17 Thermoforming

Introduction molding. Typical food applications include deli

About 2% of polypropylene consumption is con- containers, cups for yogurt and other dairy prod-
verted into sheet (Figure 13.1). A proportion of this ucts, ready meals trays, punnets, chocolate and
is used in die-cut and fabricated forms, so unless the confectionery packaging, and disposable cold
reported figures are conflating some sheet produc- drink cups. Other applications include blister
tion with that of film, thermoforming emerges as a packs and medical and pharmaceutical packaging.
minor conversion process for polypropylene. The Packaging products are frequently and increas-
physics of thermoforming are not unlike those of ingly thermoformed from multi-layer coextruded
blow molding, and the reason for the slow take up sheet (Section 16.1.7) in which polypropylene
of polypropylene in thermoforming is much the provides the structural base but is augmented by
same as for blow molding (Section 15.1). The rela- barrier and tie layers.
tively low melt strength of polypropylene sheets
leads to excessive sagging and thinning, so causing 17.1 Process basics
process difficulties. Furthermore, the high enthalpy
of the material (Section 13.1.2) makes it difficult to Thermoforming is a process for converting thermo-
heat and cool sheets evenly. But, as in blow mold- plastics into shell forms, using sheet material as a
ing, the situation is changing. Developments both in preform. With the exceptions of matched mold
polypropylene materials and in the thermoforming (Section 17.3.10) and twin sheet (Section 17.3.11)
process are making this a rapid growth area for thermoforming, the process uses an open mold that
polypropylene. defines only one surface of the thermoformed part.
The light weight, high softening point, and The second surface is only indirectly defined by the
oxygen barrier properties of thermoformed poly- mold and so will lack crisp definition of features to
propylene are making inroads into food packaging, an extent dependent partly on the sheet thickness.
where the process is taking market share from There is no direct control over wall thickness of the
thermoformed polystyrene and injection molded formed part; this will vary from feature to feature
polypropylene. Polypropylene containers can be according to the degree of stretch and thinning ex-
hot filled and microwaved, and the thermoformed perienced at that point. Normally, it will be an aim
version can have thinner walls than in injection in thermoforming to obtain as even a wall thickness
as possible in the finished part. Be-
Table 17.1 Principal options available in the thermoforming process cause the process uses a sheet pre-
Process Factor Options form and a single-surface mold, it is
not possible to create independent
Forming force Vacuum
Positive air pressure features on the second surface.
Power press These considerations confine most
Mold type Female
thermoformed articles to relatively
Male simple shapes.
Matched female/male At its most basic, thermo-
Sheet pre-stretch Vacuum forming is performed by clamping
Positive air pressure (billow) a heated thermoplastic sheet over a
Mechanical plug mold cavity and drawing a vacuum
Material input Extruder (in-line, hot forming) in the cavity. This causes atmos-
Reel (reheat, cold forming) pheric air pressure to press and
Cut sheet (reheat, cold forming)
plastically deform the sheet into
Process phase Solid phase the mold cavity, where it is cooled
Melt phase
to retain the formed shape. This is
Heating mode One side of sheet known as vacuum forming, a term
Both sides of sheet (sandwich) that is less comprehensive than
Heating means Radiation: rod, ceramic, quartz or infra-red heaters thermoforming, although the two
Convection: hot air oven are often erroneously treated as
Conduction: hot roller, contact panel or hot oil bath

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Table 17.2 Principal thermoforming processes

Process Forming force Mold type Sheet pre-stretch
Basic vacuum Vacuum Female None
Basic pressure Positive air pressure Female None
Drape Vacuum Male None
Snap back Vacuum Male Vacuum
Billow Vacuum Male Positive air pressure
Plug assist Vacuum Female Mechanical plug
Billow plug assist Vacuum Female Positive air pressure and mechanical plug
Air slip Vacuum Male Positive air pressure
Air slip plug assist Vacuum Male Positive air pressure and mechanical plug
Matched mold Power press Matched male/female None
Twin sheet Positive air pressure Matched female/female None

