Chapter No. 15 - Homeostasis (By Faisal Zada Khan)

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

BY: FAISAL ZADA KHAN (LECTURER-PGC)
CONTENTS:
• Concept of Homeostasis
• Osmoregulation
o Water relations of cell
o Balance of water and solute in the body
o Osmoregulation in plants
o Osmoregulation in animals
o Osmoregulation in different environments
• Excretion
o Excretion in plants
o Excretion in animals
o Nature of excretory products in relation in habitats
• Excretion in Representative Animals
o Excretion in Hydra
o Excretion in Planaria
o Excretion in Earthworm
o Excretion in Cockroach
• Excretion in Vertebrates
o Excretion in Human
o Excretory organs
o Urinary system
o Concentration of excretory products
o Kidney as osmoregulatory organ
o Kidney problems and cures
• Thermoregulation
o Adaptations in plants to low and high temperature
• Mechanisms in Animals
o Body heat, Heat gain and loss
o Temperature classification of animals
o Regulation of heat exchange between animals and environment
• Thermoregulation in mammals (Human)
o Regulatory strategies
o Thermostat function and feedback controls in human
o Temperature in fever (Pyrexia)
Page 1 of 36

CONCEPT OF HOMEOSTASIS
• The protection of internal environment from the harms of fluctuations (changes) in external
environment is termed as homeostasis.
• Homoios (same, like); stasis (standing, not change)
• The ability to maintain a steady state within a constantly changing environment is essential for
survival of living organism. In order to maintain this condition organisms from simple to most
complex have developed a variety of structural, physiological and behavioral mechanisms.
External Environment Internal Environment
The environment where the organism lives may The environment where each cell lives
fluctuate continuously
Susceptible components of internal environment
• The most susceptible components of internal environment that may be affected by fluctuations in
external environment are
1. Water
2. Solutes
3. Temperature
Mechanisms of Homeostasis
1. Osmoregulation
• The mechanism of regulation, generally between organism and its environment, of solutes and
gain and loss of water.
2. Excretion
• The mechanism which eliminates the nitrogenous wastes from the living organism to its
environment is referred as excretion.
3. Thermoregulation
• The maintenance of internal temperature within a tolerable range of an organism is designated as
thermoregulation.
Control Systems
• Mechanisms of homeostasis are maintained by control systems of living organism.
Page 2 of 36

• The intracellular (within cell membrane) and extracellular (vascular and other interstitial fluids)
internal environment of an organism also at cell level keep fluctuating in narrow range.
• In internal environment in addition to solute and water various essential metabolites, hormones
etc. are kept in a required range.
Restricted water availability→Dehydration→Shrinkage→Death
Excessive water availability→Over flooded→Turgidity→Death
• The water availability may fluctuate tremendously for the organisms in external environment but
control system would not let the body flooded with water in abundant supply and also not to
dehydrate in dry conditions.
• Homeostasis does not mean to keep a fixed internal environment as changes maintained within a
specific range are necessary for normal body functions.
Components of Control System
1. Receptor (Sensor or thermometer)

2. Control Centre (Brain and spinal cord or Thermostat)
3. Effectors (Muscles and glands or Fan)
Working mechanism of biological control system and physical control system
• The control systems have been acquired for the variety of homeostatic regulations.
• These living control systems work exactly on the mechanism of physical control system.
• In a physical control system e.g., temperature control system, there is a sensor (thermometer) that
monitors temperature change from a set point and signals to control centre to take action by
switching on heating or cooling units in response to drop or rise in the temperature compared to
set point.
• In the living system there is set point in temperature regulated (endothermic) animals. The
receptors (sensor) detect temperature change, e.g., of increase and signal to control center for
action of cooling systems and the vice versa.
(For example, control of set point temperature i.e37 0C for human, 20 0C for incubator)
Biological Control System: (Skin) (Hypothalamus) (Glands/Muscles)
Receptor Control Centre Effectors
Physical Control System: (Thermometer) (Thermostat) (Cooler/Heater)
Page 3 of 36

Biological Control System Physical Control System

1. Receptors 1. Sensors (Thermometer)
• Receive stimuli (changes) from the • Receive changes from the environment
environment • Send information in the form of signals to
• Send information in the form of signals to control centre
control centre
2. Control centre (Brain and Spinal Cord) 2. Control centre (Thermostat)
• Receives signals from receptors • Receives information from sensor
• Process information and command to the
effectors
3. Effector (Cooler / Heater)
3. Effectors (Muscles/Glands)
• Receives command from control centre
• Receive command from control centre
• Shows response (output)
• Shows response (output)
Feedback Mechanism
• Detection of change and signaling for effectors response to control system is called a feedback
mechanism.
• Control systems works on the principle of feedback mechanism
Types:
1. Positive feedback mechanism
2. Negative feedback mechanism
Negative feedback mechanism
• In this process there is inverse effector’s response to the change in external environment as there
is generally cooling effector’s response to warmth sensing in external environment is termed as
negative feedback mechanism.
Importance of Homeostasis
1. It is the central requirement in the maintenance of suitable environment for an organism.
2. It brings the adaptations in organism due to constant changing environment conditions and
contributes in the evolutionary process.
Page 4 of 36

3. It keeps the internal fluctuation in narrow range with various control systems as compared to
wider external changes.
(There is no positive feedback mechanism in human males)
Homeostasis: Controlling systems lower fluctuations in internal environments
OSMOREGULATION
• “The mechanism of regulation, generally between organism and its environment, of solutes and
gain and loss of water”
WATER RELATIONS OF CELL
• Water is the solvent of the solutes in the cell

