Transport in Humans Powerpoint Slides

Chapter 8
Transport in Humans
Bicuspid valve
Tricuspid valve
What you would learn
in this section…
(8.1) The Need for a Transport System for
multicellular organisms
(8.2) Structure and Composition of Blood
(8.3) Blood Groups
(8.4) Functions of Blood
(8.5) The Circulatory System
(8.6) Double Circulation in Mammals
(8.7) Coronary Heart Disease
(8.1) The need for a transport system
Transport of materials in unicellular organisms
 Unicellular organisms do not need a transport

system for exchange or distribution of materials.
 No part of the cell is far from environment outside.
 Exchange of materials occurs easily by diffusion.
Between cell & environment Within the cell
Uptake of Movement
nutrients, oxygen of materials
Removal of
waste products
(8.1) The need for a transport system
Transport of materials in multicellular organisms
 In multicellular organisms, diffusion is inadequate for transport.
Larger body, with

reduced surface
area to volume ratio
Cells are located

deeper in the body,
further away from
the external
environment
 A transport system is required in larger organisms.

in this section…
(8.3) Blood Groups
8.2(8.2) Structure and Composition of Blood
What does blood contain?
Blood is a fluid tissue.
It is made up of plasma, red blood cells, white blood

cells and platelets.
plasma (55% of blood)
Centrifugation white blood cells

and platelets 45% of
is carried out blood
to separate
the cellular
red blood cells
and plasma
components
of blood.
Plasma
About 90% water, the rest is a complex mixture of various
dissolved substances:
Soluble proteins such as fibrinogen, prothrombin and antibodies

Fibrinogen and prothrombin for blood clotting
Antibodies for defense against pathogens
Dissolved mineral salts such as chlorides and sulfates of calcium

and sodium
Calcium is needed for blood clotting
Food substances such as glucose, amino acids and fats
Excretory products such as urea, uric acid and creatinine
Hormones such as insulin

Red Blood Cells or Erythrocytes
 Constitute 99% cells in the blood
 Produced in the bone marrow, destroyed at the spleen
 Limited lifespan of 120 days
destroyed Haemoglobin
produces in is released
and broken
down in
Red blood Liver
cells Spleen
Bone marrow
Bile pigments excreted Iron from haemoglobin
in bile through faeces stored in liver
Recap: How is Red Blood Cell Adapted for its Function
1) Specialized Feature: contains haemoglobin

Function: binds reversibly to oxygen and transport oxygen
from lungs to rest of body
2) Specialized Feature: circular and biconcave shape

Function: increases the surface area to volume ratio to
increase rate of diffusion of oxygen in and out of cell
3) Specialized Feature: Absence of nucleus

Function: Enables the cell to carry more haemoglobin for
more oxygen to be transported (NOT hold more oxygen)
4) Specialized Feature: Elastic, can turn bell-shaped

Function: Enables cells to squeeze through blood vessels
smaller than itself in diameter (e.g. tiny blood capillaries)
White Blood Cells or Leucocytes
 Larger than red blood cell but fewer in number
 Produced in bone marrow, destroyed in spleen
 Colourless as they do not contain haemoglobin
 Irregular in shape and contain a nucleus each
 Mobile – they are able to move, change their shape and
squeeze through walls of thinnest blood capillaries into spaces
among tissue cells
 Limited lifespan of a few days although they have a nucleus
Types of White Blood Cells
Lymphocytes Phagocytes
 Large rounded nucleus  Lobed nucleus
 Small amount of  Granular cytoplasm
non-granular cytoplasm  Able to engulf, ingest and
 Produce antibodies digest foreign particles such as
against microorganisms bacteria during phagocytosis
foreign
particle
non-granular foreign
cytoplasm lobed particle
nucleus ingested
nucleus
granular
cytoplasm
Blood Platelets or Thrombocytes
 Not true cells
 Membrane bound fragments

of cytoplasm from certain
bone marrow cells
 Important for the clotting of

blood
The bone marrow is a spongy red
tissue that is found in the centre
of bones. The marrow of the ribs,
vertebrate and pelvis contain
specialized stem cells. The stem
cells produce red blood cells,
white cells and platelets. We
make about 2 million red blood
cells every second. Your body
must produce blood cells
throughout your life because
each cell has a limited life span.
Red blood cells – 120days
platelets – 6 days
White blood cells – few days
in this section…
(8.3) Blood Groups
Video: Hospital negligence kills girl in Mumbai hospital
1. Why are blood transfusions needed?

