satisfy a need.
- That is, the whole person, not any single part or
function, is motivated.
- Unlike psychoanalysis which assumes that only a part
of the personality is motivated (Id, Superego, Neurosis,
etc.)

 MOTIVATION IS USUALLY COMPLEX

- Meaning that a person’s behavior may spring from
several separate motives.
- For example, the desire for sexual union maybe

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE motivated not only by a genital need but also by needs

HOLISTIC DYNAMIC THEORY (ABRAHAM MASLOW) for dominance, companionship, love, and self-esteem.

 Assumes that the whole person is constantly being

motivated by one need or another.  PEOPLE ARE CONTINUALLY MOTIVATED BY ONE NEED

 People have the potential to grow toward psychological OR ANOTHER

health, that is, self-actualization. - When one need is satisfied, it ordinarily loses its

 Humanistic Perspective is considered as the third force motivational power and is then replaced by another

of psychology (First is Psychodynamic Perspective, need.

second is Behaviorism). - For example, as long as people’s hunger needs are

frustrated, they will strive for food; but when they do

ABRAHAM MASLOW have enough to eat, they move on to other needs such

 He has a high IQ (195) but is not motivated enough to as safety, friendship, and self-worth.

perform well in school which resulted to academic

probation.  ALL PEOPLE EVERYWHERE ARE MOTIVATED BY THE

 He has low social skills. SAME BASIC NEEDS

 His wife is his first cousin, Bertha Goodman.

 He hates her religious mother, to the point of not  NEEDS CAN BE ARRANGED ON A HIERARCHY

attending her funeral.