• Each cell has been adapted to a defined quantity of water in relation to salts in it to perform its
function
• Homeostatic generally maintain this concentration
BALANCE OF WATER AND SOLUTE IN THE BODY
Hypotonic Hypertonic Environment Isotonic Environment

Environment
Meaning Hypo (less/low), Tonic Hyper (Greater/More), Iso (Same), Tonic
(Strength/concentration) Tonic (strength) (strength)
Definition External environment is External environment is External and internal
less concentrated than the more concentrated than environments are similar
internal environment of the internal environment
Page 5 of 36

cell of cell
Effect on Cell When a cell is placed in When a cell is placed in In isotonic environment
hypotonic environment the hypertonic environment, there is no effect on cell.
water enters the cell from water comes out of the cell
external environment by by exosmosis. As the result
the process of endosmosis of this the cell becomes
and cell become turgid. shrink (flaccid).
Hypotonic Hypertonic Isotonic
• In nature, hypotonic conditions are existed in fresh water ecosystems, hypertonic

conditions are present in marine water and terrestrial environments. Isotonic
conditions do not exist anywhere, but are present between the osmoconformers
and their environments.
Response of the cell to various external environments i.e., different concentrations of solutions without any regulation with control
system or cell membrane, cells remain in normal state despite difference in its internal environments
OSMOREGULATION IN PANTS
• Plants are distributed in different habitats according to the availability of water.

• The plants are divided into three main groups.
1. Hydrophytes 2. Mesophytes 3. Xerophytes
Page 6 of 36

Characteristics Hydrophytes Mesophytes Xerophytes

Definition Plants growing in fresh Plants found in Plants found in dry places
water habitat environment having
moderate water availability
Osmotic Abundance of water More or less availability of Restricted supply of
Problems availability (continue water water
supply of water in plant
cell)
Adaptations for the solution of environmental osmotic problem
Surface area of Large (To increase rate of Large but smaller than Reduced (To avoid the
leaves transpiration) Hydrophytes (Rate of water loss by transpiration)
transpiration according to the
availability of water)
Number of Large Large, lesser than Least number of stomata
stomata Hydrophytes
Position of On the upper surface of Mostly on the lower surface of In the depressions of the
stomata leaves leaves leaves (sunken stomata)
Cuticle (Waxy) Usually, absent Present Present
Examples Water lily, Hydrilla, etc., Brassica campestris (mustard Cacti, Euphorbia Opuntia
plant), Mango, Rose etc., etc.,
A hydrophytic plant (on left side)
A xerophytic plant (on right side)
Page 7 of 36

OSMOREGULATION IN ANIMALS
1. Osmoconformers
The animals whose body fluids are kept isotonic to external environment do not require actively to
adjust their internal osmotic state are called osmoconformers.
Examples: Most of marine Invertebrates, Hagfishes
2. Osmoregulators
Those animals which are found in hypotonic or hypertonic environment need to adjust their internal
osmotic state. Therefore, these animals actively regulate to discharge excess water and excess salts in
such environment.
Examples: Cartilaginous fishes, Bony fishes
OSMOREGULATION IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS
Osmoregulation in water
The osmoregulation in water is divided into two groups
1. Marine water 2. Fresh water
1. Osmoregulation in Marine Water
Marine water invertebrates: Most of the marine water invertebrates are osmoconformers.
Marine vertebrates: Hagfish are isotonic with their surroundings.
Osmoregulation in cartilaginous fishes:
Most cartilaginous fishes maintain lower internal salt concentration than that of sea water
• They drink more water and produced concentrated urine which contains more salts and less
water.
• Kidneys, gills and rectal glands help to removal of excess of salts. Rectal glands are used for the
secretion of high concentration of salt.
• Active transport is used to remove salt against osmotic gradient.
• Some fishes have relatively low salts in body fluids but have rendered these hypertonic to that of
sea water by retaining urea. High concentration of urea is harmful.
TMAO and Urea: Urea denatures proteins and inhibits enzymes but TMAO stabilized proteins and
activates enzymes.
Page 8 of 36

Bony fishes: Bony fishes the descendent of fresh water ancestors but later become marine constantly
lose water from the hypotonic body fluids to hypertonic environment.
2. Osmoregulation in Fresh Water
Fresh water animals constantly facing the osmotic flooding of body fluids and loss of water.
Osmoregulation in unicellular fresh water animals by contractile vacuole:
Fresh water unicellular animals like amoeba and paramecium have tiny sac like structure (vacuole) in
their cell. This vacuole helps to pump out excess of water.
Osmoregulation in fishes:
• These fishes drink no water and produced dilute urine which contains more water and less salts.
• They absorb salts and ions by active transport across their gills.
• They eat food which contains more salt.
• Their body is coated by mucus layer. It prevents the inward water movement.
Osmoregulation in Terrestrial environment

Problems:
1. Evaporative loss of water: The major problems in terrestrial environment are that animal face
dehydration.
2. Dehydration: The loss of water from body cell.
Adaptations in invertebrates:
1. Arthropods-Covering of body:
Terrestrial animals are covered by body surface which prevent the water loss. Exoskeleton (Outside
frame): Waxy exoskeleton of insects prevent the water loss
Page 9 of 36