2. What are blood types?
3. What do you know about them?
4. Why did the wrong blood type kill the patient(s)?
8.3 (8.3) Blood Groups
Antigens and Antibodies
• Plasma contains natural antibodies
which recognise and bind to specific
antigens on the red blood cells.
antibody a a b antibody b
• Red blood cells have proteins called

antigens on their surfaces.
Video:
Where does your donated
blood go?
http://www.straitstimes.com/
singapore/keeping-donor-
blood-flowing-amid-seasonal-
(8.3) Blood Groups
Antigens (and blood groups) are represented by
ABO Blood Groups capital letters A and B.
Antibodies against antigens A and B may be
represented by small letters a and b respectively
BLOOD TYPE A BLOOD TYPE B
b a
• RBC: antigen A • RBC: antigen B

• Plasma: antibody b • Plasma: antibody a
BLOOD TYPE O BLOOD TYPE AB
a b
• RBC: No antigen • RBC: antigens A and B

• Plasma: antibodies a and b • Plasma: No antibodies
(8.3) Blood Groups
What happens when different blood groups are mixed?
What happens when Type A

Type B blood blood is added?
antigen B on red
blood cells a
antigen A on red
blood cells
a
antibody a in plasma
(8.3) Blood Groups
Agglutination
 Antibody a in plasma of recipient binds to antigen A on
red blood cells of donor’s blood.
a
 Agglutination or clumping of red blood cells occurs.

Normal red blood cells Clumping of red blood cells
 Agglutination can become fatal if the blood clumps block up

blood vessels in vital organs, preventing the flow of blood
Summary of Reactions that occur when different blood groups are mixed
Recipient’s Antibody Donor’s blood group
Blood group in
recipient’s A B AB O
serum or (Antigen ___) (Antigen ___) (Antigens ___ (____ antigens)
plasma and ___) (UNIVERSAL
DONOR)
A
AB
(UNIVERSAL
ACCEPTOR)
O
Legend:
+ : agglutination; blood groups are incompatible
- : no agglutination, blood groups are compatible
(8.3) Blood Groups
Blood Transfusion
 During a blood transfusion, only the effect of the

recipient’s plasma on the donor’s red blood cells is
considered.
 Blood type O is the universal donor. There are
no antigens on the donor’s red blood cells, so the
antibodies in recipient’s plasma will not react with
the red blood cells.
 Blood type AB is the universal acceptor. There
are no antibodies in the plasma. Hence, no
agglutination of red blood cells in donor’s blood will
occur.
X: Blood Group B
Y: Blood Group AB
Z: Blood Group O
Blood Group O
Blood Group A and AB

in this section…
(8.3) Blood Groups
Functions of blood
Transport function Protective function

- blood act as transport medium - blood clotting
carrying various substances from one - phagocytosis
part of the body to another - antibody production
wall of blood capillary red blood cell
foreign
particle
O2 nutrients
foreign
particle
ingested
tissue cell heat CO2

(8.4) Functions of Blood – Transport Function
8.4
Substance Carried from Carried to
Digested food Intestines -other parts of the body
-glucose, amino acids, mineral -excess mineral salts are
salts, fats, vitamins transported to the kidneys
for excretion
Excretory Nitrogenous wastes All parts of the body Kidneys
products -urea, uric acid,
creatinine
Carbon dioxide Lungs, where
-carried as hydrogencarbonate ions are
hydrogencarbonate converted to carbon dioxide
ions (HCO3-) in and expelled
plasma
Hormones Glands Target organs
Heat Respiring body All parts of the body to
tissues (e.g. muscles) maintain uniform body temp.
Oxygen Lungs All parts of the body for
cellular respiration
(8.4) Functions of Blood – Transport Function
8.4
Transport of Oxygen to Body Cells
1 Blood passes through lungs,

oxygen diffuses from the air sacs
(alveoli) in the lungs into the
air sac blood capillaries.
2 Haemoglobin combines
with oxygen to form
blood oxyhaemoglobin.
capillary
red blood cell 3 Blood transports oxygen to all
the tissues of the body.
4 At the tissue cells, oxyhaemoglobin

oxygen releases the oxygen.
diffuses
into cell
Why do people living at high altitudes
have rosy cheeks?
Their bodies produce more red blood

cells to compensate for the lower conc. of
oxygen at high altitudes. Increasing the
proportion of red blood cells increases
the haemoglobin content per unit volume
of blood more oxygen can be
transported to the tissue cells per unit
time. This is also the reason behind
endurance athletes training at higher
altitudes prior to their competitions.
(8.4) Functions of Blood – Protective Function
8.4
The clotting process
Look, a
wound!
What happens when we

cut ourselves?
bacteria
wound
8.4
Clotting of Blood
 Blood clots when exposed to air. Advantage:
 Seals the wound, prevent excessive loss of blood
 Prevents the entry of foreign particles (bacteria) and
infection by pathogens
 In haemophilia (hereditary blood disorder), the blood-clotting