interchangeable and synonymous. In practice, the
key factors in thermoforming all have two or three
optional forms (Table 17.1). For example, the
forming force can be supplied by vacuum, by
positive air pressure, or by a power press. These
options can be assembled in many different per-
mutations to create a very wide variety of thermo-
forming processes. In this chapter, we discuss the
main factors (Section 17.2) and the principal proc-
esses (Table 17.2).
17.2 Process factors
The principal factors in the thermoforming process
are the forming force, mold type, method of pre-
stretching the sheet, the material input form, and
the process phase condition. These factors have a
critical influence on the appearance, quality and
performance of the thermoformed part.
17.2.1 Forming force
Thermoforming is essentially a low pressure proc-
ess, in which the forming force is generated either
by vacuum or positive air pressure or by a combi-
nation of both. However, in the special case of
matched mold thermoforming, the force is supplied
by a power press and may be much greater.
In vacuum forming, the heated sheet forms
part of a closed cell together with the mold. When
the air in this cell is evacuated, atmospheric pres-
sure forces the sheet into contact with the mold.
The force so generated clearly cannot exceed at-
mospheric pressure and in practice is rather less
because of the difficulty of creating a perfect vac-
uum in the mold/sheet cell. A vacuum of 85% to
90% of theoretical maximum is more likely and
this will generate a forming force not greater than
about 90 kPa (13 psi).
Pressure, particularly in the low pressure range
used in thermoforming, may be expressed not only
in a wide variety of units but also by two systems
of measurement, namely gauge pressure and ab-
solute pressure. Gauge pressure takes atmospheric
pressure as the datum or zero point, while zero
pressure is the datum for absolute pressure meas-
urements. In other words, absolute pressure values
exceed gauge pressure values by a quantity equal
to atmospheric pressure. The distinction is some-
times made clear by adding a suffix to the unit of
pressure so that, for example, psia and psig refer
respectively to absolute and gauge pressures ex-
pressed in pounds force per square inch. The table
(Table 17.3) compares absolute and gauge values
for some common units of pressure.
Pressure forming overcomes the force limita-
tions of vacuum forming by applying air under
pressure on the non-mold side of the sheet in place
of a vacuum on the mold side. The sheet is forced
into contact with the mold at pressures greater than
atmospheric, and this necessitates venting any air
that is trapped between the sheet and the mold.
Venting may be provided by simple passages
communicating with atmosphere but is often ef-
fected by employing a vacuum on the mold side of
the sheet. In this case, the venting vacuum in-
creases the forming force by an increment ap-
proaching one atmosphere. Industrial compressed
air supply systems normally operate at about 550
kPa to 710 kPa (80 psi to 100 psi) and this pres-
sure may be sufficient for many applications.

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Table 17.3 Comparison of pressure scales for thermoforming. Absolute pressure is expressed with zero pressure as
the datum; gauge pressure takes atmospheric pressure as the datum.
Atmospheres Bar Bar kPa kPa kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2 Psi Psi
gauge absolute gauge absolute gauge absolute gauge absolute gauge
-1.00 0.00 -1.01 0.00 -101.33 0.00 -1.03 0.00 -14.70
-0.90 0.10 -0.91 10.13 -91.19 0.10 -0.93 1.47 -13.23
-0.85 0.15 -0.86 15.20 -86.13 0.15 -0.88 2.20 -12.49
-0.50 0.51 -0.51 50.66 -50.66 0.52 -0.52 7.35 -7.35
0.00 1.01 0.00 101.33 0.00 1.03 0.00 14.70 0.00
0.50 1.52 0.51 151.99 50.66 1.55 0.52 22.04 7.35
1.00 2.03 1.01 202.65 101.33 2.07 1.03 29.39 14.70
1.50 2.53 1.52 253.31 151.99 2.58 1.55 36.74 22.04
2.00 3.04 2.03 303.98 202.65 3.10 2.07 44.09 29.39
3.00 4.05 3.04 405.30 303.98 4.13 3.10 58.78 44.09
4.00 5.07 4.05 506.63 405.30 5.17 4.13 73.48 58.78
5.00 6.08 5.07 607.95 506.63 6.20 5.17 88.18 73.48
6.00 7.09 6.08 709.28 607.95 7.23 6.20 102.87 88.18
7.00 8.11 7.09 810.60 709.28 8.27 7.23 117.57 102.87
8.00 9.12 8.11 911.93 810.60 9.30 8.27 132.26 117.57
9.00 10.13 9.12 1013.25 911.93 10.33 9.30 146.96 132.26
10.00 11.15 10.13 1114.58 1013.25 11.37 10.33 161.66 146.96
15.00 16.21 15.20 1621.21 1519.88 16.53 15.50 235.14 220.44
20.00 21.28 20.27 2127.83 2026.51 21.70 20.66 308.62 293.92
25.00 26.34 25.33 2634.46 2533.13 26.86 25.83 382.10 367.40
30.00 31.41 30.40 3141.09 3039.76 32.03 31.00 455.58 440.88
35.00 36.48 35.46 3647.71 3546.39 37.20 36.16 529.06 514.36
40.00 41.54 40.53 4154.34 4053.02 42.36 41.33 602.54 587.84