Adaptations in vertebrates:
1. Multi layered dead keratinized skin of terrestrial vertebrates also avoid the water loss. To
overcome dehydration animals drink and eat moist food. To avoid dehydration animal show
metabolic and behavioral adaptations.
2. Kangaroo Rat (Deserted Mammal): Some desert mammals such as kangaroo rat survives
without drinking water by feeding on seeds of desert plants containing more carbohydrates. The
metabolism of carbohydrate produced water.
3. Concentrated urine production: Terrestrial animals produced concentrated urine in their
kidneys that absorb most filtered water in the process of excretion.
Anhydrobiosis: Terrestrial animals can tolerate dehydration and it is different in various animals. This
characteristic is known as anhydrobiosis. e.g., Tardigrade has 85% water in hydrated state and can
tolerate dehydration up to 2%and survive as dry dust in inactive form.
Importance of osmoregulation: Osmoregulation has enabled animals and plants to distributed wide
range of habitat. e.g., Kangaroo rats and Tardigrade
EXCRETION
• The removal of metabolic waste specifically the nitrogenous waste is known as excretion.
• The nitrogenous wastes are toxic when they are concentrated in the cell, they must be removed
from the body.
Metabolic Wastes:
CO2
Carbohydrates Glucose
H2 O
CO2
Lipids Fatty Acids
METABOLISM
H2 O
CO2
Proteins Amino Acids H2O
Nitrogenous
Waste
CO2
Nucleic Acid Nucleotides H2 O
Nitrogenous
Waste
Page 10 of 36

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Excretory products in plants
• Plants produced oxygen during photosynthesis, carbon dioxide during respiration and water
during both processes and transpiration.
• Water is lost through transpiration or guttation; or just use for maintain the
Different ways of excretion in plants:
1. Excretion through Vacuoles

2. Excretion through Leaves
3. Excretion through Stems
4. Excretion through Roots
1. Excretion through Vacuoles
• Plant cells have large vacuole.
• Plant uses this vacuole for the storage of useful and waste substances.
• These waste products then transferred into crystals in vacuoles.

2. Excretion through Leaves:
• Plant produces certain waste of Organic and inorganic nature, which are stored in certain organs
like leaves.
• These leaves are destined to fall off during autumn to get rid of stored waste.
• These leaves are good manure and gardeners use it to increase soil fertility.
Page 11 of 36

• In some cases, leaves die off and leave stalk or certain bulb (bulb: is commonly used to describe
geophytes, or plants that produce specialized underground stems where buds form) underground.
• The falling of yellow leaves in autumn is the seasonal time for plants to get rid of accumulated
wastes. Due to this reason leaves are said to be excretophore.
• Yellow color of leaves is not due to loss of chlorophyll, a microscopic study reveals that some of
the pigmented compounds and many toxic materials like heavy metals impart yellowness.
3. Excretion through Stem:
• Some trees deposit strange chemicals in their branches and trunk especially in old xylem or
nonfunctioning xylem.
• Deposition of these chemical produced very black wood in the Centre. This is considered as wastes
by plants physiologist
• Very black wood in the center of stem of some plants due to accumulation of metabolic waste in
old non conducting xylem is known as ebony. This happens in ebony plant.
4. Excretion through Roots
• Some plants (like conifers) actively secrete waste compounds into the soil.
• Plants use these chemicals as weapons against other competing plants.
EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
Excretion in animals
• The elimination of waste metabolites mainly the nitrogenous wastes is known as excretion.
Excretory Products
• Water: Excretory product in hypoosmotic environment
• Salts: Excretory product in hypertonic environment
• Nitrogenous waste: Mainly Waste metabolites
Mechanism:
• Deamination (Removal of amino group from amino acids)
• Excess nitrogenous waste→ Ammonia, Urea, Uric acid
• Lower quantities→ Creatinine, Creatine, Trimethylamine oxide
• Very small quantities→ Amino acids, Purines, Pyrimidines
Page 12 of 36

• Metabolism of Purine and Pyrimidine → Hypoxanthine, Xanthine, Uric acid, Allantoin, Urea and
Ammonia
• NO EXCRETION →Elevated levels of toxic waste→ Convulsions, coma eventually death
NATURE OF EXCRETORY PRODUCTS IN RELATION IN HABITATS
Ammonotelic Ureotelic Uricotelic

Water Availability Abundant Restricted Acute shortage
Habitat Aquatic (fresh water) Terrestrial, marine Terrestrial
Nitrogenous waste Ammonia Urea Uric acid
Toxicity of waste Highly toxic Less toxic Least toxic
Water required for 1g 500 ml 50 ml 1 ml
removal of waste
Excretion Ammonotely Ureotely Uricotely
Examples Most aquatic animals Mammals, most Birds, Reptiles, Insects
including fishes amphibians, shark some and land snail
bony fishes
Formulae
of Nitrogenous wastes
EXCRETION IN REPRESENTATIVE ANIMALS
EXCRETION IN HYDRA
• Hydra, a cnidarian,
• It does not have specialized excretory structures
• In it waste products simply diffuse into the isosmotic surroundings
EXCRETION IN PLANARIA
• Belongs to flatworms
• Have simple tubular excretory system called protonephridium
• A protonephridium is a network of closed tubules without internal openings
Page 13 of 36