mechanism is impaired and the person (haemophiliac) is at
risk of bleeding to death or die of internal bleeding
red blood
cell
clot
8.4
The Clotting Process Damaged blood vessel
1. Damaged tissues and
platelets release an enzyme
known as thrombokinase.
damaged
tissue
2. Thrombokinase converts
thrombokinase
prothrombin (soluble plasma prothrombin thrombin
protein) to thrombin. Ca2+ ions (inactive) calcium ions (active)
are required.
fibrinogen (soluble)
3. Thrombin, an enzyme,
catalyzes conversion of thrombin
soluble plasma protein
fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin
threads which entangle blood
cells and form a clot. long fibrin thread (insoluble)
8.4
The Clotting Process
 Normally, undamaged blood vessels, the clotting mechanism
is inhibited by an anti-clotting substance called heparin
(produced in liver). Thrombokinase neutralizes the action of
heparin so that clotting can take place
 When blood clots, a yellowish liquid called serum is left

behind.
 Serum is plasma without the clotting factors
Why does blood not clot when mosquitoes suck it from the body?
Animals that feed on blood , such as mosquitoes and leeches,

produce anti-clotting substances in their saliva that keep the blood
fluid.
Medicinal leeches are bring used to assist in patient recovery
after surgery by encouraging blood flow. The anticoagulants in
the laboratory-raised leeches‘ saliva keeps fresh blood flowing to
the site of an injury, actually preventing infection and increasing
chances of full recovery.
8.4
Phagocytosis
 When there is a cut, bacteria may enter the wound and
phagocytes are needed to ‘fight’ it
 Phagocytosis is the process of engulfing (surrounding) and

ingesting foreign particles e.g. bacteria by phagocytes
(white blood cells)
 The bacteria are ingested and digested in the phagocyte.

bacteria
phagocyte
ingested
phagocyte bacteria
8.4
Production of Antibodies
 Antibodies are produced by lymphocytes.
 Antibodies act by binding to:

bacteria and cause their surface membranes to
rupture  bacteria destroyed
bacterial cells and causing them to clump together
(NOT agglutinate) so that they can be easily ingested
by phagocytes
Toxins produced by bacteria and neutralizing them
8.4
Immunization
 Naturally acquired immunity
A person achieves immunity to an infection
when the antibodies persist in the blood
after the disease has been overcome
 Artificially acquired immunity:
Processes that confer immunity are called
immunizations / vaccination. 2 types:
Dead bacteria may be injected These antibodies are then purified from the
into animals to induce them to animal’s serum and injected into human beings,
produce antibodies giving them immunity to that pathogen
Expose person to dead or Prompt immune system to produce antibodies

weakened forms of pathogen against the pathogen (immune response)
Vaccines that contain live but weakened
organisms include:
•Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG—for tuberculosis)
•Chickenpox (varicella)
•Influenza nasal vaccine
•Rotavirus (most common cause of severe vomiting and

diarrhoea among infants and young children)
How do mRNA vaccines work?
The COVID-19 mRNA vaccine consists of messenger ribonucleic
acid (mRNA) that carry instructions to make the spike protein of the
virus. The mRNA used in the vaccine is synthesised and not
extracted from actual viruses. After being given by intramuscular
injection, the vaccine mRNA is taken up by cells which then produce
the spike protein. This stimulates the production of a good antibody
and cellular immune response to the spike protein that protects the
vaccinated person because the spike protein is an important part of
the SARS CoV-2 virus. The spike proteins are however incapable of
forming SARS CoV-2 viruses or causing COVID-19 infection. The
vaccine mRNA only persists for two days before it is naturally
broken down by the body. It does not enter the nucleus of cells and
hence cannot interfere with the DNA of the vaccine recipient.
Organ Transplant and Tissue Rejection
8.4
 Tissue or organ transplant involves replacing damaged or
diseased tissue or organ with healthy tissue or organ from
the same person or a donor
 The recipient’s lymphocytes may produce antibodies to

destroy the transplanted tissue
 Ways to reduce the risk of tissue rejection include:

a tissue match: tissue to be transplanted comes
from someone as genetically similar as possible
(e.g. siblings, parents and close relatives)
the use of immunosuppressive drugs: inhibit the
response of recipient’s immune system. However,
drugs have to be taken for life and negative side
effects such as recipient having lowered resistance
to many kinds of infection
8.5 (8.5) The Circulatory System
How are substances exchanged between capillaries and tissue cells?
 Tissue cells are bathed in tissue fluid (intercellular or interstitial
fluid), which allows diffusion of dissolved substances between the
tissue cells and the blood capillaries.
capillary
oxygen and dissolved