 He does not like religion and he has atheistic belief,
maybe because of his mother.
 He trained as a psychoanalyst and as a behaviorist but
ended up becoming one of the pillars of humanistic
perspective.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs concept assumes that lower
level needs must be satisfied or at least relatively satisfied
before higher level needs become motivators.
- Conative Needs: The five needs composing this hierarchy
are conative needs, meaning that they have a striving or
motivational character.
1) PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
- The most basic needs of any person are physiological
needs, including food, water, oxygen, maintenance of
body temperature, and so on.
- Recurring Nature: After people have eaten, they will
eventually become hungry again; they constantly need
to replenish their food and water supply; and one
breath of air must be followed by another. (In tagalog,
lulubog at lilitaw yung physiological needs ng isang tao)
2) SAFETY NEEDS
- When people have partially satisfied their physiological
needs, they become motivated by safety needs,
including physical security, stability, dependency,
protection, and freedom from threatening forces such
as war, terrorism, illness, fear, anxiety, danger, chaos,
and natural disasters. The needs for law, order, and
structure are also safety needs.
- Safety needs differ from physiological needs in that
they cannot be overly satiated; people can never be
completely protected from meteorites, fires, floods, or
the dangerous acts of others.
- Also, some adults also feel relatively unsafe because
they retain irrational fears from childhood that cause
them to act as if they were afraid of parental
punishment.
- They spend far more energy than do healthy people
trying to satisfy safety needs, and when they are not
successful in their attempts, they suffer from what
Maslow (1970) called basic anxiety.
3) LOVE AND BELONGINGNESS
- After people partially satisfy their physiological and
safety needs, they become motivated by love and
belongingness needs, such as the desire for friendship;
the wish for a mate and children; the need to belong to
a family, a club, a neighborhood, or a nation.
- Love and belongingness also include some aspects of
sex and human contact as well as the need to both give
and receive love.
- People who have had their love and belongingness
needs adequately satisfied from early years do not panic
when denied love. These people have confidence that
they are accepted by those who are important to them,
so when other people reject them, they do not feel
devastated.
- A second group of people consists of those who have
never experienced love and belongingness, and,
therefore, they are incapable of giving love.
- People who have received only a little amount of love
have stronger needs for affection and acceptance than
do people who have received either a healthy amount
of love or no love at all.
4) ESTEEM NEEDS
- To the extent that people satisfy their love and
belongingness needs, they are free to pursue esteem
needs, which include self-respect, confidence,
competence, and the knowledge that others hold them
in high esteem.
- Maslow (1970) identified two levels of esteem needs—
reputation and self-esteem.
- Reputation is the perception of the prestige,
recognition, or fame a person has achieved in the eyes
of others, whereas self-esteem is a person’s own
feelings of worth and confidence.
- Self-esteem is based on more than reputation or
prestige; it reflects a “desire for strength, for
achievement, for adequacy, for mastery and
competence, for confidence in the face of the world,
and for independence and freedom”.
5) SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS
- Self-actualization needs include self fulfillment, the
 realization of all one’s potential, and a desire to become
creative in the full sense of the word.
- When lower level needs are satisfied, people proceed
more or less automatically to the next level. However,
once esteem needs are met, they do not always move
to the level of self-actualization.
- Self-actualizing people maintain their feelings of self-
esteem even when scorned, rejected, and dismissed by
other people. In other words, self-actualizers are not
dependent on the satisfaction of either love or esteem
needs; they become independent from the lower level
needs that gave them birth.
- Not all people can achieve self-actualization needs
because they must first have B-values (Being Values) in
order for them to step in self-actualization needs level.
- B-Values (Being Values): Includes truth, goodness,
beauty, transcendence of dichotomies, aliveness or
spontaneity, uniqueness, perfection, completion, justice,
simplicity, richness or totality, effortlessness,
playfulness or humor, and self-sufficiency. If a particular
person value/prioritize these things, then that person
have a chance to proceed to the level of acquiring self-
actualization needs.
OTHER NEEDS
- The satisfaction of aesthetic and cognitive needs is
consistent with psychological health, whereas the
deprivation of these two needs results in pathology. Neurotic
needs, however, lead to pathology whether or not they are
satisfied.
- Needs that are not universal ad not included in the
hierarchy.
1. AESTHETIC NEEDS
- Not universal, but at least some people in every culture
seem to be motivated by the need for beauty and
aesthetically pleasing experiences.
2. COGNITIVE NEEDS
- Most people have a desire to know, to solve mysteries, to
understand, and to be curious.
- When cognitive needs are blocked, all needs on Maslow’s
hierarchy are threatened; that is, knowledge is necessary to
satisfy each of the five conative needs.
- People who have not satisfied their cognitive needs, who
have been consistently lied to, have had their curiosity stifled,
or have been denied information, become pathological, a
pathology that takes the form of skepticism, disillusionment,
and cynicism.
3. NEUROTIC NEEDS
- By definition, neurotic needs are nonproductive. They
perpetuate an unhealthy style of life and have no value in the
striving for self-actualization.
- Neurotic needs are usually reactive; that is, they serve as
compensation for unsatisfied basic needs.
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF NEEDS
- Maslow (1970) estimated that the hypothetical average
person has his or her needs satisfied to approximately these
levels: physiological, 85%; safety, 70%; love and
belongingness, 50%; esteem, 40%; and self-actualization,
10%.
 REVERSED ORDER OF NEEDS
- Reversals, however, are usually more apparent than
real, and some seemingly obvious deviations in the
order of needs are not variations at all. If we understood
the unconscious motivation underlying the behavior, we
would recognize that the needs are not reversed.
 UNMOTIVATED BEHAVIOR
- Some behavior is not caused by needs but by other
factors such as conditioned reflexes, maturation, or
drugs.
 EXPRESSIVE AND COPING BEHAVIOR
- Maslow (1970) distinguished between expressive
behavior (which is often unmotivated) and coping
behavior (which is always motivated and aimed at
 satisfying a need).
- Expressive behavior is often an end in itself and serves
no other purpose than to be.
- Expressive behaviors also include one’s gait, gestures,
voice, and smile (even when alone).
- Coping behavior is ordinarily conscious, effortful,
learned, and determined by the external environment.
- Coping behavior involves the individual’s attempts to
cope with the environment; to secure food and shelter;
to make friends; and to receive acceptance,
appreciation, and prestige from others.
 DEPRIVATION OF NEEDS
- Deprivation of physiological needs results in
malnutrition, fatigue, loss of energy, obsession with sex,
and so on.
- Threats to one’s safety lead to fear, insecurity, and
dread. When love needs go unfulfilled, a person
becomes defensive, overly aggressive, or socially timid.
- Lack of esteem results in the illnesses of self-doubt,
self-depreciation, and lack of confidence. Deprivation of
self-actualization needs also leads to pathology, or more
accurately, metapathology.
- Metapathology: The absence of values, the lack of
fulfillment, and the loss of meaning in life.
 INSTINCTOID NATURE OF NEEDS
- Maslow (1970) hypothesizes that some human needs
are innately determined even though they can be
modified by learning.
- Sex, for example, is a basic physiological need, but the
manner in which it is expressed depends on learning.
COMPARISON OF HIGHER AND LOWER NEEDS
 First, higher level needs are later on the phylogenetic or
evolutionary scale. For instance, only humans (a
relatively recent species) have the need for self-
actualization.
 Second, higher level needs produce more happiness and
more peak experiences, although satisfaction of lower
level needs may produce a degree of pleasure.
 Hedonistic pleasure, however, is usually temporary and
not comparable to the quality of happiness produced by
the satisfaction of higher needs.
SELF-ACTUALIZATION (Who are these people?)
 CRITERIA FOR SELF-ACTUALIZATION
- First, they were free from psychopathology.
- Second, these self-actualizing people had progressed
through the hierarchy of needs and therefore lived
above the subsistence level of existence and had no
ever present threat to their safety.
- Maslow’s third criterion for self-actualization was the
embracing of the B-values.
- Fourth, self-actualizing individuals fulfilled their needs
to grow, to develop, and to increasingly become what
they were capable of becoming.
 VALUES FOR SELF-ACTUALIZERS
- Maslow termed B-values “metaneeds” to indicate that
they are the ultimate level of needs.
- He distinguished between ordinary need motivation
and the motives of selfactualizing people, which he
called metamotivation.
- Metamotivation is characterized by expressive rather
than coping behavior and is associated with the B-values.
- The values of self-actualizing people include truth,
goodness, beauty, wholeness or the transcendence of
dichotomies, aliveness or spontaneity, uniqueness,
perfection, completion, justice and order, simplicity,
richness or totality, effortlessness, playfulness or humor,
and self-sufficiency or autonomy.
- Deprivation of any of the B-values results in
metapathology, or the lack of a meaningful philosophy
of life.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF-ACTUALIZERS
 MORE EFFICIENT PERCEPTION OF REALITY
- They can discriminate between the genuine and the
fake not only in people but also in literature, art, and
music.
 ACCEPTANCE OF SELF, OTHERS, AND NATURE
- Self-actualizing people can accept themselves the way
they are.
- They lack defensiveness, phoniness, and self-defeating
guilt; have good hearty animal appetites for food, sleep,
and sex; are not overly critical of their own
shortcomings; and are not burdened by undue anxiety
or shame.
 SPONTANEITY, SIMPLICITY, AND NATURALNESS
- They are unconventional but not compulsively so; they
are highly ethical but may appear unethical or
nonconforming.
- But when the situation warrants it, they can be
unconventional and uncompromising even at the price
of ostracism and censure.
- They ordinarily live simple lives in the sense that they
have no need to erect a complex veneer designed to
deceive the world.
- They are unpretentious and not afraid or ashamed to
express joy, awe, elation, sorrow, anger, or other deeply
felt emotions.
 PROBLEM CENTERING
- Non-self-actualizing people are self-centered and tend
to see all the world’s problems in relation to themselves,
whereas self-actualizing people are task oriented and
concerned with problems outside themselves.
- They are concerned with eternal problems and adopt
a solid philosophical and ethical basis for handling these
problems.
 NEED FOR PRIVACY
- Self-actualizing people have a quality of detachment
that allows them to be alone without being lonely.
- They feel relaxed and comfortable when they are
either with people or alone.
- Self-actualizing people may be seen as aloof or
uninterested, but in fact, their disinterest is limited to
minor matters.
 AUTONOMY
- Self-actualizing people are autonomous and depend on
themselves for growth even though at some time in
their past they had to have received love and security
from others.
- Self-actualizing people have that confidence and
therefore a large measure of autonomy that allows
them to be unperturbed by criticism as well as unmoved
by flattery.
- This independence also gives them an inner peace and
serenity not enjoyed by those who live for the approval
of others.
 CONTINUED FRESHNESS OF APPREACIATION
- Maslow (1970) wrote that “self-actualizing people
have the wonderful capacity to appreciate again and
again, freshly and naively, the basic goods of life, with
awe, pleasure, wonder, and even ecstasy” (p. 163). They
are keenly aware of their good physical health, friends
and loved ones, economic security, and political
freedom.
- They have an appreciation of their possessions and do
not waste time complaining about a boring,
uninteresting existence. In short, they “retain their
constant sense of good fortune and gratitude for it”.
 PEAK EXPERIENCES
- The peak experience is unmotivated, nonstriving, and
nonwishing, and during such an experience, a person
experiences no needs, wants, or deficiencies.
 GEMEINSCHAFTSGEFUHL
- Same with Adler’s Social Interest.
- Self-actualizers may become angry, impatient, or
disgusted with others; but they retain a feeling of
affection for human beings in general. More specifically,
Maslow (1970) stated that self-actualizing people are
“often saddened, exasperated, and even enraged by the
shortcomings of the average person” (p. 166), but
nevertheless, they continue to feel a basic kinship with
that person.
 PROFOUND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS
- Self-actualizers have a nurturant feeling toward
 people in general, but their close friendships are limited
to only a few.
 DEMOCRATIC CHARACTER STRUCTURE
- They could be friendly and considerate with other
people regardless of class, color, age, or gender, and in
fact, they seemed to be quite unaware of superficial
differences among people.
 DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN MEANS AND ENDS
- Self-actualizing people have a clear sense of right and
wrong conduct and have little conflict about basic
values. They set their sights on ends rather than means
and have an unusual ability to distinguish between the
two.
 PHILOSOPHICAL SENSE OF HUMOR
- Healthy people see little humor in put-down jokes.
They may poke fun at themselves, but not
masochistically so. They make fewer tries at humor than
others, but their attempts serve a purpose beyond
making people laugh.
 CREATIVENESS
- Not all self-actualizers are talented or creative in the
arts, but all are creative in their own way. They have a
keen perception of truth, beauty, and reality—
ingredients that form the foundation of true creativity.
 RESISTANCE TO ENCULTURATION
- Self-actualizing people have a sense of detachment
from their surroundings and are able to transcend a
particular culture.
- They are autonomous, following their own standards
of conduct and not blindly obeying the rules of others.
- Self-actualizing people do not waste energy fighting
against insignificant customs and regulations of society.
Such folkways as dress, hair style, and traffic laws are
relatively arbitrary, and self-actualizing people do not
make a conspicuous show of defying these conventions.
 LOVE, SEX, AND SELF-ACTUALIZATION
- Before people can become self-actualizing, they must
satisfy their love and belongingness needs. It follows
then that self-actualizing people are capable of both
giving and receiving love and are no longer motivated by
the kind of deficiency love (D-love) common to other
people. Self-actualizing people are capable of B-love,
that is, love for the essence or “Being” of the other.
- Self-actualizing people do not love because they
expect something in return. They simply love and are
loved. Their love is never harmful. It is the kind of love
that allows lovers to be relaxed, open, and non-
secretive.
JONAH COMPLEX
- According to Maslow (1970), everyone is born with a will
toward health, a tendency to grow toward self-actualization,
but few people reach it. What prevents people from
achieving this high level of health?
- Another obstacle that often blocks people’s growth toward
self-actualization is the Jonah complex, or the fear of being
one’s best (Maslow, 1979).
- The Jonah complex is characterized by attempts to run
away from one’s destiny just as the biblical Jonah tried to
escape from his fate.
- The Jonah complex, which is found in nearly everyone,
represents a fear of success, a fear of being one’s best, and a
feeling of awesomeness in the presence of beauty and
perfection.
- Maslow’s IQ and academic performance is parallel to
Jonah’s story.
- Most people, he reasoned, have private ambition to be
great, to write a great novel, to be a movie star, to become a
world-famous scientist, and so on. However, when they
compare themselves with those who have accomplished
greatness, they are appalled by their own arrogance: “Who
am I to think I could do as well as this great person?” As a
defense against this grandiosity or “sinful pride,” they lower
their aspirations, feel stupid and humble, and adopt the self-
defeating approach of running away from the realization of
their full potentials.
- Almost same with excuses of Adler (Safeguarding
Tendencies).
PSYCHOTHERAPY
- To Maslow (1970), the aim of therapy would be for clients
to embrace the Being values, that is, to value truth, justice,
goodness, simplicity, and so forth.
- To accomplish this aim, clients must be free from their
dependency on others so that their natural impulse toward
growth and self-actualization could become active.
- The goals of psychology follow from the client’s position on
the hierarchy of needs. Because physiological and safety
needs are prepotent, people operating on these levels will
not ordinarily be motivated to seek psychotherapy. Instead,
they will strive to obtain nourishment and protection.
CRITIQUE OF MASLOW
 Generating Research - Slightly above average
 Falsification - Low; as it build on some concepts of
Pscyhoanalysis (needs, motivation, drives)
 Organization of Knowledge - High
 Application - Yes, especially in organizations
 Internal Consistency - Low (self-actualization
somehow arcane)
 Parsimony - Okay
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 Free Choice over Determinism
 Optimistic
 Teleological
 Uniqueness and Similarity
 Conscious
 Social influences vs Biology is a false dichotomy since
according to Maslow, people are both influenced by
both
PERSON-CENTERED THEORY (CARL ROGERS)
 Follows an if-then framework
 If certain conditions exist, then a process will occur; if
this process occurs, then certain outcomes can be
expected.
 If the therapist is congruent and communicates
unconditional positive regard and accurate empathy to
the client, then therapeutic change will occur.
 If the therapist is congruent and communicates
unconditional positive regard and accurate empathy to
the client, then therapeutic change will occur.
CARL ROGERS
 He wanted to become a farmer, then wanted to become
a devout Christian and then eventually did not do both.
 He ended up becoming a clinical/educational
psychologist.
 More of a therapist than a theorist.
 He did not want to create his own systematized theory
is but was pressured by his contemporaries to do so.
 When he was a child, he was extremely shy and
eventually became more socially skilled.
 He served as APA president (1946-1947)
ROGER’S BASIC ASSUMPTION
 FORMATIVE TENDENCY
- Rogers (1978, 1980) believed that there is a tendency
for all matter, both organic and Inorganic, to evolve
from simpler to more complex forms.
- Complex galaxies of stars form from a less well-
organized mass; crystals such as snowflakes emerge
from formless vapor; complex organisms develop from
single cells; and human consciousness evolves from a
primitive unconsciousness to a highly organized
awareness.
 ACTUALIZING TENDENCY
- The tendency within all humans (and other animals
and plants) to move toward completion or fulfillment of
potentials.
 - This tendency is the only motive people possess.
- Because each person operates as one complete
organism, actualization involves the whole person—
physiological and intellectual, rational and emotional,
conscious and unconscious.
 MAINTENANCE
- Similar to the lower steps on Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs. It includes such basic needs as food, air,
and safety; but it also includes the tendency to
resist change and to seek the status quo.
 ENHANCEMENT
- Strong desire to learn and willingness to change.
- Enhancement needs are expressed in a variety of
forms, including curiosity, playfulness, self-
exploration, friendship, and confidence that one
can achieve psychological growth.
- Other animals and even plants have an inherent
tendency to grow toward reaching their genetic
potential—provided certain conditions are present.
- For example, in order for a bell pepper plant to
reach its full productive potential, it must have
water, sunlight, and a nutrient soil.
- People must be involved in a relationship with a
partner who is congruent, or authentic, and who
demonstrates empathy and unconditional positive
regard in order for them to actualize.
- If people have partner who is congruent,
authentic, empathic and gives unconditional
positive regard, then actualization can occur.
- Although people share the actualizing tendency
with plants and other animals, only humans have a
concept of self and thus a potential for self-
actualization.
 SELF AND SELF-ACTUALIZATION
- Infants begin to develop a vague concept of self when
a portion of their experience becomes personalized and
differentiated in awareness as “I” or “me” experiences.
- Once infants establish a rudimentary self structure,
their tendency to actualize the self begins to evolve.
 SELF-ACTUALIZATION
- Is a subset of the actualization tendency and is
therefore not synonymous with it.
- The tendency to actualize the self as perceived in
awareness.
 SELF-CONCEPT
- The self-concept includes all those aspects of
one’s being and one’s experiences that are
perceived in awareness (though not always
accurately) by the individual.
- This is not similar to the organismic self because
portions of organic self is beyond our perception.
- For example, the stomach is part of the
organismic self, but unless it malfunctions and
causes concern, it is not likely to be part of one’s
self-concept.
- Similarly, people can disown certain aspects of
their selves, such as experiences of dishonesty,
when such experiences are not consistent with
their self-concept.
- Thus, once people form their self-concept, they
find change and significant learnings quite difficult.
- Experiences that are inconsistent with their self-
concept usually are either denied or accepted only
in distorted forms.
- When the organism and the perceived self are in
harmony, the two actualization tendencies are
nearly identical.
- When people’s organismic experiences are not in
harmony with their view of self, a discrepancy
exists between the actualization tendency and the
self-actualization tendency.
 IDEAL SELF
- Defined as one’s view of self as one wishes to be.
The ideal self contains all those attributes, usually
positive, that people aspire to possess.
- A wide gap between the ideal self and the self-
concept indicates incongruence and an unhealthy
personality.
 AWARENESS
- Without awareness the self-concept and the ideal self
would not exist. Rogers (1959) defined awareness as
“the symbolic representation (not necessarily in verbal
symbols) of some portion of our experience”. He used
the term synonymously with both consciousness and
symbolization.
 LEVELS OF AWARENESS
- (1) First, some events are experienced below the
threshold of awareness and are either ignored or
denied.
- An ignored experience can be illustrated by a
woman walking down a busy street, an activity that
presents many potential stimuli, particularly of
sight and sound. Because she cannot attend to all
of them, many remain ignored.
- An example of denied experience might be a
mother who never wanted children, but out of
guilt she becomes overly solicitous to them. Her
anger and resentment toward her children may be
hidden to her for years, never reaching
consciousness but yet remaining a part of her
experience and coloring her conscious behavior
toward them.
- (2) Second, Rogers (1959) hypothesized that
some experiences are accurately symbolized and
freely admitted to the self-structure.
- Such experiences are both nonthreatening and
consistent with the existing self-concept.
- For example, if a pianist who has full confidence
in his piano-playing ability is told by a friend that
his playing is excellent, he may hear these words,
accurately symbolize them, and freely admit them
to his self-concept.
- (3) A third level of awareness involves
experiences that are perceived in a distorted form.
When our experience is not consistent with our
view of self, we reshape or distort the experience
so that it can be assimilated into our existing self-
concept.
 DENIAL OF POSITIVE EXPERIENCE
- Many people have difficulty accepting genuine
compliments and positive feedback, even when
deserved.
 BECOMING A PERSON
- Rogers (1959) discussed the processes necessary to
becoming a person.
- First, an individual must make contact—positive or
negative—with another person. This contact is the
minimum experience necessary for becoming a person.
In order to survive, an infant must experience some
contact from a parent or other caregiver.
- INFANCY: The person must be in contact (either
positively or negatively) to another person, which is the
caregiver.
- As children (or adults) become aware that another
person has some measure of regard for them, they
begin to value positive regard and devalue negative
regard. That is, the person develops a need to be loved,
liked, or accepted by another person, a need that
Rogers (1959) referred to as positive regard.
- Positive regard is a prerequisite for positive self-regard,
defined as the experience of prizing or valuing one’s self.
- Rogers (1959) believed that receiving positive regard
from others is necessary for positive self-regard, but
once positive self-regard is established, it becomes
independent of the continual need to be loved.
 BARRIERS TO PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH
- Not everyone becomes a psychologically healthy
person. Rather, most people experience conditions of
worth, incongruence, defensiveness, and
disorganization.
 CONDITIONS OF WORTH
- Instead of receiving unconditional positive regard,
most people receive conditions of worth; that is,
they perceive that their parents, peers, or partners
love and accept them only if they meet those
 people’s expectations and approval. “A condition
of worth arises when the positive regard of a
significant other is conditional, when the individual
feels that in some respects he [or she] is prized and
in others not”.
- External Evaluations: Our perceptions of other
people’s view of us.
 INCONGRUENCE
- This happens if the organism and the self are not
aligned. That is, the person who we really are
(Organismic self) is not aligned with the person
who we really want to be (Ideal Self).
- Vulnerability: Rogers (1959) believed that people
are vulnerable when they are unaware of the
discrepancy between their organismic self and
their significant experience.
- Anxiety and Threat: Whereas vulnerability exists
when we have no awareness of the incongruence
within our self, anxiety and threat are experienced
as we gain awareness of such an incongruence.
- Defensiveness: In order to prevent this
inconsistency between our organismic experience
and our perceived self, we react in a defensive
manner. Defensiveness is the protection of the
self-concept against anxiety and threat by the
denial or distortion of experiences inconsistent
with it (Rogers, 1959).
- The two chief defenses are distortion and denial:
- Distortion: We misinterpret an experience
in order to fit it into some aspect of our
self-concept. We perceive the experience in
awareness, but we fail to understand its
true meaning.
- Denial: We refuse to perceive an
experience in awareness, or at least we
keep some aspect of it from reaching
symbolization.
- Disorganization: Most people engage in
defensive behavior, but sometimes defenses fail
and behavior becomes disorganized or psychotic.
- Disorganization can occur suddenly, or it can take
place gradually over a long period of time.
Ironically, people are particularly vulnerable to
disorganization during therapy, especially if a
therapist accurately interprets their actions and
also insists that they face the experience
prematurely.
- An example of the first case is a previously
prudish and proper woman who suddenly begins
to use language explicitly sexual and scatological.
The second case can be illustrated by a man who,
because his self-concept is no longer a gestalt or
unified whole, begins to behave in a confused,
inconsistent, and totally unpredictable manner.
- Rogers, however, do not like labeling his clients.
Insisted of calling it psychosis or neurosis, he
prefers to call it disorganized behaviors.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
- Briefly, the client-centered approach holds that in order for
vulnerable or anxious people to grow psychologically, they
must come into contact with a therapist who is congruent
and whom they perceive as providing an atmosphere of
unconditional acceptance and accurate empathy.
CONDITIONS OF THERAPY
 COUNSELOR CONGRUENCE
- Congruence exists when a person’s organismic
experiences are matched by an awareness of them and
by an ability and willingness to openly express these
feelings (Rogers, 1980). To be congruent means to be
real or genuine, to be whole or integrated, to be what
one truly is.
 UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
- Positive regard is the need to be liked, prized, or
accepted by another person. When this need exists
without any conditions or qualifications, unconditional
positive regard occurs (Rogers, 1980).
 EMPATHIC LISTENING
- Empathy exists when therapists accurately sense the
feelings of their clients and are able to communicate
these perceptions so that clients know that another
person has entered their world of feelings without
prejudice, projection, or evaluation.
PROCESS OF THERAPY (Stages of Therapeutic Change)
- The process of constructive personality change can be
placed on a continuum from most defensive to most
integrated. Rogers (1961) arbitrarily divided this continuum
into seven stages.
(1) STAGE 1: Characterized by an unwillingness to
communicate anything about oneself (Denial of Problems).
(2) STAGE 2: Clients become slightly less rigid. They discuss
external events and other people, but they still disown or fail
to recognize their own feelings (Recognizing that there is a
problem but it is not their problem).
(3) STAGE 3: They more freely talk about self, although still as
an object. “I’m doing the best I can at work, but my boss still
doesn’t like me.” Clients talk about feelings and emotions in
the past or future tense and avoid present feelings.
(4) STAGE 4: Begin to talk of deep feelings but not ones
presently felt. “I was really burned up when my teacher
accused me of cheating.” When clients do express present
feelings, they are usually surprised by this expression. They
deny or distort experiences, although they may have some
dim recognition that they are capable of feeling emotions in
the present.
(5) STAGE 5: They have begun to undergo significant change
and growth. They can express feelings in the present,
although they have not yet accurately symbolized those
feelings. They are beginning to rely on an internal locus of
evaluation for their feelings and to make fresh and new
discoveries about themselves.
(6) STAGE 6: People at Stage 6 experience dramatic growth
and an irreversible movement toward becoming fully
functioning or self-actualizing. They freely allow into
awareness those experiences that they had previously denied
or distorted.
(7) STAGE 7: Can occur outside the therapeutic encounter,
because growth at Stage 6 seems to be irreversible. Clients
who reach Stage 7 become fully functioning “persons of
tomorrow” (a concept more fully explained in the section
titled The Person of Tomorrow). They are able to generalize
their in-therapy experiences to their world beyond therapy.
Theoretical Explanation for Therapeutic Change
- When persons come to experience themselves as prized
and unconditionally accepted, they realize, perhaps for the
first time, that they are lovable.
- As clients perceive that they are emphatically understood,
they are freed to listen to themselves more accurately, to
have empathy for their own feelings.
- As a consequence, when these persons come to prize
themselves and to accurately understand themselves, their
perceived self becomes more congruent with their
organismic experiences.
- They now possess the same three therapeutic
characteristics as any effective helper, and in effect, they
become their own therapist.
OUTCOMES
- If the process of therapeutic change is set in motion, then
certain observable outcomes can be expected. The most
basic outcome of successful client-centered therapy is a
congruent client who is less defensive and more open to
experience. Each of the remaining outcomes is a logical
extension of this basic one.
- As a result of being more congruent and less defensive,
clients have a clearer picture of themselves and a more
realistic view of the world. They are better able to assimilate
experiences into the self on the symbolic level; they are more
effective in solving problems; and they have a higher level of
positive self-regard.