• Tubular system is spread throughout the body and branches are capped by a cellular setup termed
as flame cells
• A flame cell has
o A tuft of cilia, whose beating propels interstitial fluid into the tubular system (the beating of
cilia looks like a flickering flame; therefore, these cells are termed flame cells)
• The tubular system is drained into excretory ducts, which open to the exterior through several
nephridiopores
• Freshwater flatworms excrete very dilute urine
• The parasitic flatworms, which are isotonic to the host environment mainly function in disposing
nitrogenous wastes
EXCRETION IN EARTHWORM
• Belongs to annelids
• They have a tubular excretory system called as metanephridia
• Each segment of earthworm has a pair a metanephridia
• This system has an internal ciliated opening the Nephrostome immersed in coelomic fluid and
enveloped by a network of capillaries
• Nephrostome collects coelomic fluid
• As fluid moves along the tubule, epithelium reabsorbs salt from the lumen and sends to blood
vessels surrounding the nephridium
• The left over appears as urine containing nitrogenous waste
Page 14 of 36

EXCRETION IN COCKROACH
• Terrestrial arthropods particularly in the insects, the excretory structures are adapted to collect
excretory products from hemolymph in sinuses through suspended tubular structures called
Malpighian tubules
• These Malpighian tubules remove nitrogenous waste from the hemolymph
• These are the only excretory structures in animal kingdom that are associated with digestive tract
• The epithelial lining of the tubules transports solutes including salts and nitrogenous waste from
haemolymph into tubules lumen
• Fluid passes to hind gut into the rectum
• Rectum reabsorbs most of the salts and water, thus nitrogenous wastes are excreted as solid
excreta, in the form of uric acid crystals along the feces
• This kind of adaptation in excretion is the success of these animals on land with acute shortage of
water
• Insects are the only group of animals, which eliminate excretory waste with feces, in all other
animals there is no structural and functional relationship between nutritive and excretory system
Page 15 of 36

EXCRETION IN VERTEBRATES
Invertebrate chordates Segmentally arranged excretory structures like metanephridia in

earthworm
Primitive vertebrates (Hag Kidneys with segmentally arranged tubules
fishes)
Advanced vertebrates Kidneys with numerous tubules not segmentally arranged associated
with dense network of capillaries, the nephrons
Nephron The basic functional structure in the kidneys
EXCRETION IN HUMAN
• The generation of wastes is primarily done at metabolic level and these are called metabolic
wastes.
Chemicals metabolized Metabolic Waste
Amino Acids Urea
Creatine Creatinine
Nucleic Acid Uric Acid
Hemoglobin Bilirubin
Hormones Waste Metabolites of Hormones
Pesticides, Drugs and Food additives Toxins
Page 16 of 36

EXCRETORY ORGANS
Liver
• Central station of metabolism

• Central metabolic clearing house
• Pivotal to homeostasis
• Interaction with most of body organ system

• Supports the excretory role of kidney by detoxification of chemical poisons
• Produces ammonia, urea and uric acid from the nitrogen of amino acid
• The principal excretory product formed by liver is urea
• Metabolic pathways involved in the production of urea are termed as urea cycle/ornithine cycle
• Two ammonia and one CO2 are shunted into the cycle to generate one molecule of urea
• Ornithine is the precursor of urea cycle
• Ornithine combines with ammonia and carbon dioxide to form citrulline
• Citrulline reacts with ammonia to form argininosuccinate
• Argininosuccinate is converted in to arginine
• Breakdown of arginine in the presence of arginase yield urea and the precursor ornithine
Page 17 of 36

Functions Major effects on homeostasis

Synthesis Nitrogenous wastes such as Supports kidney in waste
i. Ammonia disposal
ii. Urea
iii. Uric acid
Plasma proteins like i. Catalyst in blood
i. Prothrombin clotting process
ii. Albumin ii. Maintain osmotic
iii. Fibrinogen balance of blood
iii. Blood clotting protein
Bile Emulsifies fats in small intestine
Lipids, Cholesterol, Lipoproteins Regulate blood chemistry, store
energy and help to maintain cell
membranes
Storage Iron Oxygenation of tissues as
constituent of haemoglobin
Glycogen Energy reserves
Conversion Excess glucose in blood to glycogen, lactic acid Energy storage and use
to glycogen and store glycogen to glucose
Recycling Contents of old red blood cells (e.g., iron and Oxygenation of tissues
other constituents of haemoglobin)
Page 18 of 36

Detoxification Many harmful chemicals (e.g., food, additives, Assist kidney in toxin disposal
pesticides, drugs etc.)
• Urea is detoxified form of ammonia in urea cycle, which can be retained in the body in greater
amount than ammonia and can be eliminated with 1/10 quantity of water as compared to
ammonia.
Skin may not be considered as an excretory organ due to the presence of
Sweat Glands→ Removal of salts with water for thermoregulation
Sebaceous Glands→ Sebum for protection against micro-organism
URINARY SYSTEM
• The urinary system consists of the following

1. Kidneys
2. Ureter
3. Urinary bladder
4. Urethra
Human urinary system

1. Kidney
• Each kidney is of 10-14 cm long, 3-5 cm wide and 2.5 cm thick in adults
• The kidney lies on either side of the ventral column between the twelfth and third lumbar
vertebrae.
Page 19 of 36

• A Kidney is a reddish brown, bean shaped organ with a small surface.