However, pressure thermoforming equipment typi-
cally operates at pressures up to about 2500 kPa
(360 psi), while pressures as high as 3447 kPa
(500 psi) have been reported. These pressures of
course are still very low when compared to those
commonly used for injection molding or extrusion.
The forming force in matched mold forming is
supplied by a power press and so, in principle, is
almost unlimited. In practice, the force is limited
by the economics of mold construction as well as
the needs of the process and is usually in the range
1.5 MPa to 4 MPa (218 psi to 580 psi).
17.2.2 Mold type
Thermoforming is a shell process performed in an
open mold that defines only one surface of the
product. Definition of the second surface is indirect
and imprecise. This has a direct bearing on the mold
which must be so designed that it directly defines
the more important of the product’s two surfaces.
Product geometries are limited to forms attainable
by a deformed sheet and consist mainly of recesses
and projections orthogonal to and arranged on either
side of the plane of the sheet preform. This makes it
convenient and reasonably accurate to classify
thermoforming molds as female or male.
The female mold consists of a recessed cavity
or cavities formed in a mold block. This is the
most common mold form because it is easy to
clamp the heated sheet across the unobstructed
mold face. The resulting product has a clearly de-
fined male form and an imprecise female form.
Often the simplicity of the female mold outweighs
the cosmetic requirements of the product, so that it
is common to see packaging products such as nest-

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type box liners in which the recessed presentation
face is the imprecise second surface.
The male mold consists of a form or punch
projecting from a mold block. The punch inter-
feres with the plane of the sheet preform so sheet
clamping must take place outside the mold. Sub-
sequently, the sheet is moved into contact with the
mold, so the penalty for using a male mold is an
increase in the mechanical complication of the
process. The resulting product has a clearly de-
fined female form and an imprecise male form.
The third mold type used in thermoforming is
the matched mold. Exceptionally for thermoform-
ing, this is a closed mold consisting of two halves,
each defining one surface of the finished article.
The matched mold is similar in concept to a com-
pression mold but the cavity geometries remain
limited to shapes attainable by a sheet preform.
17.2.3 Sheet pre-stretch
It is often advantageous in thermoforming to pre-
stretch the heated sheet immediately prior to
forming it in the mold. There are two principal
reasons for this. First, particularly when simple
vacuum forming is combined with solid phase
forming, the available force may be insufficient to
stretch and form the sheet efficiently. A second
reason is that some shapes, for example cup or box
forms of relatively high aspect ratio, give rise to
excessive variations in wall thickness when
formed without pre-stretch. This arises because the
sheet touches down first on the edges and side
walls of the mold cavity and then perhaps in the
center of the base. The combined mechanisms of
chilling and friction tend to anchor the sheet in
these positions so that all the remaining deforma-
tion needed to complete the forming is contributed
by a minor proportion of the sheet area. In this
case, the remedy is selective pre-stretching in a
manner related to the geometry of the mold form.
Selective pre-stretching is achieved by means
of specially shaped plugs which are mechanically
advanced into the heated sheet to produce local
stretching in a way calculated to counteract the
thinning tendency imposed by the mold geometry.
The technique is generally referred to as plug as-
sist. The plug shape exerts a considerable influ-
ence on wall thickness variation (Figure 17.1), and
plug design is as much an art as a science. A blunt-
nosed plug tends to produce articles with a thick
base and thinner sidewalls. Tapered can-like plugs,
on the other hand, produce a forming with thicker
Thermoforming
Figure 17.1 Influence of plug profile on sheet
thinning.
and stronger corners. Plug design must be opti-
mized for each individual application but the gen-
eral rule is for smooth surfaces and blended shapes
without sharp transitions in form. The coefficient
of friction for heated polypropylene sheet is rela-
tively high, so plugs should be made from low-
friction materials. The usual choices are polyam-
ide, PTFE, or filled epoxy resins.
The sequencing of the plug pre-stretch also in-
fluences the wall thickness distribution of the
thermoformed part. The plug should contact the
sheet virtually at the moment it is clamped against
the mold. If contact is made before clamping, the
stretching will not be sufficiently selective and lo-
calized, and there may even be a tendency to
crease or puncture the sheet. On the other hand,
the sheet will cool quite rapidly after clamping so
if plug contact is delayed, material thickness dis-
tribution will be adversely affected. Plug speed is
also significant. A high-speed plug pre-stretch will
result in highly oriented sidewalls, but the wall
thickness distribution will suffer because too much
sheet material will be drawn to the bottom of the
mold cavity. The imbalance can be observed by
measuring the crush resistance performance of
thermoformed containers (Figure 17.2).
When the sheet pre-stretch is to be generalized
over the whole sheet rather than localized in the
area of individual mold features, the effect is
achieved either by partial vacuum or positive air
© Plastics Design Library