THE PERSON OF TOMORROW
 MORE ADAPTABLE
- First, psychologically healthy people would be more
adaptable. Thus, from an evolutionary viewpoint, they
would be more likely to survive—hence the title
“persons of tomorrow.”
- They would not merely adjust to a static environment
but would realize that conformity and adjustment to a
fixed condition have little long-term survival value.
 OPEN TO THEIR EXPERIENCES
- Second, persons of tomorrow would be open to their
experiences, accurately symbolizing them in awareness
rather than denying or distorting them.
 TRUST IN THEIR ORGANISMIC SELF
- A related characteristic of persons of tomorrow would
be a trust in their organismic selves. These fully
functioning people would not depend on others for
guidance because they would realize that their own
experiences are the best criteria for making choices;
they would do what feels right for them because they
would trust their own inner feelings more than the
pontifications of parents or the rigid rules of society.
 LIVE FULLY IN THE MOMENT
- A third characteristic of persons of tomorrow would be
a tendency to live fully in the moment. Because these
people would be open to their experiences, they would
experience a constant state of fluidity and change.
 HARMONIOUS RELATIONS WITH OTHERS
- Fourth, persons of tomorrow would remain confident
of their own ability to experience harmonious relations
with others. They would feel no need to be liked or
loved by everyone, because they would know that they
are unconditionally prized and accepted by someone.
- Persons of tomorrow would be authentic in their
relations with others. They would be what they appear
to be, without deceit or fraud, without defenses and
facades, without hypocrisy and sham.
 MORE INTEGRATED
- Fifth, persons of tomorrow would be more integrated,
more whole, with no artificial boundary between
conscious processes and unconscious ones. Because
they would be able to accurately symbolize all their
experiences in awareness, they would see clearly the
difference between what is and what should be.
 BASIC TRUST OF HUMAN NATURE
- Sixth, persons of tomorrow would have a basic trust of
human nature. They would not harm others merely for
personal gain; they would care about others and be
ready to help when needed; they would experience
anger but could be trusted not to strike out
unreasonably against others; they would feel aggression
but would channel it in appropriate directions.
 EXPERIENCES GREATER RICHNESS IN LIFE
- Finally, because persons of tomorrow are open to all
their experiences, they would enjoy a greater richness in
life than do other people. They would neither distort
internal stimuli nor buffer their emotions. Consequently,
they would feel more `deeply than others. They would
live in the present and thus participate more richly in
the ongoing moment.
CRITIQUE OF ROGERS
 Generating research - Moderate
 Falsification - High due to the if-then framework
 Organization of Knowledge - High
 Application - Hell yeah
 Internal Consistency - Very high
 Parsimony - Okay
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 Free Choice over Determinism
 Optimistic
 Teleological
 Uniqueness over Similarity
 Conscious
 Social influences over biology
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY (ROLLO MAY)
 What is Existentialism? It is a philosophical movement
led by Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin
Heidegger, and popularized by Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert
Camus.
 Kierkegaard, like later existentialists, emphasized a
balance between freedom and responsibility.
 People acquire freedom of action through expanding
their selfawareness and then by assuming responsibility
for their actions. The acquisition of freedom and
responsibility, however, is achieved only at the expense
of anxiety. As people realize that, ultimately, they are in
charge of their own destiny, they experience the burden
of freedom and the pain of responsibility.
ROLLO MAY
 His family was not the “education is the most important
thing I can provide you” kind of family.
 His father was secretary for Young Men’s Christian
Association, his mother is quite neurotic, and his sister
suffered psychosis.
 He had a soul-searching period for 3 years, similar to
Erikson (Gap Year?)
 He learned a lot from Adler and was able to learn more
about himself because of Adler’s seminar.
 He had a brush with death when he was infected with
Tuberculosis.
 His main influence in his theory was Soren Kierkegaard.
 He does not like theories of personality.
WHAT IS EXISTENTIALISM?
 EXISTENCE PRECEDES ESSENCE
- First, existence takes precedence over essence.
Existence means to emerge or to become; essence
implies a static immutable substance.
- Previous theories like Psychoanalysis assumes that
people are born with set of drives and needs which then
influences how this person will become. In this example,
drives and needs are essences of a person which then
 leads a person to become a human being. This is an
example of essence precedes existence.
- Existentialism on the other hand assumes that our
behaviors, our actions, our decisions, our being will
determine who we are as a person, or our essence as a
person. This has so many implication about how we can
view human beings.
- Second, Existentialism do not believe in the split
between subjective and objective world.
- People live in both planes of reality. Bad things happen
outside, and humans can interpret if that bad thing is
piece of crap or a fertilizer they can use for their growth
as a person.
- Third, Existentialism assumes that people want to find
meaning in their life (IT HAS NO FREAKING MEANING -
Nietzsche).
- Fourth, existentialists hold that ultimately each of us is
responsible for who we are and what we become. We
cannot blame parents, teachers, employers, God, or
circumstances. As Sartre (1957) said, “Man is nothing
else but what he makes of himself. Such is the first
principle of existentialism”.
- Fifth, existentialists are basically antitheoretical. To
them, theories further dehumanize people and render
them as objects.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF EXISTENTIALISM
 DASEIN (BEING-IN-THE-WORLD)
- A phenomenological approach to understanding
humanity.
- Hard Science see the world in an existential way much
like how we humans look at a caterpillar we caught in a
jar.
- Existentialist will tell you that the caterpillar may be
scared, anxious or oblivious to the fact that it is
imprisoned in jar since it it eating so many leaves.
- Now, make the caterpillar humans, and the jar the
world. That is how phenomenology works.
- This idea that people exist in their own subjective
world or being-in-the-world is what Dasein means.
- People sometimes feel that they are not on their
Dasein, they feel alienated because of so many reasons
like they do not know who they really are or they do not
know the world they are living in.
- As we gain more power over nature, we become more
disconnected to it, like Fromm’s idea of existential
dichotomy. We miss our union with nature, with other
people and with ourselves.
- This feeling of isolation and alienation of self from the
world is suffered not only by pathologically disturbed
individuals but also by most individuals in modern
societies. Alienation is the illness of our time, and it
manifests itself in three areas: (1) separation from
nature, (2) lack of meaningful interpersonal relations,
and (3) alienation from one’s authentic self.
- Umwelt: Umwelt is the world of objects and things and
would exist even if people had no awareness. It is the
world of nature and natural law and includes biological
drives, such as hunger and sleep, and such natural
phenomena as birth and death.
- Example: katawang lupa
- Freud’s theory, with its emphasis on biology and
instincts, deals mostly with Umwelt.
- Mitwelt: We also live in the world with people.
- We must relate to people as people, not as things. If
we treat people as objects, then we are living solely in
Umwelt.
- The theories of Sullivan and Rogers, with their
emphasis on interpersonal relations, deal mostly with
Mitwelt.
- Eigenwelt:Refers to one’s relationship with oneself.
- To live in Eigenwelt means to be aware of oneself as a
human being and to grasp who we are as we relate to
the world of things and to the world of people. What
does this sunset mean to me? How is this other person a
 part of my life? What characteristics of mine allow me
to love this person? How do I perceive this experience?
- Healthy people live in Umwelt, Mitwelt, and Eigenwelt
simultaneously. They adapt to the natural world, relate
to others as humans, and have a keen awareness of
what all these experiences mean to them (May, 1958a).
 NONBEING
- Being-in-the-world necessitates an awareness of self as
a living, emerging being. This awareness, in turn, leads
to the dread of not being: that is, nonbeing or
nothingness.
- Death is not the only avenue of nonbeing, but it is the
most obvious one.
- Life becomes more vital, more meaningful when we
confront the possibility of our death.
- The fear of death or nonbeing often provokes us to live
defensively and to receive less from life than if we
would confront the issue of our nonexistence. As May
(1991) said, “we are afraid of nonbeing and so we
shrivel up our being” (p. 202).
- We flee from making active choices; that is, we make
choices without considering who we are and what we
want.
(Read The Case of Philip - 7E Feist pg. 356)
ANXIETY
- People experience anxiety when they become aware that
their existence or some value identified with it might be
destroyed.
- Anxiety, then, can spring either from an awareness of one’s
nonbeing or from a threat to some value essential to one’s
existence.
- The acquisition of freedom inevitably leads to anxiety.
Freedom cannot exist without anxiety, nor can anxiety exist
without freedom.
FORMS OF ANXIETY
1. NORMAL ANXIETY
- To grow and to change one’s values means to
experience constructive or normal anxiety.
- May (1967) defined normal anxiety as that “which is
proportionate to the threat, does not involve repression,
and can be confronted constructively on the conscious
level”.
- Going outside your comfort zone can produce normal
anxiety.
- Being confronted with the thought of being outdated
can also produce normal anxiety.
2. NEUROTIC ANXIETY
- A reaction which is disproportionate to the threat,
involves repression and other forms of intrapsychic
conflict, and is managed by various kinds of blocking-off
of activity and awareness.
- Whereas normal anxiety is felt whenever values are
threatened, neurotic anxiety is experienced whenever
values become transformed into dogma.
- To be absolutely right in one’s beliefs provides
temporary security, but it is security “bought at the
price of surrendering [one’s] opportunity for fresh
learning and new growth”
- Similar with Neurotic Claims.
3.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ROLLO MAY
 GUILT
- Guilt arises when people deny their potentialities, fail
to accurately perceive the needs of fellow humans, or
remain oblivious to their dependence on the natural
world.
- Like anxiety, ontological guilt can have either a positive
or a negative effect on personality.
- We can use this guilt to develop a healthy sense of
humility, to improve our relations with others, and to
creatively use our potentialities.
- However, when we refuse to accept ontological guilt, it
becomes neurotic or morbid. Neurotic guilt, like
neurotic anxiety, leads to nonproductive or neurotic
symptoms such as sexual impotence, depression, cruelty
to others, or inability to make a choice.
 Umwelt Guilt: As we become more advanced,we
become separated with nature which makes guilty.
 Mitwelt Guilt: Our inability to perceive the
subjective world of other people can make us feel
guilty.
 Eigenwelt Guilt: Jonah Complex
 INTENTIONALITY
- The ability to make a choice implies some underlying
structure upon which that choice is made. The structure
that gives meaning to experience and allows people to
make decisions about the future is called intentionality.
- May used the term “intentionality” to bridge the gap
between subject and object.
- For example, the choice of going overseas to work for
the family can be seen as neglect in an objective manner
but once we realized that there is an intention (which is
a good intention, a subjective factor), it can change our
interpretation. The choice was made to leave the family,
to have better chance of having a good life.
CARE, LOVE, AND WILL
 CARE
- It is an active process, the opposite of apathy. “Care is
a state in which something does matter”.
 LOVE
- Care is not the same as love, but it is the source of
love. To love means to care, to recognize the essential
humanity of the other person, to have an active regard
for that person’s development. May (1953) defined love
as a “delight in the presence of the other person and an
affirming of [that person’s] value and development as
much as one’s own”
 WILL
- The capacity to organize one’s self so that movement
in a certain direction or toward a certain goal may take
place.
- “will” requires self-consciousness; “wish” does not.
“Will” implies some possibility of either/or choice; “wish”
does not. “Wish” gives the warmth, the content, the
imagination, the child’s play, the freshness, and the
richness to “will.” “Will” gives the self-direction, the
maturity to “wish.” “Will” protects “wish,” permits it to
continue without running risks which are too great.
UNION OF LOVE AND WILL
 Modern society, May (1969b) claimed, is suffering from
an unhealthy division of love and will. Love has become
associated with sensual love or sex, whereas will has
come to mean a dogged determination or will power.
 For the mature person, both love and will mean a
reaching out toward another person. Both involve care,
both necessitate choice, both imply action, and both
require responsibility.
FORMS OF LOVE
 SEX
- Sex is a biological function that can be satisfied
through sexual intercourse or some other release of
sexual tension. Although it has become cheapened in
 modern Western societies, “it still remains the power of
procreation, the drive which perpetuates the race, the
source at once of the human being’s most intense
pleasure and his [or her] most pervasive anxiety”
 EROS
- Eros is a psychological desire that seeks procreation or
creation through an enduring union with a loved one.
Eros is making love; sex is manipulating organs.
 PHILIA
- Eros, the salvation of sex, is built on the foundation of
philia, that is, an intimate nonsexual friendship between
two people.
- Just like the concept of Chum of Sullivan.
 AGAPE
- Just as eros depends on philia, so philia needs agape.
May (1969b) defined agape as “esteem for the other,
the concern for the other’s welfare beyond any gain
that one can get out of it; disinterested love, typically,
the love of God for man”.
- Self-actualizing love, similar also to
Gemeinschaftsgefuhl.
FREEDOM AND DESTINY
- A blend of the four forms of love requires both self-
assertion and an affirmation of the other person. It also
requires an assertion of one’s freedom and a confrontation
with one’s destiny. Healthy individuals are able both to
assume their freedom and to face their destiny.
- We cannot be successful at any job, conquer any illness,
enjoy a fulfilling relationship with any person.
- May suggested that freedom and destiny, like love-hate or
life-death, are not anithetical but rather a normal paradox of
life.
- Freedom and destiny give birth to each other. As we
challenge our destiny, we gain freedom, and as we achieve
freedom, we push at the boundaries of destiny.
FREEDOM DEFINED
- Freedom: In an early definition, May (1967) said that
“freedom is the individual’s capacity to know that he is the
determined one”.
- The word “determined” in this definition is synonymous
with what May (1981) would later call destiny.
- Freedom, then, comes from an understanding of our destiny:
an understanding that death is a possibility at any moment,
that we are male or female, that we have inherent
weaknesses, that early childhood experiences dispose us
toward certain patterns of behavior.
FORMS OF FREEDOM
 EXISTENTIAL FREEDOM
- It is the freedom of action—the freedom of doing.
- Most of us Filipinos are free to vote whoever we want,
we are free to choose who we want to marry, what
school to attend and so on. That is existential freedom.
 ESSENTIAL FREEDOM
- Freedom of BEING or the “inner freedom”.
- Physical confinement or the denial of liberty seems to
allow people to face their destiny and to gain their
freedom of being.
- Destiny itself is our prison: Our concentration camp
that allows us to be less concerned with freedom of
doing and more concerned with essential freedom.
DESTINY DEFINED
- May (1981) defined destiny as “the design of the universe
speaking through the design of each one of us”.
- Our ultimate destiny is death, but on a lesser scale our
destiny includes other biological properties such as
intelligence, gender, size and strength, and genetic
predisposition toward certain illnesses. In addition,
psychological and cultural factors contribute to our destiny.
- Within the boundaries of our destiny, we have the power to
choose, and this power allows us to confront and challenge
our destiny.
(Read Philip’s Destiny)
THE POWER OF MYTH
 Lacking myths to believe in, they have turned to
religious cults, drug addiction, and popular culture in a
vain effort to find meaning in their lives. Myths are not
falsehoods; rather, they are conscious and unconscious
belief systems that provide explanations for personal
and social problems.
 OEDIPUS REX: This story resonates with the crisis
humans are facing throughout their life.
- These crises include (1) birth, (2) separation or exile
from parents and home, (3) sexual union with one
parent and hostility toward the other, (4) the assertion
of independence and the search for identity, and (5)
death. The Oedipus myth has meaning for people
because it deals with each of these five crises.
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
 According to May, apathy and emptiness—not anxiety
and guilt—are the malaise of modern times.
 When people deny their destiny or abandon their myths,
they lose their purpose for being; they become