• A pair of kidney consists of millions of functional units, Nephron.
• The nephron has extensive blood supply via the renal arteries, which leaves each kidney via the
renal vein.
• The left kidney is about 1.5 to 2.0 cm higher than the right one. (because of liver on right kidney)
The structure of a kidney
Importance of kidney
• The function of kidney and blood in clearing wastes from body is very evident from the fact that
weights of kidneys account of less than 1 % of the total body weight, while it receives 20% of
blood supplied with each cardiac beat.
• Kidney also helps to control the RBC formation by secreting the hormone erythropoietin and help
to regulate blood pressure by secreting the enzyme renin.
Function of Kidney
• Kidneys function as excretory as well as osmoregulatory organs.
• Their excretory functions include the filtration of nitrogenous wastes from the blood and its
removal outside the body in the form of urine.
• Being osmoregulatory organs, these are concern with formation of diluted urine during the state
of flooding and forming concentrated urine during the state of dehydration.
2. Ureter
• Each ureter is a tubular organ about 25cm long, which begins as the funnel shaped renal pelvis.
Page 20 of 36

• It extends downward parallel of the vertebral column to join the urinary bladder.
• It transports urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
3. Urinary bladder
• The urinary bladder is of 5cm in length
• The urinary bladder is a hollow, distensible, muscular organ.
• It is located within the pelvic cavity. It serves as urine reservoir.
4. Urethra
• The length of urethra in female is (3-4 cm) while in male is (20cm)
• The urethra is a tube that carries urine from urinary bladder to the outside of the body.
Passage of urine from pelvis to outside the body
• Following filtration of blood and further processing through tubular system urine is collected in a
central cavity of the kidney, pelvis, urine leaves the kidney through a duct ureter.
• The ureters of both the kidneys drains into urinary bladder through ureteral orifice.
• Urine leaves the body during urination from the bladder through a tube called urethra, which
empties near the vagina in females or through the penis in males, sphincter muscles near the
junction of the urethra and bladder control the urine in bladder.
NEPHRON
• The functional unit nephron in human kidneys is arranged along two distinct regions an outer
cortex and ana inner medulla.
Types of nephrons
1. Cortical nephron
• These are found in the cortex.
• They have their renal corpuscle in the superficial renal cortex and have relatively short loop of
Henle.
• 70 to 80 % nephrons in human kidney are cortical.
• Under normal conditions cortical nephrons deal with the control of blood volume by forming
dilute urine.
Page 21 of 36

2. Juxtamedullary nephron
• They have their renal corpuscle close to the junction of the cortex and medulla.
• They have long loop of Henle which extends deep into the medulla.
• These types of nephrons are relatively rare and only comprise 20-30 % of the nephrons in the
human kidney.
• When water is in short supply, increased water retention occurs through juxtamedullary
nephrons.
Page 22 of 36

Structure of Nephron
• The nephron is a functional unit of kidney.
• A nephron consists of a renal corpuscle and renal tubule, a renal corpuscle is composed of a
network of capillaries called glomerulus which is surrounded by a thin double walled structure
called Bowman’s capsule.
• The Bowman’s capsule is an expansion at the closed end of a renal tubule.
• The renal tubule leads away from the Bowman’s capsule and becomes highly coiled.
• This coiled portion of the tubule is called PCT.
• The PCT dips towards the renal pelvis into the medulla forming a sharp loop called loop of Henle.
• The loop of Henle consists of a descending limb and an ascending limb.
• The ascending limb returns to the region of the renal corpuscle where it becomes highly coiled
again and is called DCT which is connected to collecting duct.
• The collecting duct receives many nephrons.
Page 23 of 36

Blood circulation in Nephron

• The renal artery within the kidney gives rise branches called interlobular arteries which project
into the cortex and gives rise to the afferent arterioles.
• The afferent arterioles supply blood to the glomerular capillaries of the renal capsule. Efferent
arterioles (rather than a venule) arise from the glomeruli give rise to the plexus of capillaries
called the peritubular capillaries around the proximal and distal tubules.
• Specialized part of the peritubular capillaries called vasa recta course into the medulla along with
the loop of Henle and then back toward the cortex.
• The peritubular capillaries drain into interlobular veins, which drain into renal vein.
• The renal vein exists the kidney and connects to the inferior vena cava.
Functions of Nephron (Urine Formation)

• The formation of urine involves glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion.
1. Glomerular filtration
• (Pressure filtration or ultrafiltration) takes place in the renal capsule under pressure.
Page 24 of 36

• This pressure comes from the blood pressure and is known as hydrostatic pressure.
• Glomerular capillaries have exceptionally high blood pressure than any other part of capillary bed
in the body.
• The diameter of efferent arteriole is half as compared to the afferent arteriole so, as the blood
enters the narrow capillaries pressure rise, due to such a high-pressure water and small solute
molecules are filtered out of the glomerular capillaries and are collected into the Bowman’s
capsule.
• Larger molecules like proteins as well as RBC’s and platelets are left behind in the blood.
• The filtered fluid in the capsule is called glomerular filtrate.
• It has a chemical composition similar to the of blood plasma.
2. Selective reabsorption
• (Tubular reabsorption) is the process by which certain substances that have been filtered out of
the blood during ultrafiltration are reabsorbed.
• These substances include glucose, amino acids, vitamins, inorganic salts and some water.
• As only certain substances are reabsorbed it is known as selective reabsorption.
3. Tubular secretion
• It is the process by which certain substances e.g., ammonia, hydrogen ions are secreted mainly by
the tubular epithelial cells of the loop of Henle into the lumen of the tubule.
• However, to some extent this process also occurs in convoluted tubule.
• The main purpose of this secretion is to maintain the pH of the urine. Normal urine has pH range
from 4.8 to 7.5
CONCENTRATION OF EXCRETORY PRODUCTS
• Water is reabsorbed along the whole length of the nephron, but the formation of hypertonic urine
is dependent on the reabsorption of water from the loop of Henle and collecting duct.
• This is achieved by counter current multiplier mechanism.
• Due to the counter current, filtrate moving in limbs of loop of Henle and the blood moving in the
capillaries of vasa recta water is greatly (approximately 99.5%) reabsorbed.
• As fluid travels up the ascending limb sodium chloride are transported actively out of the limb into
the surrounding area.
• This movement is controlled by aldosterone (adrenal cortical hormone) this cause increase in the
concentration of water in filtrate and decrease in concentration of water in kidney interstitium.
Page 25 of 36

