CHAPTER 16

Cell Division
 What you would learn
in this section…
(16.1) What is growth?
(16.2) Mitosis
(16.3) Meiosis
 (16.1) What is Growth?

• Growth occurs in all living things.

• It usually results in a permanent increase in size.

• It is accompanied by cell division and

differentiation to form tissues and organs.
 (16.1) What is Growth?

Growth in plants and animals

Plant Animals
Growth is restricted to Growth occurs throughout
growing points (the tips of the body.
shoots and roots).

Growth occurs throughout Growth stops after a

the life of the plant. certain age (when the
animal reaches maturity).
 (16.1) What is Growth?

There are two types of cell division

Mitosis Meiosis
Involved in growth and Involved in reproduction
development
Produces genetically Produces genetically
identical cells different cells (gametes)
 What you would learn
in this section…
(16.1) What is growth?
(16.2) Mitosis
(16.3) Meiosis
 (16.2) Mitosis

What is mitosis?
• Mitosis is a type of nuclear division.

• It results in the production of two daughter nuclei

which are genetically identical to the parent.

• The daughter nuclei have the same number of

chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
 (16.2) Mitosis
Differentiate between terms:
-chromatin vs chromosome vs sister chromatid
-haploid vs diploid
What is mitosis? -daughter cell

DNA
replicates mitosis

parent cell
chromosomes
2 genetically
identical
daughter
DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid cells
 (16.2) Mitosis

The cell cycle

• Sequence of events from
the time a cell is formed
until its division into two
daughter cells

• The cell cycle consists of

three stages:
– Interphase (resting stage)
interphase – Mitosis (nuclear division)
– Cytokinesis (division of
the cytoplasm)
cytokinesis
 (16.2) Mitosis

Interphase
• Interphase is also known as the ‘resting’ or
non-dividing stage.

• During this stage, the cells

– absorb nutrients
– build up protoplasm
– synthesise new organelles
– replicate DNA
 (16.2) Mitosis

Interphase
centrioles
nuclear • Chromosomes appear as
envelope
long thin threads called
chromatin.

• Just before the cell enters

the nuclear division phase,
– the chromatin threads
replicate
– the centrioles replicate
and divide

chromatin
 (16.2) Mitosis
Differentiate between terms:
-chromatin vs chromosome vs sister chromatid
-haploid vs diploid
-daughter cell
DNA replication -centromere

chromatin sister chromosome

thread chromatids

centromere
DNA chromatin
replication threads
condense, tightly
coil and shorten
• The chromatin thread replicates to produce two
identical chromatin threads.
• These chromatin threads coil and shorten to
become chromosomes.
 (16.2) Mitosis

DNA replication
• Each chromosome consist of sister chromatids
two identical DNA molecules
known as sister chromatids.

• The sister chromatids are

joined at a point known as centromere
the centromere.
 (16.2) Mitosis

DNA replication

nucleus

chromosome

DNA
 When the genetic
(16.2) Mitosis information of a daughter
cell is exactly the same as
the parent cell, it is
genetically stable.

Why must DNA replication and mitosis be precisely

controlled?
• To ensure that all daughter cells are genetically stable
• If an error occurs during replication, the new DNA
strand formed would be different from the original.
• This is known as gene mutation and is passed on to
the daughter cell.
• Some forms of gene mutation may lead to
uncontrolled division of cells (cancer), which may be
fatal.
 (16.2) Mitosis

Stages of Mitosis

The process of mitosis can be divided into four

stages:
1.Prophase
2.Metaphase
3.Anaphase
4.Telophase
 Asters are short spindle
(16.2) Mitosis fibres that grow out from
centrioles

Early prophase aster centrioles

• In an animal cell, asters

form around the centrioles.

• The two pairs of centrioles

move apart to opposite
poles of the cell.

• The nucleolus disappears.

 (16.2) Mitosis

sister chromatids
Early prophase (one chromosome)
• Chromatin condense, coil
and shorten to become
chromosomes.

• Each chromosome
consists of two sister
chromatids attached at
the centromere.

• Chromosomes appear as
X-shaped structures under
the microscope.
centromere
 (16.2) Mitosis

Late prophase nuclear envelope spindle fibres

breaks up forming
• The nuclear
envelope disappears.

• A spindle forms with

the spindle fibres
extending from one
pole of the cell to the
other.
 (16.2) Mitosis

centromere
Metaphase
• Chromosomes line up
singly along the
equatorial plane of the
spindle.