directionless. Without some goal or destination, people
become sick and engage in a variety of self-defeating
and self-destructive behaviors.
 Many people in modern Western societies feel
alienated from the world (Umwelt), from others
(Mitwelt), and especially from themselves (Eigenwelt).
 They feel helpless to prevent natural disasters, to
reverse industrialization, or to make contact with
another human being. They feel insignificant in a world
that increasingly dehumanizes the individual.
 This sense of insignificance leads to apathy and to a
state of diminished consciousness (May, 1967).
 May saw psychopathology as lack of communication—
the inability to know others and to share oneself with
them.
 Psychologically disturbed individuals deny their destiny
and thus lose their freedom.
 Symptoms may be temporary, as when stress produces
a headache, or they may be relatively permanent, as
when early childhood experiences produce apathy and
emptiness.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
 Unlike Freud, Adler, Rogers, and other clinically oriented
personality theorists, May did not establish a school of
psychotherapy with avid followers and identifiable
techniques.
 Nevertheless, he wrote extensively on the subject,
rejecting the idea that psychotherapy should reduce
anxiety and ease feelings of guilt.
 Instead, he suggested that psychotherapy should make
people more human: that is, help them expand their
consciousness so that they will be in a better position to
make choices (M. H. Hall, 1967). These choices, then,
lead to the simultaneous growth of freedom and
responsibility.
 May believed that the purpose of psychotherapy is to
set people free.
 Neurotic symptoms are simply ways of running away
from freedom and an indication that patients’ inner
possibilities are not being used.
 When patients become more free, more human, their
neurotic symptoms usually disappear, their neurotic
anxiety gives way to normal anxiety, and their neurotic
guilt is replaced by normal guilt.
 May insisted that psychotherapy must be concerned
with helping people experience their existence, and that
relieving symptoms is merely a by-product of that
experience.
 The therapist must establish a one-to-one relationship
(Mitwelt) that enables patients to become more aware
of themselves and to live more fully in their own world
(Eigenwelt).
 This approach may mean challenging patients to
confront their destiny, to experience despair, anxiety,
and guilt. But it also means establishing an I-thou
encounter in which both therapist and patient are
viewed as subjects rather than objects.
 The goal is to expand the client’s consciousness,
confront his/her destiny and become free to challenge
this destiny.
CRITIQUE OF MAY
 Generation of Research - low
 Falsifiability - very low
 Organization of data - moderate
 Guide to action - low
 Internal consistency - low
 Parsimony - moderate
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 Free choice over determinism
 Optimistic over pessimistic
 Teleology over causality
 Conscious vs Unconscious - middle ground
 Social influence vs Biology - middle ground
 Uniqueness over similarity
DISPOTIONAL THEORIES
PSYCHOLOGY/PERSONALITY OF THE INDIVIDUAL (GORDON
ALLPORT)
 Gordon Allport emphasized the uniqueness of the
individual.
 Although his concepts are similar to trait theories, he
insisted that reducing people’s personality to general
traits robs them of their individuality.
 He insisted, for example, that one person’s
stubbornness and the manner in which one person’s
stubbornness interacts with his or her extraversion and
creativity is duplicated by no other individual.
GORDON ALLPORT
 Morphogenic Science: Studying one individual as
opposed to attempting to make a theory that is
applicable to the general population (nomothetic).
 Allport essentially synthesized all the theories that came
before him which made him more eclectic in his
approach to personality.
 His father was a physician while his mother was a
former schoolteacher.
 Cleanliness is a big deal in their family.
 He majored in philosophy and economics before his
shift to psychology after he met Freud.
 His meeting with Freud was unbelievable.
ALLPORT’S APPROACH TO PERSONALITY
 What is Personality?
 What is the role of conscious motivation in personality
theory?
 What Are the Characteristics of a psychologically
healthy individual?
WHAT IS PERSONALITY?
 “The dynamic organization within the individual of
those psychophysical systems that determine his unique
adjustments to his environment”
 He later changed the last phrase into “that determine
his characteristic behavior and thought”
 The term dynamic organization implies an integration
or interrelatedness of the various aspects of personality.
Personality is organized and patterned.
 However, the organization is always subject to change:
hence, the qualifier “dynamic.”.
 The term psychophysical emphasizes the importance of
both the psychological and the physical aspects of
personality.
 Another word in the definition that implies action is
determine, which suggests that “personality is
something and does something”.
 By characteristic, Allport wished to imply “individual” or
“unique.”
 The word “character” originally meant a marking or
engraving, terms that give flavor to what Allport meant
by “characteristic.”
 The words behavior and thought simply refer to
anything the person does.
STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY (PERSONAL DISPOSITIONS)
 To Allport, the most important structures are those that
permit the description of the person in terms of
individual characteristics, and he called these individual
characteristics personal dispositions.
 This is different from common traits because common
traits are general characteristics held by many people.
 PERSONAL DISPOSITIONS: “a generalized neuropsychic
structure (peculiar to the individual), with the capacity
to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to
initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms of
adaptive and stylistic behavior”.
 To identify personal dispositions, Allport and Henry
Odbert (1936) counted nearly 18,000 (17,953, to be
exact) personally descriptive words in the 1925 edition
of Webster’s New International Dictionary, about a
fourth of which described personality characteristics.
LEVELS OF PERSONAL DISPOSITIONS
 CARDINAL DISPOSITIONS
- Some people possess an eminent characteristic or
ruling passion so outstanding that it dominates their
lives. Allport (1961) called these personal dispositions
cardinal dispositions.
- They are so obvious that they cannot be hidden; nearly
every action in a person’s life revolves around this one
cardinal disposition.
- Allport identified several historical people and fictional
characters who possessed a disposition so outstanding
that they have given our language a new word.
- Personal dispositions are individual and are not shared
with any other person, only Don Quixote was truly
quixotic; only Narcissus was completely narcissistic; only
the Marquis de Sade possessed the cardinal disposition
of sadism.
 CENTRAL DISPOSITIONS
- Includes the 5 to 10 most outstanding characteristics
around which a person’s life focuses.
 SECONDARY DISPOSITIONS
- Less conspicuous but far greater in number than
central dispositions are the secondary dispositions.
Everyone has many secondary dispositions that are not
central to the personality yet occur with some regularity
and are responsible for much of one’s specific behaviors.
 MOTIVATIONAL AND STYLISTIC DISPOSITIONS
- Motivational Dispositions: Strongly felt dispositions
receive their motivation from basic needs and drives.
- Initiates action
- Stylistic Dispositions: Referred to personal dispositions
that are less intensely experienced as stylistic
dispositions, even though these dispositions possess
some motivational power.
- Guides action
- Example: Everyone needs food which makes us seek
food but the manner in how we seek the food or eating
the food varies from person to person.
 - However, there is no clear line with these two
dispositions.
PROPRIUM
 Allport used the term proprium to refer to those
behaviors and characteristics that people regard as
warm, central, and important in their lives.
- They are characteristics that an individual refers to in
such terms as “That is me” or “This is mine.” All
characteristics that are “peculiarly mine” belong to the
proprium.
- Sense of self, almost similar to Roger’s Self-Concept
- The proprium includes a person’s values as well as that
part of the conscience that is personal and consistent
with one’s adult beliefs.
ROLE OF CONSCIOUS MOTIVATION
 Healthy adults are generally aware of what they are
doing and their reasons for doing it.
 Allport (1967) insisted that his motivation was quite
conscious - he simply wanted to know Freud’s ideas
about dirt phobia in a child so young.
 “This experience taught me that depth psychology, for
all its merits, may plunge too deep, and that
psychologists would do well to give full recognition to
manifest motives before probing the unconscious”
 Although he still believes that neurotic/self-defeating
behavior may come from unconscious sources.
MOTIVATION (ACCORDING TO ALLPORT)
 Most people, Allport believed, are motivated by present
drives rather than by past events and are aware of what
they are doing and have some understanding of why
they are doing it.
 PERIPHERAL MOTIVES: Are those that reduce a need
 PROPRIATE STRIVINGS: Seek to maintain tension and
disequilibrium
THEORY OF MOTIVATION
 Allport believed that a useful theory of personality rests
on the assumption that people not only react to their
environment but also shape their environment and
cause it to react to them.
 REACTIVE BEHAVIOR: Psychodynamic perspective
assumes that people just want to maintain homeostasis
and no room for growth.
 PROACTIVE BEHAVIOR: It must view people as
consciously acting on their environment in a manner
that permits growth toward psychological health.
 The mature person is not motivated merely to seek
pleasure and reduce pain but to acquire new systems of
motivation that are functionally independent from their
original motives.
FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY
 The concept of functional autonomy holds that some,
but not all, human motives are functionally independent
from the original motive responsible for the behavior.
 In other words, if hoarding money is a functionally
autonomous motive, then the miser’s behavior is not
traceable to childhood experiences with toilet training
or with rewards and punishments.
 Rather, the miser simply likes money, and this is the
only explanation necessary.
 Admitting that some motivations are unconscious and
others are the result of drive reduction, Allport
contended that, because some behavior is functionally
autonomous, theories of unchanging motives are
inadequate.
 Allport (1961) defined functional autonomy as “any
acquired system of motivation in which the tensions
involved are not of the same kind as the antecedent
tensions from which the acquired system developed”.
 In other words, what begins as one motive may grow
into a new one that is historically continuous with the
original but functionally autonomous from it.
 For example, a person may originally plant a garden to
satisfy a hunger drive but eventually become interested
in gardening for its own sake.
LEVELS OF FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY
 PERSEVERATIVE FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY
- We do things that previously have a physiological
effect on us but eventually we just do it just for fun.
(Yung mga nakasanayan lang)
- EXAMPLE: Alcoholics continued to drinks although
their cultural motivation is functionally independent
from their original motive. Same with coffee.
 PROPRIATE FUCNTIONAL AUTONOMY
- Refers to those self-sustaining motives that are related
to the proprium.
- EXAMPLE: I took a teaching job to fund my graduate
school but eventually, I became passionate about it and
then…it became a very important part of my life.
CRITERION FOR FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY
 In general, a present motive is functionally autonomous
to the extent that it seeks new goals, meaning that the
behavior will continue even as the motivation for it
changes.
 For example, a child first learning to walk is motivated
by some maturational drive, but later he may walk to
increase mobility or to build self-confidence.
PROCESSES THAT ARE NOT FUNCTIONALLY AUTONOMOUS
1. Biological drives, such as eating, breathing, and
sleeping;
2. Motives directly linked to the reduction of basic drives;
3. Reflex actions such as an eye blink;
4. Constitutional equipment, namely physique, intelligence,
and temperament;
5. Habits in the process of being formed;
6. Patterns of behavior that require primary reinforcement;
7. Sublimations that can be tied to childhood sexual
desires; and
8. Some neurotic or pathological symptoms.
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY PERSON?
 First, psychologically mature people are characterized
by proactive behavior.
 Mature personalities are more likely than disturbed
ones to be motivated by conscious processes, which
allow them to be more likely flexible and autonomous
than unhealthy people, who remain dominated by
unconscious motives that spring from childhood
experiences.
 Age is not a requisite for maturity, although healthy
person seem to become more mature as they got older.
SIX CRITERIA FOR THE MATURE PERSONALITY
1. Extensions of the sense of self (Gemeinschaftsgefuhl)
2. Warm Relating to Self and Others
3. Emotional Security or Self-Acceptance
4. Realistic Perception of the Environment
5. Insight and Humor
6. Unifying Philosophy in Life
STUDYING THE INDIVIDUAL
 Nomothetic Approach: Seeking the general laws
 Idiographic Approach: Refers to that which is peculiar
to the single case.
 Morphogenic Science: Allport used this term because
idiographic is confusing for most people
- “morphogenic” refers to patterned properties of the
whole organism and allows for intraperson comparisons.
- For example, Tyrone may be intelligent, introverted,
and strongly motivated by achievement needs, but
unique manner in which intelligence is related to his
introversion and each of his achievement needs forms a
structured pattern.
HOW TO DO MORPHOGENIC SCIENCE?
 Examples of wholly morphogenic, first-person methods
are verbatim recordings, interviews, dreams,
 confessions; diaries, letters; some questionnaires,
expressive documents, projective documents, literary
works, art forms, automatic writings, doodles,
handshakes, voice patterns, body gestures, handwriting,
gait, and autobiographies.
 When Allport met Hans Eysenck, the famous British
factor analyst and believer in nomothetic science (see
Chapter 14), he told Eysenck that one day he (Eysenck)
would write his autobiography.
CRITIQUE OF ALLPORT
 He never intended his theory to be completely new or
comprehensive, but rather he was eclectic, carefully
borrowing from older theories and recognizing that his
detraction could have important things to say.
 Generated research - moderate
 Falsifiability - low
 Organization of data - moderate
 Guide to action - moderate
 Parsimony and Consistency - high
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 Optimistic
 Limited Freedom - some people are more capable than
others
 Teleological over causal
 Moderate emphasis on social influences
 Individual differences over similarity
TRAIT THEORIES (CATTELL, EYSENCK, COSTA & MCCRAE)
 Resulted from the frustration of having unfalsifiable
concepts.
 Traits can be “measured” by standardized tests via
clinical observation, judgement of
friends/acquaintances and self-report.
 Factor analysis was used to mathematically prove that
they do exist.
 As of the moment, there are 5 traits that are gold
standard in explaining a person’s behavior.
- Although there seems to be another factor which is
humility (HEXACO).
 Let us examine the history of these traits.
GORDON ALLPORT
 He said that people have their peculiar traits aka
personal dispositions.
 He said that there are 18k possible personal dispositions
that can exist in an individual.
 Allport focused on the individual only, therefore did not
care about the common traits that all human beings
share.
 But this is the start of going away from the depth
psychology which suffers the problem of being too deep
and unobservable to the point of being unfalsifiable.
RAYMOND CATTELL
 Same with Allport, he also went to the dictionary to look
for adjectives that will describe a person’s
characteristics. But his aim is to look for traits that is
shared by all human beings.
 He listed down 4500 words which he then converted to
171 items.
 He collected data from people in different contexts:
L-Data = derived from observations of others
Q-Data = derived from self-reports
T-Data = derived from objective tests (IQ tests, speed of
responding, etc.)
RAYMOND CATTELL AND 16 PERSONALITY FACTORS HANS EYSENCK
 Cattell divided traits into common and unique traits.  The personality theory of Hans Eysenck has strong
 He also classified traits into temperament, motivation, psychometric and biological components.
and ability.  Psychometrics alone is not enough to explain
 Temperament Traits: How a person behaves behavior/personality.
 Motivational Traits: Why a person behaves  So he made a criteria for factors to be considered as
 Ability Traits: How far or how fast one can perform legitimate traits.
 He initially yielded 35 primary factors or first order  Strong psychometric properties
factors; 23 of which are for normal population and 12  Heritability (suggesting biological roots)
for pathological dimension.  Theoretically makes sense
 Of these 23, only 16 are the most frequently studied  Possesses social relevance
(16PF)
HIERARCHY OF BEHAVIOR ORGANIZATION
FACTOR ANALYSIS
 Factor analysis is a collection procedure to compute for
an underlying factor that will describe a data set.
 Basically, we need to correlate all data and see if there
is a pattern.
 171 items will be answered by 1000 people
 These 1000 data points for 171 items will be
correlated to each other.
 Depending on the approach, some items will - The organization of behavior into specific actions, habitual