• As a result, water passes out of the ascending limb by osmosis.

• This movement of water is also promoted by ADH which is secreted from the posterior lobe of
pituitary gland.
KIDNEY AS OSMOREGULATORY ORGAN
• The production of varied concentrations of urine depending on the availability of water exhibits
clearly that kidney functions as an osmoregulatory organ along its excretory role of nitrogenous
waste
KIDNEY PROBLEMS AND CURES
• Urinary stones are hard, crystalline mineral materials that stick together to form small pebbles
within the kidney or urinary tract.
• They can be as small as grains of sand or as large as golf balls.
• They can stay in kidneys or travel out of the body through the urinary tract.
• The condition of having stones in the kidney is termed “nephrolithiasis”
Types of Kidney stones
i. Calcium oxalate
ii. Calcium phosphate
iii. Magnesium ammonium phosphate
iv. Uric acid
v. Cystine
• When urine is acidic the stone is of calcium oxalate
• When urine is alkaline the stone is of calcium phosphate
• When urine is persistently acid the stone is of uric acid
• Hypercalcemia- When kidney stones are caused by increased calcium level in the blood
• Hypercalciuria-When kidney stones are caused by increased calcium level in the urine
• Hyperoxaluria-When kidney stones are caused by increased oxalate level in the urine
• Both hypercalciuria and hyperoxaluria causes calcium oxalate type of kidney stones which are
present in 70% of kidney stone patients.
• Hyperuricemia-When kidney stones are caused by increased uric acid level in the blood and it
forms 10% of the kidney stone patients.
Page 26 of 36

• Continuous state of dehydration increases the chances of kidney stone formation.

Methods to remove kidney stones
• There are two methods to remove kidney stones
1. Non-surgical method
a. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL)
• It is a technique used to remove stones of smaller size.
• In this technique, high concentrations of X-rays or ultrasound are directed from a machine outside
the body to the stone inside.
• The shock waves break the stone in tiny pieces or into sand, which are passed out of the body with
urine.
b. Percutaneous nephron lithotripsy (PCNL)

• It is a technique used to remove stones of larger size.
• Both the techniques may have various pathological and chemical effects on nephron particularly
glomerulus.
• This effect may increase the plasma level of urea and other nitrogenous wastes causing
complication of increase in rise of blood pressure and anemia.
2. Surgical method
a. Dialysis
• A procedure to filter toxins from the blood by artificial methods when the kidneys are unable to
perform its function is called renal dialysis.
Page 27 of 36

• Dialysis works on the principle of kidneys although it is not as effective, efficient, or thorough as
the natural processes performed by the kidneys.
• There are two types of renal dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis
i. Hemodialysis
• Hemodialysis means ‘cleaning the blood’.
• In this procedure blood is circulated through a machine which contains dialyzer also called an
artificial kidney.
• Dialyzer has two portions separated by a thin semi-permeable membrane.
• Blood passes from one side of the membrane while the dialysate (dialyzer fluid) on the other.
• The waste and excess water passes from the blood through the membrane into the dialysate
(dialyzer fluid).
ii. Peritoneal dialysis

• Abdomen has a peritoneal cavity, lined by a thin epithelium called peritoneum.
• Peritoneal cavity is filled with dialysate (dialyzer fluid) what enters the body through the catheter.
• Excess water and wastes pass through the peritoneum into the dialysate (dialyzer fluid).
Page 28 of 36

b. Kidney transplant
• In high degree of renal failure also called as uremia or end-stage renal disease (ESRD), the dialysis
has become difficult, thus the surgical transplantation of a matching donor kidney is the only
option left as the permanent treatment.
• Chronic renal failure: may be caused by bacterial infection of the pelvis and surrounding tissue.
Nephritis (inflammation of glomeruli). Damage due to high blood pressure. Diabetes mellitus.
• Acute renal failure: may be caused by hemorrhage due to trauma, vomiting, diarrhea, diuresis
(excess excretion of urine), sweating. Obstruction of the ureters, bladder or urethra e.g., kidney
stones. Severe nephritis.
THERMOREGULATION
“The maintenance of internal body temperature within a tolerable range is called thermoregulation”.
ADAPTATIONS IN PLANTS TO LOW AND HIGH TEMPERATURE
1. High temperature
• High temperature denatures the enzymes and damages the metabolism; therefore, it harms or
kills the plants.
• Plants use evaporative cooling to manage with high temperature.
• Hot and dry weather, however, causes water deficiency resulting in closing of stomata, thus plants
suffer in such conditions.
Page 29 of 36