Figure 17.2 Effect of plug pre-stretch timing on the
crush resistance of cups thermoformed from Fina-
pro PPH 4042 S polypropylene homopolymer.
pressure. In both cases, a low pressure differential
and a controlled flow rate is employed to inflate
the sheet without causing excessive thinning or
rupture. Pre-stretch by positive air pressure is of-
ten referred to as billow. The air pressure is some-
times generated by the piston effect, produced by
advancing a mold towards the sheet. This pre-
stretch technique is generally known as air slip.
Some processes combine plug and billow pre-
stretch techniques.
All forms of pre-stretch tend to modify orienta-
tion in the formed part. When forming is performed
without pre-stretch, the orientation depends very
much on the mold form geometry. Clearly, the
situation is complex, but the tendency is for uniaxial
orientation to predominate in the product sidewalls,
while biaxial orientation is prevalent in regions that
remain substantially parallel to the plane of the
original sheet. These patterns are superimposed on
whatever residual orientation remains in the sheet
after heating. Pre-stretch changes the picture some-
what. The billow process imposes an overall biaxial
orientation on the sheet which is later modified by
the forming process. Plug pre-stretch, on the other
hand, tends to emphasize the orientation patterns
arising from forming.
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227
17.2.4 Material input
The raw material for thermoforming is a thermo-
plastics material in sheet form. The sheet is pro-
duced by extrusion (Section 16.2.4) and can either
pass directly from the extruder to the thermo-
former or can pass through an intermediate storage
phase. During storage, the sheet is held at room
temperature and must be completely reheated be-
fore forming, so this two-stage process is known
as reheat forming or cold forming. The alternative
single-stage process is known as in-line forming or
hot forming.
Reheat forming is the most widely practiced
process. Thermoforming is entirely separated from
sheet production, which can thus be left in the
hands of specialists. The capital cost of equipment
is lower and the process is easily switched be-
tween different materials and sheet sizes. Material
input for reheat forming is either in the form of
bulk reeled sheet or as cut sheets; the choice de-
pends mainly on the sheet thickness.
In-line forming integrates thermoforming with
sheet production, and the two must proceed at
synchronized rates. The alternative name of hot
forming is something of a misnomer because the
extruded sheet reaches the thermoformer with only
residual heat remaining after passing through
chilling and polishing rolls. Reheating is necessary
before forming can take place but there is some
saving in heat input and heat history, and the sheet
line can be controlled to produce a degree of
crystallinity favorable to the product to be thermo-
formed. Heating through the sheet thickness is
more uniform than that achieved by the reheat
process, so the stress levels in formed containers
are lower, and the resistance to distortion under
hot-filling or microwaving is better. The in-line
process eliminates sheet wind-up and stacking sta-
tions, sheet inventories, and the associated han-
dling. It also removes the risk of post-extrusion
crystallization on the reel. Process scrap can be
returned directly to the extruder, but the process is
relatively inflexible and is best suited to very long
production runs and dedicated product lines. The
in-line process is gaining ground in the conversion
of polypropylene, particularly for food and dairy
product packaging.
17.2.5 Process phase
There are two distinct process strategies for ther-
moforming polypropylene. As a semi-crystalline
material it can be processed either below or above
Thermoforming
228
Figure 17.3 Process phases for thermoforming
polypropylene.
the crystalline melting point (Figure 17.3). When
forming is carried out below the crystalline melt-
ing point, it is known as solid phase forming; melt
phase forming is performed at temperatures above
the crystalline melting point.
Solid phase forming of polypropylene is car-
ried out at temperatures ranging from 155°C to
165°C; the range mid-point is usually quoted as
the optimum setting. Under these conditions the
sheet is relatively strong and resistant to sagging.
The disadvantage is that a simple vacuum may be
insufficient to form the sheet fully, so plug assis-
tance is advisable to pre-stretch the sheet. The
magnitude of force needed to form the sheet in the
solid phase is markedly dependent on temperature,
and even within the narrow recommended working
range may vary by an order of magnitude. Solid
phase forming is effective with all thermoforming
grades of polypropylene.
Melt phase thermoforming is performed at
temperatures ranging from 170°C to 180°C and re-
quires polypropylene grades with a high melt
Table 17.4 Comparison of product characteristics between solid phase and
melt phase forming
Property Solid phase forming Melt phase forming
Wall thickness distribution
Residual stress
Optical properties Clearer
Mechanical properties Stronger
Heat resistance
Thermoforming
strength. Conventional grades have insufficient sag
resistance to be formed successfully by this method.
Sag resistance is related to molecular weight and
molecular weight distribution and is expressed by
the extensional viscosity of the material. High melt
strength thermoforming grades are formulated to
optimize these characteristics, generally using long-
chain branching to impart the necessary behavior.
The two techniques result in products with
rather different characteristics (Table 17.4). Melt
phase thermoforming requires less force and so
generates lower residual stress levels in the finished
part. The lower tensile strength of the sheet during
forming also tends to produce a more even thinning