correlate with each other and will form a cluster. responses, traits, and types. Besides persistence and social

- Orthogonal or Oblique Rotation shyness, other traits such as inferiority, low activity, and

 This cluster are the factors which can be considered serious-mindedness contribute to introversion.

as the traits DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY (EYSENCK)

 Traits ca be bipolar or unipolar  There are 3 bipolar super factors according to Eysenck.

 EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS  Extraversion (E) - Introversion

- From Data to Theory  Neuroticism (N) - Stability

- Used by Raymond Cattell  Psychoticism (P) - Sociability/Superego Function

- Relatively free from scientist ias but prone to statistical

noise/coincidences EXTRAVERSION

- Impractical?
 CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS
- From Theory to Data
- Used by Hans Eysenck
- Must have a good theoretical framework
- Prone to scientist bias
- More practical  Biological Explanation - Cortical Arousal
  Extraverted people have low cortical arousal that is INTERACTION OF TRAITS
why they seek experiences.
 Introverted people have high cortical arousal that is
why they tend to be alone because too much
stimulation is not bearable for them because they
are already stimulated enough.

NEUROTICISM

PSYCHOTICISM

 People who score high on neuroticism often have a

tendency to overreact emotionally and to have difficulty
returning to a normal state after emotional arousal.
 They frequently complain of physical symptoms such as
headache and backache and of vague psychological
problems such as worries and anxieties. Neuroticism,
 High P scorers are often egocentric, cold,
however, does not necessarily suggest a neurosis in the
nonconforming, impulsive, hostile, aggressive,
traditional meaning of that term.
suspicious, psychopathic, and antisocial.
 People can score high on neuroticism and be free of any
 People low on psychoticism (in the direction of
debilitating psychological symptoms.
superego function) tend to be altruistic, highly socialized,
 Eysenck accepted the diathesis-stress model of
empathic, caring, cooperative, conforming, and
psychiatric illness, which suggests that some people are
conventional (S. Eysenck, 1997).
vulnerable to illness because they have either a genetic
 This model also suggests that people who score high on
or an acquired weakness that predisposes them to an
psychoticism and who are also experiencing levels of
illness.
stress have an increased chance of developing a
 The way neuroticism manifest can depend on other
psychotic disorder.
personality factors especially Extraversion.
 During periods of little stress, high P scorers may
function normally, but when high psychoticism interacts
with high levels of stress, people become vulnerable to
psychotic disorders.
 By contrast, people with low P scores are not necessarily
vulnerable to stress-related psychoses and will resist a
psychotic break even in periods of extreme stress.
 - Those who score in the other direction are
generally suspicious, stingy, unfriendly, irritable,
and critical of other people.
3. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS: Describes people who are
ordered, controlled, organized, ambitious,
achievement focused, and self-disciplined.

BIG FIVE FACTOR IN RELATION TO 16PF

BIOLOGICAL BASES OF PERSONALITY

FROM TAXONOMY TO THEORY
 Big Five Factor are just another way of saying “yes we
have 5 common traits” but it does not explain anything
about out personality as a whole (how it develops or
interacts with our environment)
 Costa and McCrae developed it into a more
comprehensive theory, the same way with how Eysenck
conceptualized his.

16? 3? HOW ABOUT 5?

- Five Factor Model or Big 5 or OCEAN, CANOE, NACOE
- Extraversion, Neuroticism, Openness to experiences,
conscientiousness, and Agreeableness.

BIG FIVE FACTOR IN RELATION TO 3 FACTORS

 Extraversion and Neuroticism are virtually the same.
 Psychoticism on the other hand was split into three:
1. OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCES: Distinguishes people
who prefer variety from those who have a need for
closure and who gain comfort in their association
with familiar people and things. CRITIQUE OF TRAIT/FACTOR THEORIES