• Most plants have adapted to survive in heat stress as the plants of temperature region face the
stress of 40 OC and above temperature.
• The cells of these plants synthesize large quantities of special proteins called heat-shock proteins.
• These proteins embrace enzymes and other proteins thus help to prevent denaturation
2. Low temperature
• In low temperature the fluidity of the cell membrane is altered, because lipids of the membrane
become locked into crystalline structures, which affects the transport of the solutes.
• The structure of the membrane proteins is also affected.
• Plants respond to cold stress by increasing proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, which help
membrane to maintain structure at low temperature by preventing crystal formation.
• This adaptation requires time because of this reason rapid chilling of plants is more stressful than
gradual drop in air temperature
• Freezing temperature causes crystal formation.
• The confinement of ice formation around cell will does not affect as badly and plants survive,
however, formation of ice crystals within
MECHANISMS IN ANIMALS
BODY HEAT, HEAT GAIN AND LOSS
• Temperature of an animal depends upon the rate of change of body heat which in turn depends on
rate of heat production through metabolic processes and the rate of external het gain and rate of
heat loss
• This transfer of heat between an animal and its environment is done in numerous ways
• Principally, infrared thermal radiation and direct and reflected sunlight transfer heat into the
animal; whereas radiation and evaporation transfer heat out to the environment
TEMPERATURE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
Homeothermic (warm-blooded animals)

• The animals that maintain their body temperature when exposed to changing air or water
temperature are called as homeothermic animal.
Examples:
• Birds
Page 30 of 36

• Mammals
Poikilothermic (Cold-blooded animals)
• The animals that do not maintain their body temperature when exposed to changing air or water
temperature are called as homeothermic animal.
Examples:
• Amphibians
• Reptiles
Classification of Animals based on source of body heat production
1. Ectotherms:
• The animals that produce metabolic heat at low level and also exchange quickly with the
environment and cannot maintain their body temperature are called as ectotherms.
Examples:
• Most invertebrates
• Most of fishes
• Amphibians
• Reptiles
2. Endotherms:
• The animals which produce their own body heat through heat production as by product during
metabolism are called an endotherms
Examples:
• Birds
• Mammals
• Some fishes
• Flying insects
Heterotherms:
• The animals which are capable of producing varying degrees of endothermic heat production but
generally do not regulate their body temperature within a narrow range are called as
heterotherms.
Example:
Page 31 of 36

• Humming birds
• Bats
REGULATION OF HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN ANIMALS AND ENVIRONMENT
1. Structural Adaptation:
• Subdermal fatty layer for insulation
• Pelage (Growth of hair or wool or fur covering the body of an animal coat)
• Sweat gland
• Lungs for panting (A method of cooling, used by many mammals, most birds, and some
reptiles, accomplished by means of the evaporation of water from internal body surfaces)
2. Physiological Adaptation:
• Increase and restricted supply of blood to skin.
• Greater blood flow in warmth to dissipate heat.
• Lower blood flow in colds to economize heat loss.
• Activation of certain muscles cause plumage fluffing. (A bird traps air to hold in body heat
and keep out the effects of cold. During hot weather, the bird presses its feathers towards the body to
eliminate the insulating air. It allows body heat to escape.)
3. Behavioral Adaptations:
(a) Animal moves to an environment where heat exchange between body and environment is
minimal.
Examples:
• Ground squirrels move to burrow in midday heat.

• Lizards bask in sun to gain heat in winter.
(b) The amount of surface area available for heat exchange by adjusting their body postures.
REGULATION IN MAMMALS (HUMAN)
REGULATORY STRATEGIES
(i) Mammals and Advantages of Endothermy:

Page 32 of 36

• Mammals including human maintain their body temperature within a narrow range of about 36-
38oC.
• High metabolic rate.
• Availability of energy round the clock.
• Distribution in different regions of the earth.
Regulatory Mechanisms:
(a) Shivering Thermogenesis: Heat production by increased muscle contraction, by movements or

shivering is called shivering thermogenesis.
(b) Non-shivering Thermogenesis: When hormones trigger the heat production (as do thyroid
hormones) it is called as non-shivering thermogenesis.
(c) Deposition of Brown Fat: Some mammal possesses Brown fat that is specialized for rapid heat
production.
(d) Skin: An Organ of Thermoregulation:
Page 33 of 36

In Cold Temperature:
Adaptations:
(i) Vasoconstriction: In cold environment the diameter of superficial blood vessels is decreased to
preserve the heat within the body.
(ii) Goose bumps: By raising their furs it trapping the still air and it act as good insulator between
skin and the surrounding.
(iii) Blubber in Marine Mammal: A very thick layer of insulating fat called an Blubber just under the
skin of Marine mammal such as whales and seal.
In Warm Temperature:
(i) Role of Skin in Marine Mammal:
• A large number of Blood Vessel present in the outer layer of the skin of Marine Mammal
• This dissipates the heat from the skin surface
(ii) Evaporative Cooling: In terrestrial animal, sweat gland play important role in evaporative
cooling
(iii) Role of Panting: Panting is the evaporative cooling, that is common in dogs.
(iv) Use of Saliva and Urine: Use as evaporative cooling as found in Bats.
THERMOSTAT FUNCTION AND FEEDBACK CONTROLS IN HUMAN
• The body temperature regulation in humans is based on complex homeostatic systems facilitated
by feedback mechanisms
• The homeostatic thermostat is present in the hypothalamus, a brain part
• It responds to the change in the temperature above and below a set point which is 37 OC
In warm temperature
• In case of increase in temperature above the set point, certain warm temperature sensitive
thermoreceptors in skin, hypothalamus and other parts of nervous systems send the signals to the
system that increase the blood flow to the skin and also cause sweat gland activation ad the sweat
is evaporated for the cooling
Page 34 of 36

