Cells of the liver

The liver parenchyma is primarily comprised of hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are polygonal epithelial cells
with abundant eosinophilic, granular cytoplasm and large, centrally located round nuclei. Hepatocyte
nuclei often contain a prominent nucleolus. Binucleated hepatocytes (= containing two nuclei) are not
uncommon.

Hepatocytes contain many mitochondria and have extensive smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum
and Golgi apparatus, all of which contribute to the eosinophilic staining of their cytoplasm. However, the
microscopic appearance of hepatocyte cytoplasm can vary based on the nutritional status of the animal
(recall that the liver plays a major role in energy and nutrient metabolism). The most common
cytoplasmic changes are due to intracytoplasmic glycogen and lipid. Histologically, glycogen appears as
irregular, poorly-defined non-staining (clear) spaces within the cytoplasm. In contrast, lipid appears as
either a single, large non-staining, sharply-defined cytoplasmic vacuole or as multiple variably-sized non-
staining vacuoles. Both glycogen and lipid are largely “washed-out” during routine processing of
histology slides, which accounts for their lack of staining in tissue section. While both of these changes
can be physiologically normal (or clinically inconsequential), excessive accumulation of lipid within
hepatocytes can be pathologic, and is referred to as hepatic lipidosis.

Hepatocytes are arranged in radiating cords (hepatic cords) approximately one to two cells in thickness.
Adjacent hepatic cords are separated by vessels: the sinusoidal capillaries (sinusoids). These capillaries
are lined by endothelial cells, which are difficult to appreciate in normal histologic section due to their
flattened nuclei.

Ito cells

Ito cells are also known as stellate cells, fat storing cells, or lipocytes. Ito cells reside in the perisinusoidal
region known as the space of Disse. The space of Disse is the narrow region located between endothelial
cells and hepatocytes. These cells are identified histologically by their large lipid vacuoles. Ito cells
function in the uptake, storage and maintenance of vitamin A (retinol), as well as the production of
extracellular matrix (collagen types I and III), regulation of sinusoidal blood flow, and hepatic tissue
repair following injury.

Kupffer cells

Kupffer cells are phagocytes (“phago” = eating, “cyto” = cells) derived from monocytes and located
within the vascular spaces of hepatic sinusoids lining the endothelial surfaces. These Kupffer cells
function in removing aged red blood cells from circulation and in phagocytizing and removing blood-
borne microbes or endotoxins absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Histologically, Kupffer cells are
individualized round cells within sinusoids that are difficult to identify on histology unless they contain
phagocytized cytoplasmic material, such as red blood cells.

Oval cells

Oval cells are pluripotent stem cells that, due to their ability to differentiate into several different cell
types (“pluri” = several), serve a primary role in the repopulation of hepatocytes and other hepatic cells
(e.g. biliary epithelium) following hepatic injury. These cells are not readily identifiable in normal tissue
sections.

Pit cells

Pit cells are short-lived granular lymphocytes that reside within hepatic sinusoids and contribute to
immunity.

The spleen is a purple, fist-sized organ. It is wrapped by a fibroelastic capsule which allows the spleen to
significantly increase its size when necessary. The spleen is an intraperitoneal organ, so all of its surfaces
are covered with visceral peritoneum. Only the hilum of the spleen, the site through which the splenic
artery and vein pass, is peritoneum-free.

Organs near to the spleen leave their impressions on its surfaces which, together with spleen borders,
can easily be observed and described.

Diaphragmatic (lateral) surface leans onto the adjacent part of the diaphragm, thus it is slightly
convexed to perfectly fit into the concavity of the left hemidiaphragm. This surface also shows
impressions from ribs 9-11.

Medial surface of the spleen shows three areas of impression. The colic area is the impression of the left
colic flexure, the gastric area is the impression of the stomach, and the renal area is the impression of
the left kidney. The splenic hilum is found in the central part of this surface.