2. AGREEABLENESS: Distinguishes soft-hearted people  Generate Research - High, off the charts

from ruthless ones.  Falsiability - High

- People who score in the direction of  Guide to action - Kinda

aggreeableness tend to be trusting, generous,  Internally Consistent - Yes

yielding, acceptant, and good-natured.  Parsimony - Yes

CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 First of all, they are not judgemental so asking whether
we have free-will or not, or that people are doomed, or
people can be saved are not applicable in this theory.
 Conscious over unconscious
 Genetic Factors (Biology) over social influences
 Individuality over similarity
LEARNING THEORIES
BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS/RADICAL BEHAVIORISM
(B.F. SKINNER)
WHY IS THERE A NEED TO TURN TO BEHAVIORISM?
 Psychology as a science is still a controversial statement
back then due to having so many concepts that are pure
speculative and does not lend itself to scientific scrutiny
(no observable data).
 Behavior on the other hand, is observable and following
the SR theory, we can describe, predict, and control
behavior by manipulating the stimulus.
 Concepts such as will, intention, care, love, hunger
are not really needed to explain a behavior.
BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER
 He planned to become a professional literary writer.
 After 1 year of nothing, he ended up studying
psychology.
 He had some stint with government research (pigeons)
and tried to enter the market with his baby-tender. Both
failed.
 He finally wrote his first novel, Walden Two which
served as his catharsis and became more productive
ever since.
 Radical Behaviorism became his stance.
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
 Scientific behaviorism allows for an interpretation of
behavior but not an explanation of its causes.
 Interpretation permits a scientist to generalize from a
simple learning condition to a more complex one. For
example, Skinner generalized from animal studies to
children and then to adults.
 Any science, including that of human behavior, begins
with the simple and eventually evolves generalized
principles that permit an interpretation of the more
complex.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE
 Science is cumulative.
 Science values empirical observations.
 Science is a research for order and lawful relationships.
PRECURSORS TO SKINNER’S SCIENTIFIC BEHAVIORISM
 EDWARD THORNDIKE (Law of Effect)
- The first stated that responses to stimuli that are
followed immediately by a satisfier tend to be “stamped
in”; the second held that responses to stimuli that are
followed immediately by an annoyer tend to be
“stamped out.” Thorndike later amended the law of
effect by minimizing the importance of annoyers.
- Stimulus > Response
 IVAN PAVLOV (Classical Conditioning)
- Stimulus > Response
- Stimulus > Paired with neutral stimulus > Response
(repeat)
- Neutral Stimulus > Response
 JOHN WATSON (Experiment with Little Albert)
B.F. SKINNER AND OPERANT CONDITIONING
 The organism first does something and then is
reinforced by the environment. Reinforcement, in turn,
increases the probability that the same behavior will
occur again.
 Stimulus > Response > Reinforced = higher chance of
doing the response again
 Antecedent > behavior > response
 Big lion > Run > Was able to eat and live > Higher chance
of doing again
 Dog sees traits > Sits > Eats the treat > Higher chance of
doing it again
SHAPING
 Shaping is a procedure in which the experimenter or the
environment first rewards gross approximations of the
behavior, then closer approximations, and finally the
desired behavior itself.
 A child trying to read simple words can learn better by
reinforcing even one correct sound until the child
completes pronouncing the whole world.
 Reinforcement does not need to come from a person,
most of the time it is in the environment itself.
REINFORCEMENT
 According to Skinner (1987a), reinforcement has two
effects: It strengthens the behavior and it rewards the
person.
 This is different from reward because some
reinforcements are not necessarily rewarding.
 Food is not reinforcing because it tastes good; rather, it
tastes good because it is reinforcing (Skinner, 1971)
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
 Any stimulus that, when added to a situation, increases
the probability that a given behavior will occur is termed
a positive reinforcer (Skinner, 1953).
 Food, water, sex, money, social approval, and
physical comfort usually are examples of positive
reinforcers.
 Much human and animal behavior is acquired
through positive reinforcement.
 Another problem with conditioning humans is
determining what consequences are reinforcing and
which ones are not.
 Depending on personal history, spankings and
scoldings might be reinforcing, and kisses and
compliments might be punishing.
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
 The removal of an aversive stimulus from a situation
also increases the probability that the preceding
behavior will occur.
 Postponing quizzes is negative reinforcement.
 There is an almost unlimited number of aversive stimuli,
the removal of which may be negatively reinforcing.
 Anxiety, for example, is usually an aversive stimulus,
and any behavior that reduces it is reinforcing.
 These behaviors might include exercising, repressing
unpleasant memories, making excuses for
inappropriate behavior, smoking cigarettes,
drinking alcohol, and a multitude of other
behaviors designed intentionally or unintentionally
to reduce the unpleasantness of anxiety.
PUNISHMENT
 Negative reinforcement should not be confused with
punishment. Negative reinforcers remove, reduce, or
avoid aversive stimuli, whereas punishment is the
presentation of an aversive stimulus, such as an electric
shock, or the removal of a positive one, such as
disconnecting an adolescent’s telephone.
 This is ineffective! Do not use this!
 Effects include:
 It only suppresses the behavior, but the urge is still
there
 Conditioning of negative feeling
 It spreads its effect
TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS
 CONDITIONED REINFORCER
- Conditioned reinforcers (sometimes called secondary
reinforcers) are those environmental stimuli that are
not by nature satisfying but become so because they are
associated with such unlearned or primary reinforcers
as food, water, sex, or physical comfort.
 GENERALIZED REINFORCER
- Generalized reinforcer because it is associated with
more than one primary reinforcer.
- Skinner (1953) recognized five important generalized
reinforcers that sustain much of human behavior:
attention, approval, affection, submission of others, and
tokens (money).
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
 CONTINUOUS SCHEDULE
- Every time the behavior is done, the organism is
rewarded/reinforced.
 INTERMITTENT SCHEDULE
- There is a pattern on when the reinforcement is given.
 FIXED-RATIO: With a fixed-ratio schedule, the
organism is reinforced intermittently according to
the number of responses it makes.
 VARIABLE-RATIO: It is reinforced after the nth
response on the average.
- For humans, playing slot machines is an example
of a variable-ratio schedule.
 FIXED INTERVAL: The organism is reinforced for the
response following a designated period of time.
- Salary of workers.
 VARIABLE INTERVAL: A variable-interval schedule is
one in which the organism is reinforced after the
lapse of random or varied periods of time.
- For humans, reinforcement results more often
from one’s effort rather than the passage of time.
For this reason, ratio schedules are more common
than interval schedules, and the variable-interval
schedule is probably the least common of all.
 EXTINCTION
- It is defined as the tendency of a previously acquired
response to become progressively weakened upon
nonreinforcement.
 Operant extinction takes place when an
experimenter systematically withholds
reinforcement of a previously learned response
until the probability of that response diminishes to
zero.
 Extinction is seldom systematically applied to human
behavior outside therapy or behavior modification.
Most of us live in relatively unpredictable
environments and almost never experience the
methodical withholding of reinforcement.
  Thus, many of our behaviors persist over a long
period of time because they are being
intermittently reinforced, even though the nature
of that reinforcement may be obscure to us.
THE HUMAN ORGANISM
- According to Skinner (1987a), human behavior (and human
personality) is shaped by three forces: (1) natural selection,
(2) cultural practices, and (3) the individual’s history of
reinforcement, which we have just discussed.
 NATURAL SELECTION: Behaviors that are reinforcing (in
other words keeps us alive) tend to linger and be passed
down.
 CULTURAL EVOLUTION: Cultural practices that increases
our chance to survive are reinforced therefore lingers
and be passed down.
- The remnants of culture, like those of natural selection,
are not all adaptive. For example, the division of labor
that evolved from the Industrial Revolution has helped
society produce more goods, but it has led to work that
is no longer directly reinforcing.
HUMAN ORGANISM (INNER STATES)
- Although he rejected explanations of behavior founded on
nonobservable hypothetical constructs, Skinner (1989b) did
not deny the existence of internal states, such as feelings of
love, anxiety, or fear.
 SELF-AWARENESS: This still can be observed, only by
the person experiencing it.
 DRIVES: Drives simply refer to the effects of deprivation
and satiation and to the corresponding probability that
the organism will respond.
 EMOTIONS: He accounted for emotions by the
contingencies of survival and the contingencies of
reinforcement.
- Anxiety is a prime example of emotion that is
described as an aversive stimuli that helped us survive
the wilderness.
 PURPOSE AND INTENTION: What are called intentions
or purposes are physically felt stimuli within the
organism and not mentalistic events responsible for
behavior.
- For example, if you believe that your purpose for
jogging is to feel better and live longer, then this
thought per se acts as a reinforcing stimulus, especially
while undergoing the drudgery of jogging or when trying
to explain your motivation to a nonrunner.
COMPLEX BEHAVIOR
- Human behavior can be exceedingly complex, yet Skinner
believed that even the most abstract and complex behavior is
shaped by natural selection, cultural evolution, or the
individual’s history of reinforcement.
 HIGHER MENTAL PROCESSES (PROBLEM SOLVING):
Problem solving also involves covert behavior and often
requires the person to covertly manipulate the relevant
variables until the correct solution is found. Ultimately
these variables are environmental and do not spring
magically from the person’s mind.
 CREATIVITY: To Skinner, then, creativity is simply the
result of random or accidental behaviors (overt or
covert) that happen to be rewarded.
 UNCONSCIOUS BEHAVIOR: Denial of experiences can be
rewarding because it does remove the aversive
stimuli/feelings of anxiety over punishment.
DREAMS AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
 DREAMS: He agreed with Freud that dreams may serve
a wish-fulfillment purpose. Dream behavior is
reinforcing when repressed sexual or aggressive stimuli
are allowed expression.
 SOCIAL BEHAVIOR: Membership in a social group is not
always reinforcing; yet, for at least three reasons, some
people remain a member of a group.
- First, people may remain in a group that abuses them
because some group members are reinforcing them;
- Second, some people, especially children, may not
 possess the means to leave the group; and
- Third, reinforcement may occur on an intermittent
schedule so that the abuse suffered by an individual is
intermingled with occasional reward.
CONTROL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
 SOCIAL CONTROL: Like Erich Fromm, each of us is
controlled by a variety of social forces and techniques,
but all these can be grouped under the following
headings: (1) operant conditioning, (2) describing
contingencies, (3) deprivation and satiation, and (4)
physical restraint (Skinner, 1953).
 DESCRIBING CONTINGENCIES: Threats and promises
(implied or explicit)
 SELF-CONTROL: We can control ourselves by controlling
our environment.
- To avoid being distracted, you remove your phone
when reviewing.
- Bring exact money to avoid impulse buying (or vice
versa)
- Uninstall Shopee and Lazada to avoid the urge and
nudges of those pesky notifications.
UNHEALTHY PERSONALITY
 COUNTERACTING STRATEGIES
- When social control is excessive, people can use three
basic strategies for counteracting it—they can escape,
revolt, or use passive resistance (Skinner, 1953).
 ESCAPE: People who counteract by escape find it
difficult to become involved in intimate personal
relationships, tend to be mistrustful of people, and
prefer to live lonely lives of noninvolvement.
(Moving away)
 REVOLT: Moving against
 PASSIVE RESISTANCE: Passive aggressive, the most
annoying one.
- A child with homework to do finds a dozen
excuses why it cannot be finished; an employee
slows down progress by undermining the work of
others.
 INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIORS
- Inappropriate behaviors follow from self-defeating
techniques of counteracting social control or from
unsuccessful attempts at self-control, especially when
either of these failures is accompanied by strong
emotion.
 Vigorous Behavior (OA)
 Blocking out reality to block aversive stimuli (Denial)
 Defective self-knowledge (Delusions)
 Self-punishment (Depression)
PSYCHOTHERAPY
 You basically shape the person to become a healthy
person by removing the unhealthy behaviors.
CRITIQUE OF SKINNER
 Generates Research - high
 Organize Knowledge - moderate
 Guide to action - extremely high
 Internal Consistency - high
 Parsimonious - kinda high
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 Optimistic (we can change)
 Unconscious
 Social environment
 Uniqueness
 Causal
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY (ALBERT BANDURA)
 SCT is a response to the reductionist nature of
behaviorism.
 Humans are flexible; we can learn from various
situations.
 More than learning from our experiences, we can
learn from other people’s experiences. Known as
vicarious learning.
 Triadic reciprocal causation model - The person,
environment and behavior have reciprocal interactions.
 AGENTIC PERSPECTIVE: We can control the
environment and our lives.
 SELF-EFFICACY: The belief that we can perform the
behaviors that will produce a desired outcome.
 People regulate their conduct through both external
and internal factors.
 External factors include people’s physical and social
environments, whereas internal factors include
self-observation, judgmental process, and self-
reaction.
 When people find themselves in morally ambiguous
situations, they typically attempt to regulate their
behavior through moral agency, which includes
redefining the behavior, disregarding or distorting the
consequences of their behavior, dehumanizing or
blaming the victims of their behavior, and displacing or
diffusing responsibility for their actions.
ALBERT BANDURA
 Was encouraged to live independently by his sisters.
 He also learned self-directiveness in the town’s tiny
school that had few teachers and little resources.
 Accidentally majored in Psychology - happened to go to
school early and enrolled in psych classes just to pass
the time.
 Then he became one of the most published psychologist
of all time.
LEARNING
 While he agreed with Skinner that we learn via our own
experience, he said that this is an inefficient way to
learn and would not explain the fast cognitive and social
development that happened to humanity.
 Bandura (1986) stated that “if knowledge could be
acquired only through the effects of one’s own
actions, the process of cognitive and social
development would be greatly retarded, not to
mention exceedingly tedious.”
 We also learn from others.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
 Although reinforcement facilitates learning, Bandura
says that it is not a necessary condition for it. People can
learn, for example, by observing models being
reinforced.
 A good man learn from his mistakes. A wise man
learn from other’s mistakes.
 By observing other people, humans are spared
countless responses that might be followed by
punishment or by no reinforcement.
 Bobo Doll Experiment.
MODELING
 Learning through modeling involves adding and
subtracting from the observed behavior and
generalizing from one observation to another.
 Model must have the appropriate characteristics
 We are more likely to model high status people,
competent or seemingly competent people.
 The greater the value an observer places on a behavior,
the more likely the observer will acquire that behavior.
PROCESSES GOVERNING OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
 Attention
 Representation (symbolic, memory)
 Behavioral Production
 How can I do this?
  What am I doing?  TRIADIC RECIPROCAL CAUSATION
 Am I doing this right?
 Motivation: Do I really need to do this?

ENACTIVE LEARNING
 Bandura believes that complex human behavior can be
learned when people think about and evaluate the EXAMPLE OF TRIADIC RECIPROCAL CAUSATION
consequences of their behaviors.
 The person did this and received reinforcement, so if I
also do this, I will also receive reinforcement.
 Response consequences inform us of the effects of our
actions.
 Consequences of our responses motivate our
anticipatory behavior; that is, we are capable of
symbolically representing future outcomes and acting CHANCE ENCOUNTERS OR FORTUITOUS EVENTS

accordingly.  CHANCE ENCOUNTERS

 The consequences of responses serve to reinforce - An unintended meeting of persons unfamiliar to each

behavior, a function that has been firmly documented other.

by Skinner and other reinforcement theorists.  FORTUITOUS EVENTS

HOW DO WE LEARN? - Is an environmental experience that is unexpected and

 The learning process allows people to have some degree unintended.

of control over the events that shape the course of their  Both are environmental events and our responses to

lives. these kinds of situation can make or break our lives.

 Control, however, rests with a three-way reciprocal  As you have noticed, almost all our theorist just

interaction of person variables, behavior, and stumbled upon psychology, and they ended up

environment. becoming rock stars of the field.

(Some random shit happens but, we always have a choice

TRIADIC RECIPROCAL CAUSATION what to do about this. We can juts say ew and whine about it

 TRAIT THEORIES or we can turn it into fertilizer.)

