General Histology Dr Ali Alkhafaji

Lecture 10 The Digestive system (part 2) 2019-2020

F- The Large Intestine:
Is about 180 cm in length and consists of:
1- Cecum: continuous with ileum at ileocecal valve.
2- The Appendix: a small diverticulum extending from cecum.
3- The Colon: continuous with cecum and divided into ascending, transverse and
descending parts.
4- Rectum.
5- Anal Canal: terminating as the anus at the body surface.
The large intestine lacks plicae and villi and therefore the surface epithelium is more obvious
than that of small intestine.
The mucosa is relatively thick and the surface epithelium is made up of tall absorptive
columnar cells, with microvilli and abundance of goblet cells, gradually increasing along the
length of large intestine. The crypt are larger than that of the small intestine, and more
closely packed, they contain large number of goblet cells; with a few enteroendocrine cells,
columnar cells and basal stem cells but they lack paneth cells.
The lamina propria and submucosa are as described for small intestine, and submucosal
glands are lacking. The muscularis externa shows a characteristic difference in the cecum
and colon. The longitudinal muscle is mostly aggregated into three longitudinal bands or
strips known as Taeniae Coli.
In the recto-anal junction, the
mucosa is thrown into series of
longitudinal folds termed "The
Rectal Columns of Morgagni";
at that region, the muscularis
mucosa becomes
discontinuous, and the
combined lamina propria and
submucosa contain a plexus of
small veins which, if dilated
and convoluted cause
protrusion of mucosa. Such
condition is called internal
hemorrhoids.

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At the anus, the circular smooth muscles of muscularis externa are thickened and constitute
the internal anal sphincter, along the interior border of this sphincter the simple columnar
epithelium lining the anal canal changes first to stratified squamous non-keratinizing and
then to epidermis of thin skin, the external anal sphincter consist of skeletal muscle and
provides voluntary control of defecation.
G- Appendix
It’s a blindly ending tubular appendage of the cecum. Its lumen is commonly small and
irregular. Its most striking feature is the presence of prominent lymphatic nodules, the large
ones extending from lamina propria deep into the submucosa.
The Digestive System Associated Glands
A- The Pancreas
Is a large, elongated organ lying in the concavity of the duodenum and extend posteriorly
toward the left to reach the hilum of the spleen. It is (mixed) an exocrine and an endocrine
organ. In fresh condition, it is pale pinkish or white and has no definite fibrous capsule, but
is covered by a thin areolar tissue from which thin septa extend into gland to divide it into
obvious lobules. Fine, delicate C.T surrounds individual acini.
Its alkaline exocrine secretion,
which is delivered into the
duodenum following meals,
contains a broad range of enzymes
capable of breaking down proteins,
carbohydrates, fats and nucleic
acids.
It is classified as compound tubule-
acinar serous gland; the serous
secretary units (acini) are tightly
packed with no myo-epithelial
cells. In section, its acinar cells
appear triangular, with basophilic
cytoplasm and also a spherical nucleus at their base and acidophilic zymogen granules in
their apical cytoplasm; close to their luminal surface, which bears short microvilli. Their
lateral borders are joined by junctional complexes similar in all respects to those joining the
lining cells of intestine.
The tight junctions prevents the enzymes discharging into the lumen from gaining access to
inter-cellular spaces between acinar cells, and the adhering junctions keep the cells from
separation.

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There is a basal lamina enclosing the entire acinus, and in between acini, there is a delicate
C.T containing capillaries, lymphatic and autonomic nerve fibers, fat cells may also be
present. A characteristic feature of pancreatic acini is that it exhibits small pale-staining cells
in their middle, Known as Centro-Acinar Cells; these cells represent terminal cells of the
intercalated duct. At the origin of its intercalated duct, the tip of which is partly invaginated
into the lumen of acinus.