• The centromere of each

chromosome is attached
to a spindle fibre.

spindle fibres making

up the spindle
 (16.2) Mitosis

Anaphase daughter chromosomes

• Each centromere splits.

• The spindle fibres pull
the sister chromatids
apart to opposite poles
of the cell.
• Once the sister
chromatids are
separated, they are
known as daughter
chromosomes.
 (16.2) Mitosis

chromatin nuclear
Telophase envelope
threads
• Spindle fibres
disintegrate.
• A nuclear envelope
forms around each
set of chromosomes.
• A nucleolus forms
inside each nucleus.
• Chromosomes uncoil
and lengthen into
thread-like structures nucleolus
(chromatin). furrow
 (16.2) Mitosis

Cytokinesis

• It is the division of the

cytoplasm.

• In animal cells,
furrows form, deepen
and eventually split the
cell into two.
 (16.2) Mitosis

Mitosis in plants and animal cells

Plants
• Centrioles are absent.
• Cleavage of cytoplasm does
not occur during cytokinesis.
• A cell plate forms between
two daughter nuclei by
fusion of fluid-filled vesicles.
Animals
• Centrioles are present.
• Cleavage of cytoplasm
occurs during cytokinesis
(formation of furrows).

cell plate furrow

 Video: Mitosis
(16.2) Mitosis

Importance of mitosis
The production of genetically identical cells is required for:
• Growth of an organism and Repair of worn-out parts
of tissue, wound healing and replacement of dead
cells
– If cells produced are not genetically identical (e.g. due to an
error during DNA replication), it could affect the proper
functioning of the organism e.g. development of cancer or
growth defects;

• Asexual reproduction in plants such as the

development of shoots and roots in storage organs
(i.e. rhizomes and bulbs)
 (16.2) Mitosis

Check point
• Individual chromosomes are clearly visible False
during interphase.

• An error in the replication of DNA would True

affect successive generations of cells.

• A pair of sister chromatids contains two True

identical copies of DNA.

• If one daughter cell contains 36 False

chromosomes, the other daughter cell will
contain 18 chromosomes.
Video of Mitosis
 What you would learn
in this section…
(16.1) What is growth?
(16.2) Mitosis
(16.3) Meiosis
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Learning Outcomes
After this section, you should be able to:
• state what is meant by homologous pairs of chromosomes;
• outline the process of meiosis and identify the main stages
with the aid of diagrams;
• state the importance of halving chromosome number in the
formation of gametes;
• explain how meiosis and fertilisation can lead to variation;
• state the differences between mitosis and meiosis.
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Meiosis
• Meiosis results in the production of four daughter
nuclei.

• Each daughter nuclei contains half the number of

chromosomes as the parent cells.
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Meiosis

Parent cell with 2n

chromosomes Four gametes formed,
each with n
chromosomes
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Why are gametes produced?

• In fertilisation, when
the nucleus of the
male gamete fuses
with the nucleus of the
female gamete to form
a zygote, a diploid
number of
chromosomes is
maintained in the
zygote.
 16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Overview of Meiosis

Meiosis I Meiosis II

1 diploid Replication of
parent cell with chromosomes
2 pairs of Each daughter
chromosomes cell contains 2 4 haploid
chromosomes, gametes, each
each consisting containing 2
of 2 chromatids chromosomes
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Overview of Meiosis in a cell

1 parent cell

first nuclear division:

second nuclear division:

4 daughter
cells
 (16.3) Meiosis
Check point
What is the number of chromosomes in the gametes for
each of the species listed below?
Species Chromosome Chromosome
number number in a gamete
Fruitfly 8 4

Corn 20 10

Cat 38 19
Note: This reduction is necessary so that upon fusion of
Human 46 23
the nuclei of ovum and sperm, the diploid number of
Dog
chromosomes within78 39 prevents
the cell is restored. This
the doubling in chromosome number during fertilization.
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

centrioles
nuclear
envelope
Interphase
asters
• Chromatin threads
replicate to produce two
identical sister
chromatids.