waste products
food substances tissue fluid
cells
8.5 (8.5) The Circulatory System
How is Tissue Fluid formed
 Blood at the arterial end of the capillary is under high pressure this
forces the blood plasma, with its oxygen and dissolved food substances,
out through the capillary walls into the interstitial spaces (spaces between
tissue cells)
Tissue fluid is similar to blood plasma without the plasma
proteins. It contains some white blood cells that have squeezed
through the capillary walls, but no red blood cells
capillary
oxygen and dissolved waste products

food substances tissue fluid
tissue
cells
How are substances exchanged between capillaries and tissue cells?
 Tissue fluid is a colourless fluid found in the tiny spaces

between cells.
 Dissolved food substances and oxygen move from

blood in blood capillaries  into tissue fluid  into cells by
diffusion.
 Waste products released by cells move into the tissue

fluid by diffusion  through the capillary walls  into
blood  carried to excretory organs for removal.
in this section…
(8.3) Blood Groups
8.7
8.5
8.6 (8.7) Coronary Heart Disease
What is Coronary Heart Disease?
 Like the rest of the body, the tissues of the
heart need oxygen for aerobic respiration
 The tissues of the heart are supplied by the

coronary arteries
Excess cholesterol can

build up in deposits in
the artery walls,
causing blockage and
disrupting the flow of
blood.
coronary
artery
8.7
8.5
What is Coronary Heart Disease? normal artery
Buildup of fatty deposits (cholesterol and
saturated fats) on inner walls of coronary
arteries
This narrows the lumen of arteries and

increases the risk of formation of blood clots
blocked artery
Reduced blood flow to heart

muscle cells
Heart muscle cells receive reduced oxygen fatty deposits

and glucose narrowed lumen
May lead to a heart attack

8.5
8.6
Risk Factors and Preventive Measures
Risk factor Preventive measure
A diet rich in cholesterol and Proper diet with reduced intake of
saturated (C-C) animal fats animal fats which can be replaced
with polyunsaturated plant fats
Emotional stress Manage stress in an appropriate way
Smoking (ref. to chpt 10) Avoid smoking
-nicotine increase blood pressure and

the risk of blood clotting in arteries
-carbon monoxide increases the risk
of fatty deposits on the inner surface
of the arterial wall
Sedentary lifestyle Exercise regularly to strengthen the
heart and maintain elasticity of the
arterial walls

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Chapter 8

 Unicellular organisms do not need a transport

Larger body, with

Cells are located

 A transport system is required in larger organisms.

It is made up of plasma, red blood cells, white blood

plasma (55% of blood)

Centrifugation white blood cells

Soluble proteins such as fibrinogen, prothrombin and antibodies

Dissolved mineral salts such as chlorides and sulfates of calcium

Food substances such as glucose, amino acids and fats

Excretory products such as urea, uric acid and creatinine

Hormones such as insulin

1) Specialized Feature: contains haemoglobin

2) Specialized Feature: circular and biconcave shape

3) Specialized Feature: Absence of nucleus

4) Specialized Feature: Elastic, can turn bell-shaped

 Not true cells

 Membrane bound fragments

 Important for the clotting of

1. Why are blood transfusions needed?

• Red blood cells have proteins called

BLOOD TYPE A BLOOD TYPE B

• RBC: antigen A • RBC: antigen B

BLOOD TYPE O BLOOD TYPE AB

• RBC: No antigen • RBC: antigens A and B

What happens when Type A

 Agglutination or clumping of red blood cells occurs.

 Agglutination can become fatal if the blood clumps block up

 During a blood transfusion, only the effect of the

Blood Group A and AB

Transport function Protective function

tissue cell heat CO2

1 Blood passes through lungs,

4 At the tissue cells, oxyhaemoglobin

Their bodies produce more red blood

What happens when we

 In haemophilia (hereditary blood disorder), the blood-clotting

 When blood clots, a yellowish liquid called serum is left

Animals that feed on blood , such as mosquitoes and leeches,

 Phagocytosis is the process of engulfing (surrounding) and

 The bacteria are ingested and digested in the phagocyte.

 Antibodies are produced by lymphocytes.

 Antibodies act by binding to:

Expose person to dead or Prompt immune system to produce antibodies

•Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG—for tuberculosis)

•Influenza nasal vaccine

•Rotavirus (most common cause of severe vomiting and

 The recipient’s lymphocytes may produce antibodies to

 Ways to reduce the risk of tissue rejection include:

oxygen and dissolved

oxygen and dissolved waste products

 Tissue fluid is a colourless fluid found in the tiny spaces

 Dissolved food substances and oxygen move from

 Waste products released by cells move into the tissue

 The tissues of the heart are supplied by the

Excess cholesterol can

This narrows the lumen of arteries and

Reduced blood flow to heart

Heart muscle cells receive reduced oxygen fatty deposits

May lead to a heart attack

-nicotine increase blood pressure and