Intercalated duct are lined by cuboidal epithelium, there is no striated duct as in salivary
glands. The intercalated ducts are long; distally joined with inter-lobular ducts lined with
simple columnar epithelium which rests upon a basal lamina. The main duct and accessory
pancreatic duct are lines by simple columnar epithelium with some goblet cells.
Another distinctive feature of pancreas is the presence of pancreatic islets (Islets of
Langerhans).
The pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its
endocrine (i.e., hormone-producing) cells. The islets of Langerhans are arranged in density;
each is separated from the surrounding pancreatic tissue by a thin fibrous connective tissue
capsule which is continuous with the fibrous connective tissue that is interwoven throughout
the rest of the pancreas.

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B- The Liver
Except for the skin the liver is the bodys biggest organ also it’s the largest gland of the body
(1.5 Kg) situated in the abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm; it has a reddish brown
color in the fresh condition, the color being caused mainly by a very rich blood supply.
The liver is covered by a fibro-connective tissue capsule (Glissons capsule) from which thin
C.T. septa enter the substance of the liver at the porta hepatis (the hilum) to divide it into a
small left and large right lobes and large number of lobules called Liver Lobules.
Hepatocytes or Hepatic Cells is the structural unit of
the liver, which are epithelial secretory cells derived
from foregut endoderm. Their exocrine secretions
(Bile) are elaborated into tiny intercellular passage
ways called Bile Canaliculi, and their endocrine
secretions (Glucose. Plasma Proteins and
Lipoproteins) are secreted directly into the blood.
The hepatocytes are polygonal cells with a clearly
defined cell membrane. Constitute about 80% of the
cell population of the liver, arranged in a series of
branching and anastomosing perforated plates or laminae.
The cells surfaces when are partially separated from an adjacent cell will form a bile
canaliculi. Nuclei are spherical or ovoid, centrally located, occasionally binucleated cells are
present. The cytoplasm of hepatic cells shows considerable variation depending upon
functional activity.
Liver Lobules
There are three ways to describe the structure of the liver:
1- Classic Liver Lobules or Anatomical or Microscopical Units.
2- Functional Unit or Liver Acini that are arranged in relation to their axial blood supply.
3- Portal Lobules which are arranged around the fine branches of its bile duct system.
1- Classic Liver Lobules or Anatomical or Microscopical Units: The classic hepatic
lobule emphasizes the endocrine function of the liver.
It is a polygonal (hexagonal) prism measuring about 1-2 mm with a central vein at
which there are more or less triangular portal areas (triad area); each containing a
branch of:
A- The Portal Vein.
B- Hepatic Artery.
C- Bile Duct and Lymphatic.

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Within a liver lobule, the hepatocytes appear as radiating rows that anastomose and converge
toward the central vein. The slit-like spaces seen between neighboring rows represent liver
sinusoids.

Functional Unit or Liver Acini that are arranged in relation to their axial blood supply:
The liver acinus includes the contiguous parts of two neighboring classic lobules. Which
includes two central veins and two portal triads in each lobule. This acinus is represented as
a diamond –shape in cross section.
The hepatic acinus can be subdivided into three zones: Zane 1, Zone 2, and Zone 3.
The hepatocytes nearest to vascular backbone of an acinus come into contact with blood that
is rich in nutrients and oxygen: thus the hepatocytes lie in zone1 nearest to axial blood
vessels is able to synthesize glycogen and plasma proteins very actively. While zone 3 lie
near the central veins. That is relatively low in nutrient and oxygen , it represents the major
site of alcohol and drug detoxification and its cells are much more susceptible to necrosis
than those nearest to blood supply.
In the intervening zone 2, hepatocytes have an intermediate range of metabolic functions
between those in zone1 and 3.
2- Portal Lobules which are arranged around the fine branches of its bile duct system:In this
type, each lobule contains three central veins and one portal triad in the center, and this area
drained by a single inter-lobular bile duct lying in central portal area. Such a unit is
triangular in cross section, contains parts of 3 adjacent classical lobules and has a central
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vein peripherally at each corner. The portal lobule emphasizes the exocrine functions of the
liver.
Liver Sinusoids
The discontinuous sinusoidal endothelium has a discontinuous basal lamina that is absent
over large areas, the hepatocytes are separated from the wall of sinusoids by a narrow per-
sinusoidal space (space of disse). The microvilli of hepatocyte surfaces bordering the
sinusoid project in the space of disse. (Microvilli greatly increase the surface area of the
hepatocytes and enable them to absorb substances such as glucose from blood stream while
also secreting proteins and lipoproteins into it ), the sinusoid is surrounded and supported by
reticular fibers.
The perisinusoidal space is the site of exchange of materials between blood and liver cells.
The sinusoids differ from capillaries in that they are:
1- Greater diameter.
2- Incomplete basal lamina around sinusoids.
3- There are gaps between endothelial cells and are not closed by a diaphragm.
Three main types of cell present in the sinusoidal wall:
1- Endothelial Cell: has a small elongated darkly-staining nucleus and greatly attenuated
cytoplasm.
2-Kupffer Cell: it is a very active macrophage. Like other macrophages. It arises from blood
monocytes. The cells actively phagocytes cells; mainly engulf the degenerated aged
erythrocytes, pigment granules and iron containing granules. These cells interposed between
endothelial cells, these cells have large paler nucleus and more cytoplasm.
3- Fat storing cells or lto cells:
Found in the perisinusoidal space (not the Jumen), with small lipid droplets containing
vitamin A. These cells are difficult to see in routine preparations, store much of the body s
vitamin A.
Biliary Tract
1- Intrahepatic Ducts:
The canaliculi, the first portion of bile duct system, are tiny strip-shaped inter-cellular
channels that lie between adjacent hepatocytes. So that mean the wall of canaliculi is formed
by cell membrane of adjacent hepatocytes that bear a short microvilli projecting into the
lumen.