HUMAN AGENCY
 Bandura (2001) believes that people are selfregulating,
proactive, self-reflective, and self-organizing and that
 BEHAVIORISM they have the power to influence their own actions to
produce desired consequences.
 We always have a choice
 Saying that you do not have a choice is in itself a
choice you made.
CORE FEATURES OF HUMAN AGENCY
 INTENTIONALITY
- It is not simply an expectation or prediction of future
actions but a proactive commitment to bringing them
about.
 FORETHOUGHT
- To anticipate likely outcomes of their actions, and to
select behaviors that will produce desired outcomes and
avoid undesirable ones.
 SELF-REACTIVENESS
- People not only make choices but they monitor their
progress toward fulfilling those choices.
 SELF-REFLECTIVENESS
- People are examiners of their own functioning; they
can think about and evaluate their motivations, values,
and the meanings of their life goals, and they can think
about the adequacy of their own thinking.
 SELF-EFFICACY: The beliefs that they are capable of
performing actions that will produce a desired
effect.
SELF-EFFICACY
 How people act in a particular situation depends on the
reciprocity of behavioral, environmental, and cognitive
conditions, especially those cognitive factors that relate
to their beliefs that they can or cannot execute the
behavior necessary to produce desired outcomes in any
particular situation.
 CONTEXT BASED: We can have high self-efficacy in
certain areas of our life and low on others.
 DIFFERENT FROM OUTCOME EXPECTATIONS:
Efficacy refers to people’s confidence that they
have the ability to perform certain behaviors,
whereas an outcome expectancy refers to one’s
prediction of the likely consequences of that
behavior.
WHAT CONTRIBUTES TO SELF-EFFICACY?
 MASTERY OF EXPERIENCE - The most influential sources
of self-efficacy are mastery experiences, that is, past
performances (Bandura, 1997). In general, successful
performance raises efficacy expectancies; failure tends
to lower them. This general statement has six corollaries.
1) First, successful performance raises self-efficacy in
proportion to the difficulty of the task. Highly
skilled tennis players gain little self-efficacy by
defeating clearly inferior opponents, but they gain
much by performing well against superior
opponents.
2) Second, tasks successfully accomplished by oneself
are more efficacious than those completed with
the help of others.
3) Third, failure is most likely to decrease efficacy
when we know that we put forth our best effort.
4) Fourth, failure under conditions of high emotional
arousal or distress are not as self-debilitating as
failure under maximal conditions.
5) Fifth, failure prior to establishing a sense of
mastery is more detrimental to feelings of personal
efficacy than later failure.
6) A sixth and related corollary is that occasional
failure has little effect on efficacy, especially for
people with a generally high expectancy of success.
 SOCIAL MODELING - Our self-efficacy is raised when we
observe the accomplishments of another person of
equal competence, but is lowered when we see a peer
fail.
- When the other person is dissimilar to us, social
modeling will have little effect on our self-efficacy.
- Watching a swimmer of equal ability fail to negotiate a
choppy river will likely dissuade the observer from
attempting the same task.
- The effects of this vicarious experience may even last a
lifetime.
 SOCIAL PERSUASION - The effects of this source are
limited, but under proper conditions, persuasion from
 others can raise or lower self-efficacy.
- Exhortations or criticisms from a credible source have
more efficacious power than do those from a
noncredible person.
- Bandura (1986) hypothesizes that the efficacious
power of suggestion is directly related to the perceived
status and authority of the persuader.
- For example, a teacher who verbally praise a student
about his performance can raise the student’s self-
efficacy; the reverse is also true.
 PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL STATES - Strong emotion
ordinarily lowers performance; when people experience
intense fear, acute anxiety, or high levels of stress, they
are likely to have lower efficacy expectancies.
- Incidentally, for some situations, emotional arousal, if
not too intense, is associated with increased
performance, so that moderate anxiety felt by that
actor on opening night may raise his efficacy
expectancies.
OTHER MODES OF HUMAN AGENCY
 PROXY AGENCY
- Proxy involves indirect control over those social
conditions that affect everyday living.
- Bandura (2001) noted that “no one has the time,
energy, and resources to master every realm of
everyday life. Successful functioning necessarily involves
a blend of reliance on proxy agency in some areas of
functioning”.
- In a capitalist country, people specializes in different
fields to become more efficient in and individual and
collective level.
 COLLECTIVE EFFICACY
- Collective efficacy is the confidence people have that
their combined efforts will bring about group
accomplishments.
- Individual Players may have low self-efficacy but they
can still believe that the team can still win games.
- Voting, initiatives for lowering greenhouse gases,
avoiding the spread of the pandemic, etc.
SELF-REGULATION
 When people have high levels of self-efficacy, are
confident in their reliance on proxies, and possess solid
collective efficacy, they will have considerable capacity
to regulate their own behavior.
 REACTIVE STRATEGY: Reactively attempt to reduce
the discrepancies between their accomplishments
and their goal.
 PROACTIVE STRATEGY: After they close those
discrepancies, they proactively set newer and
higher goals for themselves.
EXTERNAL FACTORS IN SELF-REGULATION
 Environmental factors, interacting with personal
influences, shape individual standards for evaluation.
 By precept, we learn from parents and teachers the
value of honest and friendly behavior; by direct
experience, we learn to place more value on being
warm and dry than on being cold and wet; and
through observing others, we evolve a multitude of
standards for evaluating self-performance.
 External factors influence self-regulation by providing
the means for reinforcement.
 Intrinsic rewards are not always sufficient; we also
need incentives that emanate from external
factors.
 Kulang ang shout-out at labor of love xd
INTERNAL FACTORS IN SELF-REGULATION
1. SELF-OBSERVATION: We must be able to monitor our
own performance, even though the attention we give to
it need not be complete or even accurate.
- In achievement situations, such as painting pictures,
playing games, or taking examinations, we pay attention
to the quality, quantity, speed, or originality of our work.
- In interpersonal situations, such as meeting new
 acquaintances or reporting on events, we monitor the SELF-REGULATION THROUGH MORAL AGENCY
sociability or morality of our conduct.  People also regulate their actions through moral
2. JUDGEMENTAL PROCESS: We must also evaluate our standards of conduct. Bandura (1999a) sees moral
performance. This second process, judgmental process, agency as having two aspects: (1) doing no harm to
helps us regulate our behavior through the process of people and (2) proactively helping people.
cognitive mediation.  Self-regulatory influences are not automatic but operate
- The judgmental process depends on personal only if they are activated, a concept Bandura calls
standards, referential performances, valuation of selective activation.
activity, and performance attribution.  People with strong moral beliefs can commit atrocities
 PERFORMANCE ATTRIBUTION: How we judge once they have justified to themselves, the morality of
the causes of our behavior. their actions. This is called disengagement of internal
- If we believe that our success is due to our control.
own efforts, we will take pride in our  For example, politicians frequently convince their
accomplishments and tend to work harder to constituents of the morality of war. Thus, wars are
attain our goals. fought against “evil” people, people who deserve to be
- However, if we attribute our performance to defeated or even annihilated.
external factors, we will not derive as much
self-satisfaction and will probably not put
forth strenuous effort to attain our goals.
- Conversely, if we believe that we are
responsible for our own failures or
inadequate performance, we will work more
readily toward self-regulation than if we are MORAL AGENCY
convinced that our shortcomings and our
fears are due to factors beyond our control.
3. SELF-REACTION: People respond positively or negatively
to their behaviors depending on how these behaviors
measure up to their personal standards.
- That is, people create incentives for their own actions
through self-reinforcement or self-punishment.
- For example, a diligent student who has completed a
reading assignment may reward herself by watching her
favorite television program. DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR
- People set standards for performance that, when met,  This triadic reciprocal causation can also explain
tend to regulate behavior by such self-produced dysfunctional behavior.
rewards as pride and self-satisfaction.  Also, self-regulatory functions may play a role.
- When people fail to meet their standards, their
behavior is followed by self-dissatisfaction or self-
criticism.
DEPRESSION CRITIQUE OF BANDURA
 People may set high standards, too high that it is bound  Generated Research - High
to fail.  Falsifiability - High
 SELF-OBSERVATION: Depressed people tend to  Organization of Knowledge - High
exaggerate their failures and minimize their  Guides Action - Yes
accomplishments.  Internal Consistency - Yes
 SELF-EVALUATION: They will deem themselves be  Parsimony - High
unworthy of anything, because they are prime
embodiment of failure. CONCEPTS OF HUMANITY
 SELF-REACTIONS: Being the failure that they are,  Humans are highly flexible
they need to punish themselves.  Teleological and Causal
 Optimistic
PHOBIA AS EXPLAINED BY TRC  Freedom over determinism
 Conscious over unconscious
 Biological - social factors is a false dichotomy due to
people’s plasticity
 Uniqueness over similarity

AGGRESSION AS EXPLAINED BY TRC (BOBO DOLL)

THERAPY
 The ultimate goal of social cognitive therapy is self-
regulation.
 To achieve this end, the therapist introduces strategies
designed to induce specific behavioral changes, to
generalize those changes to other situations, and to
maintain those changes by preventing relapse.
 Vicarious Modeling
 Covert/Cognitive Modeling
 Enactive Mastery
COGNITIVE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (Rotter and Mischel)
 Cognitive Social Learning Theory further developed the
notion that human personality and behavior are not
caused exclusively by reinforcements and traits but an
interaction of both.
 For Rotter, if we know each variables that can affect
potentials (Reinforcement expectations and Goal), then
we can predicts behavior.
 For Mischel, the interaction between general traits,
cognitive processes, the situation a person is in, and
their basic goals/expectations will determine a person’s
behavior.
ROTTER’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
 Humans interact with their meaningful environment
 Human personality is learned
 Personality has basic unity
 Motivation is goal directed
 People can anticipate events
 Rotter built a personality that attempts to predict
human behavior.
HOW TO PREDICT SPECIFIC BEHAVIOR?
 There are four variables that needs to be analyzed:
1) BEHAVIOR POTENTIAL (BP)
- The possibility that a particular response will occur at
a given time and place.
2) EXPECTANCY (E)
- Refers to a person’s expectation that some specific
reinforcement or set of reinforcements will occur in a
given situation.
3) REINFORCEMENT VALUE (RV)
- Which is the preference a person attaches to any
reinforcement when the probabilities for
occurrence of a number of different reinforcements are
all equal.
 INTERNAL REINFORCEMENT: The individual dreams
is to be reinforcing.
 EXTERNAL REINFORCEMENT: Society deems it to be
reinforcing.
 These two can be in harmony or can be discrepant.
4. PSYCHOLOGICAL SITUATION (S)
- Defined as that part of the external and internal world
to which a person is responding.
- It is not synonymous with external stimuli, although
physical events are usually important to the
psychological situation.
- For example, in a classroom that is cold, the instructor
is discussing a boring subject in a monotonous way.
BASIC FORMULA FOR PREDICTING SPECIFIC BEHAVIOR
 Consider the case of La Juan, an academically gifted
college student who is listening to a dull and lengthy
lecture by one of her professors. To the internal cues of
boredom and the external cues of seeing slumbering
classmates, what is the likelihood that La Juan will
respond by resting her head on the desk in an attempt
to sleep?
 BP (S) = f(E + RV)
 Probability of resting his head down in a sleepy situation
depends on the expectancy that this behavior will lead
to sleep (reinforcement) plus his desire for the
reinforcement or desire to sleep.
 Because precise measurement of each of these
variables may be beyond the scientific study of human
behavior, Rotter proposed a strategy for predicting
general behaviors.
HOW TO PREDICT GENERAL BEHAVIORS?
 Variables involved:
 GENERALIZED EXPECTANCIES - Prior experience of
reinforcements.
the  NEEDS/GOALS - Rotter (1982) defined needs as any
behavior or set of behaviors that people see as
moving them in the direction of a goal.
 Recognition Status
 Dominance
  Independence
 Protection/Dependency
 Love and Affection
 Physical Comfort
PREDICTING GENERAL BEHAVIORS
 NEED COMPONENTS
 NEED POTENTIAL (NP): Refers to the possible
occurrence of a set of functionally related
behaviors directed toward satisfying the same or
similar goals.
- People eat in a fancy restaurant and they may
have different goals in doing so. Some wants to eat
good food or some just wants to Instagram it for
more social approval points.
 FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT (FM): It is one’s overall
expectation of being reinforced for performing
those behaviors that are directed toward satisfying
some general need.
 NEED VALUE (NV): The degree to which she or he
prefers one set of reinforcements to another.
GENERAL PREDICTION FORMULA
 Consider again the case of La Juan, the gifted student
who was having difficulty staying awake in a dull and
boring class. The basic prediction formula offers some
indication of the likelihood that, in the specific situation
of a boring lecture, La Juan will rest her head on her
desk. However, a more generalized prediction formula is
needed to predict her need potential for gaining the
recognition-status that comes from graduating with
highest honors.
 NP = f (FM + NV)
 To predict her need potential for working toward
graduation with highest honors, we must measure her
freedom of movement, that is, her mean expectancy of
being reinforced for a series of behaviors necessary to
reach her goal, plus her need value of all those
reinforcements: that is the value she places on
recognition-status or any other need she associates with
receiving academic honors.
GENERAL EXPECTANCIES
 Rotter’s general prediction formula allows for people’s
history of using similar experiences to anticipate present
reinforcement.
 That is, they have a generalized expectancy for success.
 Rotter’s most popular scales for measuring generalized
expectancies is the Internal-External Control Scale.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CONTROL OF REINFORCEMENT
 At the core of Rotter’s social learning theory is the
notion that reinforcement does not automatically stamp
in behaviors but that people have the ability to see a
causal connection between their own behavior and the
occurrence of the reinforcer.
 Studying hard (Behavior) = Higher grades
(Reinforcement)
- People who believes in this notion are more likely to
have internal control of reinforcement.
 The items in the exam (External) will determine a
person’s grade (Reinforcement)
- People who believes in this notion are more likely to
have external control of reinforcement.
 OTHER EXAMPLES
- Working Hard = More money (Internal)
- Knowing Right People = More money (External)
HOW TO MEASURE I-E CONTROL?
 To assess internal and external control of reinforcement,
or locus of control, Rotter (1966) developed the
Internal-External Control Scale, basing it on the doctoral
dissertations of two of his students, E. Jerry Phares
(1955) and William H. James (1957).
 The I-E Scale attempts to measure the degree to which
people perceive a causal relationship between their
own efforts and environmental consequences.
  People who score high on internal control generally
believe that the source of control resides within
themselves and that they exercise a high level of
personal control in most situations.
 People who score high on external control generally
believe that their life is largely controlled by forces
outside themselves, such as chance, destiny, or the
behavior of other people.
COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS
 Scores on the scale are determinants of behavior.
 Locus of control is specific and can predict achievement
in a specific situation.
 The scale divides people into two distinct types -
internal and external.
 Many people seem to believe that high internal scores
signify socially desirable traits and that high external
scores indicate socially undesirable characteristics.
- Actually, extreme scores in either direction would be
undesirable.
MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
 Maladaptive behavior in Rotter’s social learning theory
is any persistent behavior that fails to move a person
closer to a desired goal.
 It frequently, but not inevitably, arises from the
combination of high need value and low freedom of
movement: that is, from goals that are unrealistically
high in relation to one’s ability to achieve them.
 For example, the need for love and affection is realistic,
but some people unrealistically set a goal to be loved by
everyone. Hence, their need value will nearly certainly
exceed their freedom of movement, resulting in
behavior that is likely to be defensive or maladaptive.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
 To Rotter (1964), “the problems of psychotherapy are
problems of how to effect changes in behavior through
the interaction of one person with another. That is, they
are problems in human learning in a social situation”.
 In general, the goal of Rotter’s therapy is to bring
freedom of movement and need value into harmony,
thus reducing defensive and avoidance behaviors.
 The therapist assumes an active role as a teacher and
attempts to accomplish the therapeutic goal in two
basic ways: (1) changing the importance of goals and (2)
eliminating unrealistically low expectancies for success.
MISCHEL’S COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM
 Mischel attempted to merge Trait Theories and
Psychodynamic (cognitive/affective dynamics) theories.
 He believed that behavior stems from relatively stable
personal dispositions and cognitive-affective processes
interacting with a particular situation.
 Behavior = (personal dispositions + cognitive affective
processes) x situation.
CONSISTENCY PARADOX
 Mischel saw that both laypersons and professional
psychologists seem to intuitively believe that people’s
behavior is relatively consistent, yet empirical evidence
suggests much variability in behavior.
 PROBABLE EXPLANATIONS: Either the tests are
inaccurate or there is more to behavior than traits.
Mischel chose the latter.
PERSON-SITUATION INTERACTION
 Mischel’s objection to the use of traits as predictors of
behaviors rested not with their temporal instability but
with their inconsistency from one situation to another.
He saw that many basic dispositions can be stable over a
long period of time.
 Highly conscientious people may be conscientious
with regards to their work but cannot clean his/her
place.
 Personal dispositions influence behavior only under
certain conditions and in certain situations.
 Neither the situation alone nor stable personality traits
alone determine behavior. Rather, behavior is a product
of both.
 Therefore, Mischel and Shoda have proposed a
cognitive-affective personality system that attempts to
reconcile these two approaches to predicting human
behaviors.
COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM
 Apparent inconsistencies in a person’s behavior are due
neither to random error nor solely to the situation.
Rather, they are potentially predictable behaviors that
reflect stable patterns of variation within a person.
 Variations in behavior can be conceptualized in this
framework: If A, then X; but if B, then Y.
 This theory does not suggest that behaviors are an
outgrowth of stable, global personality traits.
 BEHAVIORAL SIGNATURE OF PERSONALITY: His
consistent manner of varying his behavior in
particular situations.
BEHAVIOR PREDICTION
 If personality is a stable system that processes the
information about the situations, external or internal,
then it follows that as individuals encounter different
situations, their behaviors should vary across the
situations.
 It also assumes that prediction of behavior rests on a
knowledge of how and when various cognitive-affective
units are activated.
 COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE UNITS: These units include
encodings, expectancies, beliefs, competencies,
self-regulatory plans and strategies, and affects
and goals.
SITUATION VARIABLES
 There are times wherein situations have more influence
in behavior there are times that individual differences
are more powerful.
 When different people are behaving in a very similar
manner—for example, while watching an
emotional scene in an engrossing movie—
situation variables are more powerful than
personal characteristics.
 For example, several workers may all be laid off
from their jobs, but individual differences will lead
to diverse behaviors, depending on the workers’
perceived need to work, confidence in their level
of skill, and perceived ability to find another job.
 To explain how a person process their situation, Mischel
and Shoda proposed personal variables that will interact
with the situation to determine behavior which they
called cognitive-affective units.
COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE UNITS (CAUs)
 ENCODING STRATEGIES
- People’s ways of categorizing information received
from external stimuli.
- For example, one person may react angrily when
insulted, whereas another may choose to ignore the
same insult.
 COMPETENCIES
- Our beliefs in what we can do.
- Mischel (1990) used the term “competencies” to refer
to that vast array of information we acquire about the
world and our relationship to it.
 SELF-REGULATORY STRATEGIES
- People use this to control their own behavior through
self-imposed goals and self-produced consequences.
- People’s self-regulatory system enables them to plan,
initiate, and maintain behaviors even when
environmental support is weak or nonexistent.
CAUs
 EXPECTANCIES AND BELIEFS
- Knowledge of people’s hypotheses or beliefs
concerning the outcome of any situation is a better
 predictor of behavior than is knowledge of their ability PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS (GEORGE KELLY)
to perform.  Kelly, just like other psychologist, is not originally a
 GOALS AND VALUES psychology major.
- We are not moving randomly.  He has a degree in physics and mathematics, member of
 AFFECTIVE RESPONSES debate team, has master’s degree in educational
- Include emotions, feelings, and physiological reactions. sociology and a minor in labor relations and sociology.
 Then got his PhD in psychology with a dissertation about
speech disability.
 During the Great Depression, he shifted his focus on
psychotherapy.