and therefore reduces wall thickness variations.
However, heating above the crystalline melting
point produces an amorphous sheet structure, which
re-crystallizes during cooling to produce a forming
with decreased transparency but better heat resis-
tance. Performance under heating also benefits from
the lower stress level, which results in a reduced
tendency for distortion and reversion to the original
sheet form. For this reason, melt phase thermo-
forming is often preferred for retortable and micro-
wavable polypropylene containers. However, mod-
ern solid phase thermoforming can also produce
containers capable of service under these condi-
tions, particularly when carried out with multilayer
coextruded film and sheet.
17.2.6 Heating
The heating process is of critical importance in
thermoforming, both economically and technically.
Heating accounts for some 80% of the total energy
demand in thermoforming, so heating efficiency ex-
erts a profound influence on process economics.
Technically, the heating system must satisfy exact-
ing demands. Heat can be transferred to the sheet
only through its outside surfaces, but forming qual-
ity and consistency require uniform heating
throughout the sheet thickness and at its core. This
is particularly difficult to achieve with polypropyl-
ene, characterized as it is by high
enthalpy and low thermal conduc-
tivity. Additionally, and particu-
larly for polypropylene, the proc-
More even ess temperature window may be
Lower very narrow, requiring precise
temperature control linked to and
proportional with sheet throughput
rates.
Greater
© Plastics Design Library
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Heating is performed by radiation, convection higher degree of orientation and improved transpar-
or conduction means. When radiation or conduc- ency, but it will have a less uniform distribution of
tion is used, there is the option to apply heat either wall thickness when compared to one made at the
to one or both surfaces of the sheet. In the case of higher end of the range. These variations combine
convection, both sides of the sheet will be heated. to affect the product crush resistance in a complex
Given the difficulty of heating the sheet core uni- manner. For example, wall thickness variations de-
formly, it is preferable to heat both surfaces of the crease crush resistance while orientation increases
sheet. The upper limit of sheet thickness for effec- it. This means that optimum settings depend to an
tive single-sided heating is about 1mm. extent on individual product geometries and any
Infra-red radiant heating is now the most widely generalizations must be approached with care. Nev-
used means of sheet heating for reel-fed or in-line ertheless, the graph (Figure 17.4) illustrates that
thermoforming machines. The heaters are normally very small variations in sheet temperature can have
arranged in a heating tunnel in a series of independ- a marked effect on the properties of the finished part
ently controlled zones that gradually increase the and confirms the importance of precise temperature
sheet temperature first to a stress relaxation tem- control when thermoforming polypropylene.
perature of about 120°C, then to the forming tem-
perature. To counteract sagging in polypropylene 17.3 Thermoforming Processes
sheet, the final heating to the forming temperature The options available for the principal process
should be as rapid as possible without compromis- factors can be combined in different ways to produce
ing temperature uniformity throughout the sheet an almost infinite variety of thermoforming proc-
thickness. Some thermoformers use a sheet con- esses, and indeed some thermoforming machines are
veyor system similar to a tenter chain (Section designed to adapt to a number of different processes.
16.2.2.3.2) in order to counteract sagging by ten- Others, particularly those designed for high produc-
sioning the sheet. Such systems are equipped with tion rates and long product runs, are dedicated to a
independent edge heating zones to compensate for specific process. Here we outline the most common
the heat sink effect of the conveyor. Alternatively, variants of the thermoforming process.
hot air ovens may also be used to heat the sheet by
convection but it is more difficult to arrange for dis-
tinct and progressive zones of temperature control.
Different arrangements are necessary for cut
sheet machines. In this case it is usual to pre-heat
sheets by convection in static ovens, followed by
final heating of both surfaces in a radiant sandwich
heater operating close to the mold. Conduction
may also be used for sheet heating and particularly
for pre-heating, either in the form of heated rolls
or as a flat contact plate that the sheet passes over.
Hot immersion baths filled with a heat transfer oil
or other suitable fluid can also be used for sheet
heating, but these introduce practical operational
difficulties and are not widely employed.
The thermoforming temperature for polypro-
pylene sheet depends on whether solid phase or
melt phase forming is being practiced (Section
17.2.5); in either case, the recommended process
window covers a temperature range of only 10°C.
In solid phase forming, the force required to form
Figure 17.4 Effect of sheet forming temperature on
the sheet varies greatly within the recommended the crush resistance of cups thermoformed from Fina-
temperature range (Figure 17.3); the variation is pro polypropylenes. Key: PPH 5042 S = nucleated homo-
much smaller in melt phase forming. When forming polymer with narrow molecular weight distribution and anti-
is performed at temperatures towards the lower end static protection (MFI 6.0), PPH 4042 S = nucleated
homopolymer with antistatic protection (MFI 3.0), PPH 4060
of the solid phase range, the article will have a S = general purpose homopolymer (MFI 3.0)