In cold temperature
• In cold temperature, the cold receptors send the impulses to hypothalamus to inhibit heat loss
mechanisms and activate the heat conservation mechanisms
• This includes constriction of superficial blood vessels and stimulating shivering and non-shivering
mechanisms
TEMPERATURE IN FEVER (PYREXIA)
• Due to bacterial and viral infections.

• Leukocytes (white blood cells) increase in number
• Bacteria and white blood cells produce Pyrogens
Role of Pyrogens
• Pyrogens displace the set point of Hypothalamus above the normal point of 37 OC.
• Fever or high temperature helps in stimulating the protective mechanism against the pathogens
EXCERCISE
Q.1 Fill in the blanks:
(i) Osmoregulation is the ability of an organism to regulate its fluid contents.
(ii) The detoxification of ammonia to urea requires the precursor of ornithine.
(iii) In Kidney nephron is closely associated with network of blood capillaries
(iv) In insects salt and water reabsorption takes places in the organ rectum
(v) The antidiuretic hormone act on collecting tubule to promote reabsorption of water in
vertebrate nephron.
(vi) The nephrons arranged along the border of cortex and medulla with tubular system looping deep
in the inner medulla, are called juxtamedullary nephrons.
(vii) The non-Surgical Procedure of removing kidney stone is termed as lithotripsy
(viii) Hypothalamus is the homeostatic thermostat in human.
Q.2 Encircle the correct answer from the multiple choices:
(i) The protection of an internal environment from the harms of fluctuations is the definition of which
of following:
(a) Osmoregulation (b) Excretion
(c) Thermoregulation (d) Homeostasis
Page 35 of 36

(ii) The category of the plants that has adaptations of small and thick leaves to limit water loss are
called:
(a) Hydrophytes (b) Xerophytes
(c) Mesophytes (d) Hygrophytes
(iii) The environment where the animals produce large volumes of diluted urine:
(a) Hypotonic aquatic (b) Isotonic aquatic
(c) Hypertonic aquatic (c) Terrestrial
(iv) Which of the following is called as excretophore i.e., contributing mainly in the elimination of
wastes in plants:
(a) Stem (b) Roots
(c) Leaves (d) Flower
(v) The Excretory product That requires minimum water for its elimination compare to other:
(a) Urea (b) Uric acid
(c) Creatinine (d) Ammonia
(vi) The groups of animals whose excretory system is structurally associated with nutritive tract:
(a) Vertebrates (b) Earth worm
(c) Planaria (d) Insects
(vii) The excretory structures that deliver from kidney to urinary bladder:
(a) Urethra (b) Pelvis
(c) Ureter (d) Collecting tubule
(viii) The metabolic wastes that are ingested into body and must be removed:
(a) Pesticides (b) Drugs
(c) Food additives (d) All of these
(ix) Which of the following is not endotherm:
(a) Bird (b) Amphibian
(c) Flying insects (d) Mammals
(x) Name the of adaptations from the following that is responsible for shivering thermogenesis:
(a) Structural (b) Physiological
(c) Behavioral (d) None of these
Page 36 of 36

Chapter No. 15 - Homeostasis (By Faisal Zada Khan)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter No. 15 - Homeostasis (By Faisal Zada Khan)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

1. Receptor (Sensor or thermometer)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Biological Control System Physical Control System

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Homeostasis: Controlling systems lower fluctuations in internal environments

WATER RELATIONS OF CELL

• Water is the solvent of the solutes in the cell

BALANCE OF WATER AND SOLUTE IN THE BODY

Hypotonic Hypertonic Environment Isotonic Environment

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Hypotonic Hypertonic Isotonic

• In nature, hypotonic conditions are existed in fresh water ecosystems, hypertonic

• Plants are distributed in different habitats according to the availability of water.

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Characteristics Hydrophytes Mesophytes Xerophytes

A hydrophytic plant (on left side)

A xerophytic plant (on right side)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Osmoregulation in Terrestrial environment

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Proteins Amino Acids H2O

Nucleic Acid Nucleotides H2 O

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Excretory products in plants

Different ways of excretion in plants:

1. Excretion through Vacuoles

• These waste products then transferred into crystals in vacuoles.

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Ammonotelic Ureotelic Uricotelic

EXCRETION IN REPRESENTATIVE ANIMALS

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Invertebrate chordates Segmentally arranged excretory structures like metanephridia in

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

• Central station of metabolism

• Interaction with most of body organ system

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Functions Major effects on homeostasis

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

• The urinary system consists of the following

Human urinary system

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

• A Kidney is a reddish brown, bean shaped organ with a small surface.

The structure of a kidney

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

Blood circulation in Nephron

Functions of Nephron (Urine Formation)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)

• As a result, water passes out of the ascending limb by osmosis.

KIDNEY AS OSMOREGULATORY ORGAN

KIDNEY PROBLEMS AND CURES

CHAPTER NO. 15 (HOMEOSTASIS)