The spleen has three borders (superior, inferior, and anterior) as well as two extremities (anterior and
posterior). The superior border bounds the gastric area, the inferior border bounds the renal area and
the anterior border bounds the colic area.

Splenic ligaments
Three ligaments originating from the surrounding structures attach to the spleen. Two of these
ligaments connect to the splenic hilum and are traversed by the transmitted splenic vessels. The
gastrosplenic ligament connects the hilum with the greater curvature of the stomach. It contains the
short gastric vessels and left gastroomental (gastroepiploic) arteries and veins. The splenorenal ligament
connects the hilum of the spleen with the left kidney. It transmits the splenic artery and vein. Lastly, the
spleen sits on the phrenicocolic ligament which originates from the colon and is also known as the
sustentaculum lienis.

Microscopic anatomy

Understanding the microscopic anatomy of the spleen is important for understanding its function.
Numerous septa called trabeculae extend from the dense irregular fibroelastic connective tissue of the
capsule into the parenchyma of the spleen. Both the capsule and trabeculae contain myoepithelial cells
which have the ability to contract. As the spleen stores a significant amount of blood, the contraction of
myoepithelial cells pumps stored blood into the circulatory system when the body is in need; for
example during intense physical activity or massive hemorrhage.

The parenchyma of the spleen is called pulp. Based on the color of the pulp on fresh sections, white and
red pulp can be distinguished. White pulp is the main lymphoid tissue of the spleen. It is the
accumulation of lymphocytes around an arterial vessel. This aggregation of lymphocytes constitutes the
lymphoid tissue known as periarterial lymphoidsheath (PALS) and it is the first to react if microbes reach
the spleen through the bloodstream. The central arterial vessels in PALS nodules are branches of the
splenic artery.Red pulp consists of splenic venous sinuses and cords (of Billroth), linings of splenic
macrophages around the sinuses. The central artery of PALS continues from the white pulp and enters
the red pulp as a capillary. These capillaries empty into the splenic cords, where macrophages phagocyte
old and damaged erythrocytes. From there, blood diffuses into the splenic sinuses, thus returning to the
venous circulation.

Blood Vessels

The arterial supply of the spleen comes from the tortuous splenic artery, which reaches the spleen as it
travels through the splenorenal ligament. This artery emerges from the celiac trunk, which is a branch of
the abdominal aorta.

The venous drainage of the spleen occurs via the splenic vein, which also receives blood from the
inferior mesenteric vein. Posterior to the neck of the pancreas, the splenic vein unites with the superior
mesenteric vein to form the hepatic portal vein.

Lymphatic drainage

The splenic lymph nodes lie at the hilum and receive lymph via perivascular and subcapsular lymphatic
vessels. It is then drained to the superior pancreatic (pancreaticosplenic) lymph nodes found at the
superior surface of the pancreas. From there, the lymph is drained to the celiac lymph nodes.

Innervation
The spleen is innervated by autonomic nerves from the celiac plexus, which supply the spleen with both
sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. These nerves form the splenic plexus which reaches the
splenic hilum traveling along the splenic artery and its branches.

Function

The spleen is a secondary lymphoid organ. This means that the spleen filters blood and presents foreign
particles (antigens) to the lymphocytes it houses. In this way, the spleen stimulates the maturation and
activation of lymphocytes.

By filtering blood, the spleen also recycles senescent and damaged erythrocytes. In healthy individuals,
approximately one-third of total platelets (thrombocytes) are stored in the spleen. In health
disturbances followed by spleen enlargement (splenomegaly), the amount of platelets sequestrated in
the spleen increases up to 90%, resulting in thrombocytopenia (a low number of platelets in circulating
blood). When thrombocytopenia is severe, it can result in spontaneous bleeding which can be very
dangerous, especially if it occurs within the central nervous system. Note that in fetuses the spleen is
the site where hematopoiesis occurs, meaning that the spleen is the source of blood cell formation until
the bone marrow becomes competent to take over that process.