KELLY’S PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION

 Is human behavior based on reality (real world) or on
people’s perception of reality? His answer is both.
 He rejects Radical Behaviorism and Extreme
phenomenology.
 People have Personal Constructs, or ways of explaining
and interpreting events, which is the key to predicting
behaviors.
 Personal Construct is like a person’s individual/personal
theory of how the world works.
- Which is based on his/her prior experiences.

PERSON AS A SCIENTIST
 Whenever we decide to do something, we act like a
scientist.
 That is, you ask questions, formulate hypotheses, test
them, draw conclusions, and try to predict future events.
- When a person confess his feelings to a person.
 A person’s conclusions, like those of any scientist, are
not fixed or final. They are open to reconsideration and
reformulation.
 Kelly was hopeful that people individually and
collectively will find better ways of restructuring their
lives through imagination and foresight.
SCIENTIST AS A PERSON  This patterns are called Personal Constructs.
 The pronouncements of scientists should be regarded
with the same skepticism with which we view any BASIC POSTULATE
behavior.  The basic postulate assumes that “a person’s processes
 Every scientific observation can be looked at from a are psychologically channelized by the ways in which
different perspective. [that person] anticipates events”.
 CHANNELIZED: People are already in movement;
CONSTRUCTIVE ALTERNATIVISM they merely channelize or direct their processes
 There is an objective reality but there are also subjective toward some end or purpose.
people experiencing it.  WAYS OF ANTICIPATING EVENTS: Which suggests
 All subjective realities are based on objective reality. that people guide their actions according to their
 Imagine a cube, and there are people around it. There is predictions of the future.
on cube but multiple perspectives about it. That is how - Neither the past nor the future per se determines
the world with us as the people and the cube as the our behavior. Rather, our present view of the
objective reality. future shapes our actions.
 Facts and events do not dictate conclusions; rather, they
carry meanings for us to discover. SUPPORTING COROLLARIES
 We are all constantly faced with alternatives, which we  CONSTRUCTION COROLLARY: Similarities among events.
can explore if we choose, but in any case, we must - No two events are exactly alike, yet we construe
assume responsibility for how we construe our worlds. similar events so that they are perceived as being the
same.
PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS - The construction corollary states that “a person
 Kelly’s philosophy assumes that people’s interpretation anticipates events by construing their replications”.
of a unified, ever-changing world constitutes their  INDIVIDUALITY COROLLARY: Differences among people.
reality. - “Persons differ from each other in their construction of
 All people continually create their own view of the events”.
world. - Because people have different reservoirs of
 Some people are quite inflexible and seldom change experiences, they construe the same event in different
their way of seeing things. They cling to their view of ways.
reality even as the real world changes. For example,  ORGANIZATION COROLLARY: Relationships among
people with anorexia nervosa continue to see constructs.
themselves as fat while their weight continues to drop - People “characteristically evolve, for [their]
to a life-threatening level. convenience in anticipating events, a construction
 Some people construe a world that is substantially system embracing ordinal relationships between
different from the world of other people. constructs”.
 Kelly (1963) would insist that these people, along with - The organization corollary also assumes an ordinal
everyone else, are looking at their world through relationship of constructs so that one construct may be
“transparent patterns or templates” that they have subsumed under another.
created in order to cope with the world’s realities.
 ORGANIZATION OF CONSTRUCTS events. The events themselves do not constitute
experience—it is the meaning we attach to them that
changes our lives.
 MODULATION COROLLARY: Adaptation to experience.
- The variation in a person’s construction system is
limited by the permeability of the constructs within
whose range of convenience the variants lie.
- It assumes that the extent to which people revise their
constructs is related to the degree of permeability of
their existing constructs.

 DICHOTOMY COROLLARY: Dichotomy of Constructs. - People who have constructs that are set in stone are

- Kelly insisted that a construct is an either-or hard to permeate but clay-like constructs are easy to

proposition—black or white, with no shades of gray. mold.

- In order to form a construct, people must be able to  FRAGMENTATION COROLLARY: Incompatible Construct.

see similarities between events, but they must also - A person may successively employ a variety of

contrast those events with their opposite pole. (Without constructive subsystems which are inferentially

contrast, we cannot perceive properly). incompatible with each other.

- By contrasting intelligence with stupidity and - At first it may seem as if personal constructs must be

independence with dependence, you see how they are compatible, but if we look to our own behavior and

alike and how they can be organized under the thinking, we can easily see some inconsistencies.

construct “good” as opposed to “bad.” - We pointed out that Walter Mischel (a student of Kelly)

 CHOICE COROLLARY: Choice between dichotomies. believed that behavior is usually more inconsistent than

- People choose for themselves that alternative in a trait theorists would have us believe.

dichotomized construct through which they anticipate  COMMONALITY COROLLARY: Similarities among people.

the greater possibility for extension and definition of - To the extent that one person employs a construction

future constructs. of experience which is similar to that employed by

 RANGE COROLLARY: Range of convenience. another, [that person’s] processes are psychologically

- Kelly’s range corollary assumes that personal similar to those of the other person.

constructs are finite and not relevant to everything. It - Two people need not experience the same event or

only applies to some things in our life. even similar events for their processes to be

- The construct independence was within Arlene’s range psychologically similar; they must merely construe their

of convenience when she was deciding to buy a car, but experiences in a similar fashion.

on other occasions independence would be outside  SOCIALITY COROLLARY: Social Processes.

those boundaries. - To the extent that people accurately construe the

 EXPERIENCE COROLLARY: Experiences and Learning. belief system of others, they may play a role in a social

- A person’s construction system varies as he [or she] process involving those other people.

successively construes the replications of events. - In interpersonal relations, they not only observe the

- Experience consists of the successive construing of behavior of the other person; they also interpret what
that behavior means to that person.
 - Kelly was simply suggesting that people are actively
involved in interpersonal relations and realize that they
are part of the other person’s construction system.
- ROLE: Refers to a pattern of behavior that results from
a person’s understanding of the constructs of others
with whom that person is engaged in a task.
- For example, when Arlene was negotiating with the
used-car dealer, she construed her role as that of a
potential buyer because she understood that that was
his expectation of her. At other times and with other
people, she construes her role as student, employee,
daughter, girlfriend, and so on.
APPLICATIONS OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY
 ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
- In Kelly’s view, psychologically healthy people validate
their personal constructs against their experiences with
the real world.
- They are like competent scientists who test reasonable
hypotheses, accept the results without denial or
distortion, and then willingly alter their theories to
match available data.
- Healthy individuals not only anticipate events but are
also able to make satisfactory adjustments when things
do not turn out as they expected.
- Unhealthy people, on the other hand, stubbornly cling
to outdated personal constructs, fearing validation of
any new constructs that would upset their present
comfortable view of the world.
- Such people are similar to incompetent scientists who
test unreasonable hypotheses, reject or distort
legitimate results, and refuse to amend or abandon old
theories that are no longer useful.
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR IN PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY
 THREAT
- People experience threat when they perceive that the
stability of their basic constructs is likely to be shaken.
- One can be threatened by either people or events, and
sometimes the two cannot be separated.
- Personal Constructs are personal and bringing change
to these is equivalent to killing a part of a person.
 FEAR
- Fear, on the other hand, is more specific and incidental.
- Psychological disturbance results when either threat or
fear persistently prevents a person from feeling secure.
 ANXIETY
- Kelly (1955) defined anxiety as “the recognition that
the events with which one is confronted lie outside the
range of convenience of one’s construct system”.
- You do not have a personal construct about an
event/situation which makes you anxious.
- Pathological anxiety exists when a person’s
incompatible constructs can no longer be tolerated and
the person’s construction system breaks down.
 GUILT
- Kelly (1970) defined guilt as “the sense of having lost
one’s core role structure”.
- That is, people feel guilty when they behave in ways
that are inconsistent with their sense of who they are.
- People who have never developed a core role do not
feel guilty. They may be anxious or confused, but
without a sense of personal identity, they do not
experience guilt.
APPLICATIONS OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY
 PSYCHOTHERAPY
- In Kelly’s view, people should be free to choose those
courses of action most consistent with their prediction
of events.
- In therapy, this approach means that clients, not the
therapist, select the goal.
- As a technique for altering the clients’ constructs, Kelly
used a procedure called fixed-role therapy.
- The purpose of fixed-role therapy is to help clients
change their outlook on life (personal constructs) by
acting out a predetermined role, first within the relative
security of the therapeutic setting and then in the
 environment beyond therapy where they enact the role
continuously over a period of several weeks.
 THE REP TEST (ROLE CONSTRUCT REPERTORY)
- The purpose of the Rep test is to discover ways in
which people construe significant people in their lives.
- The aim of this test is to see the
similarities/differences on how people construe other
people in their lives.

CRITIQUE OF KELLY
 Generated Research - High
 Falsifiability - Low
 Organization of Knowledge - Low
 Guide to Action - Low
 Internal Consistency - High
 Operationalization of Terms - Low

CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 Optimistic
 Free choice over determinism
 Teleological
 Conscious over unconscious
 Social influence over biology
 Uniqueness of personality