• The centrioles replicate.

nucleolus

chromatin
threads cytoplasm
cell surface
membrane
 16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

*diagram error, should have 2 sister Meiosis I

chromatids each

a) Prophase I
• Chromatin threads
condense, coil and
shorten into visible
chromosomes.

chromosome
centromere
 16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

*diagram error, should have 2 sister

chromatids each Meiosis I
a) Prophase I
• Synapsis occurs and
homologous
chromosomes pair up.
• Each pair is called a
bivalent.

a pair of
chromosome chromosome homologous
from female from male chromosomes
parent parent
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Meiosis I
a) Prophase I
• Homologous
chromosomes
have the same shape,
same genes and
same length.
• One member of each
pair is inherited from
each parent.
maternal paternal
 Take note that genetic variation is
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis
introduced here during crossing
over of non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes
Meiosis I
a) Prophase I
• Crossing over between
non- sister chromatids of
homologous chromosome
may occur.
• The point where they
cross over is called a
chiasma (pl: chiasmata)
• This results in new
chiasma combination of genes
along the chromosomes.
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

nuclear envelope
Meiosis I
disintegrates
spindle fibre a) Prophase I
• The centrioles reach
opposite poles of the cell.
• Nuclear envelope and
nucleolus disintegrates.
• Spindle fibres form.
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Meiosis I
b) Metaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes
align along the equatorial
plane of the spindle.
• One of each homologous pair
faces the opposite pole.

Take note that genetic variation is

introduced here during
Independent assortment of
equator homologous chromosomes
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Meiosis I
c) Anaphase I
• Homologous
chromosomes separate.
• One of each pair of
the homologous
chromosomes is pulled
to the opposite pole of
the cell.
homologous chromosomes
moving apart
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Meiosis I

d) Telophase I
• Spindle fibres disintegrates.
• Nuclear envelope reforms
(animal cells only).
• Most plant cells do not
undergo Telophase I
and move straight to
Metaphase II.
nuclear
envelope
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

centrioles Meiosis I

e) Cytokinesis I
• The centrioles replicate.
• Cytoplasm cleaves to produce
two daughter cells.
• The cells are now haploid.

haploid Haploid cells contains only HALF

chromosomes the number of chromosomes of
the parent cell.
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Meiosis II
centriole
a) Prophase II
• Centrioles move to the
opposite poles of the cell.
• Nuclear envelope breaks
down.
• Spindle fibres appear.

spindle fibre nuclear envelope

16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Meiosis II
b) Metaphase II
• The chromosomes
aligned along the
equatorial plane of
spindle.
• This arrangement is
different from
metaphase I, where
the homologous
chromosomes lie next
equator to each other.
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Meiosis II
daughter
chromosome centromere c) Anaphase II
• Centromeres divide and
sister chromatids are
separated.
• Daughter chromosomes
are then pulled to opposite
poles of the cell.

sister chromatids
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Meiosis II
nuclear envelope
d) Telophase II
• Spindle fibres disintegrate
and nuclear envelopes
form.

e) Cytokinesis II
• Cells divide, forming four
daughter cells, each with a
haploid number of
chromosomes.
furrow

Video: Meiosis
Meiosis
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Importance of meiosis in sexual reproduction

• Produces haploid (n) gametes, which fuse together
during fertilisation to produce diploid (2n) cells
– This ensures that the number of chromosomes in an
organism is maintained through successive generations.

n
fertilisation 2n

n 23
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

Importance of meiosis in sexual reproduction

• Meiosis gives rise to genetic variation due to:
– crossing over between non sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes at prophase I
– independent assortment of homologous
chromosomes at metaphase I
• Since fertilisation is random, such variations in
gametes produce variations in the offspring.

• Variations increase the chances of survival of the

species during changes in the environment.
16.3 (16.3) Meiosis

How genetic variations arise from meiosis?

Possibility 1 Possibility 2
Random arrangement of
homologous pairs of
chromosomes at the
equator at metaphase I
leads to

Random separation of
homologous chromosomes
at anaphase I
produces

Different combinations of
genetic materials in
gametes
 Differences between meiosis and mitosis
Mitosis
Occurs in all cells
Function: growth of organism and
repair of tissue
Involves one nuclear division to
produce two diploid daughter cells
Daughter cells have the same
number of chromosomes as
parent cell
Daughter cells are genetically
identical to parent cell and each
other
Homologous chromosomes do
not pair up
No crossing over
Meiosis
Occurs in only reproductive
organs
Function: produces gametes for
sexual reproduction
Involves two nuclear divisions to
produce four haploid daughter
cells
Daughter cells have half the
number of chromosomes as
parent cell
Genetic variation occurs in the
daughter cells
Homologous chromosomes pair
up at prophase I
Crossing over may occur
 (16.3) Meiosis

Check point
• The centromere splits during meiosis I. False

• Nuclear membrane forms around the

False
chromosomes before anaphase.

• Cytokinesis occurs after both telophase I True

and telophase II stages.

• Crossing over occurs during prophase II. False

• Anaphase II in meiosis is similar to True

anaphase in mitosis.