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Anastomosing A- Bile Canaliculi conduct bile into short ductules or B- Canals of Hering
(Bile Ductules); they are lined by low cuboidal cells called Cholangiocytes which are paler
staining than hepatic cells, and the lumen is larger than that of canaliculi. These canals drain
into C- Bile Ducts (in portal area and lined by simple cuboidal or columnar epithelium and
have a distinct C.T cover, which then empty to larger D- interlobular bile ducts that are lined
by simple columnar epithelium. Then drain to larger E- Right and Left Hepatic Ducts which
in turn join at the hilum to form the F- common hepatic duct which has tall columnar
epithelium surrounded by smooth muscle and strong C.T.
2- Extrahepatic Ducts:
Consist of A- the right and left hepatic ducts which join to form B- the common hepatic duct
which after its junction with C- the cystic duct of gallbladder, becomes D- the common bile
duct. Extrahepatic bile ducts carry the bile to the gallbladder and duodenum.
The extra-hepatic ducts are lined by high columnar epithelium which rests on a lamina
propria containing smooth muscle and elastic fibers. Goblet cells occur in the epithelium
more abundantly in the lower portion of common bile duct. The smooth muscle fiber is
thickened at the termination of common bile duct. The Sphincter of Boyden and also around
the ampulla of conjoined bile and pancreatic ducts just proximal to the ampullary opening
into the duodenum The Sphincter of Oddi.
C- Gallbladder
Is a blind pear-shaped diverticulum of the common hepatic duct to which it is connects
directly to the cystic duct. It lies on the inferior surface of the liver.
The wall of gallbladder is composed of 3 layers:
1- The Mucosa: when empty, the mucosa is thrown into many folds. Thus appear irregular in
section. All epithelial cells are tall columnar cells with basally located nuclei. Which possess
apical microvilli and are absorptive in function. The cells are supported by a fine basal
lamina and a lamina propria of delicate reticular C.T with numerous small blood vessels.
Occasional small lymph nodules are present with a few mucous glands at the neck of the
gallbladder. There is No Muscularis Mucosae.
2- The Muscularis: there is no submucosa in the gallbladder and external to the mucosa is a
layer of smooth muscle which consists of circular, longitudinal and oblique bundles of
smooth muscle. Loose C.T constitutes the outermost layers, generally referred to as the Peri-
Muscular Coat.
3- Adventitia or Serosa: the gallbladder lies on the inferior surface of the liver and its outer
coat of dense fibro connective tissue blends in some regions with that of Glisson s capsule.
Elsewhere. The C.T is covered by peritoneum so it's called serosa.