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Figure 17.5 Basic vacuum forming process.

Figure 17.6 Basic pressure forming process.

17.3.1 Basic vacuum forming mold form. This is done either by venting the space
to atmosphere through a series of small ports in the
Basic vacuum forming is the simplest of the ther-
mold or by evacuating the space by vacuum means.
moforming processes. A female mold is used, with
In the latter case, the vacuum increases the forming
an unencumbered planar upper surface against
force but its primary purpose is as a venting device.
which the sheet is clamped (Figure 17.5). The sheet
It is convenient to use a vacuum in dual-purpose
is first gripped around its periphery in a frame
thermoforming machines designed to operate both
clamp and is then heated to the final forming tem-
the vacuum and pressure forming processes. Most
perature, preferably in a sandwich heater that heats
of the process variations available to vacuum form-
both surfaces of the sheet. The frame is then low-
ing can also be incorporated in the pressure forming
ered to contact and seal against the mold face where
process, so adding further to the scope available to
together with the mold cavity it forms a closed cell.
the thermoformer.
The mold is provided with a series of small ports
By exerting forming forces far in excess of
through which the air in this cell can be evacuated
atmospheric pressure, pressure forming processes
by a switchable connection to a vacuum pump, usu-
greatly expand the design envelope and market ap-
ally augmented by a vacuum surge tank. The vac-
plications for thermoforming. Much thicker and
uum in the mold cavity causes atmospheric pressure
stronger sheets can be formed, the replication of
to force the heated sheet into contact with the
mold surface detail is greatly improved, and it be-
cooled mold cavity where it cools in the shape de-
comes possible to form relatively sharp corners
termined by the cavity. It is a characteristic of ther-
and undercut features.
moforming that the product is formed within a re-
gion of waste sheet material arising from the 17.3.3 Drape
peripheral clamped areas and from points between
Drape forming is the simplest technique for use
the cavities of multi-cavity molds. The product is
with a male mold. The heated clamped sheet is
completed by trimming away this waste material.
lowered over the mold until it seals with the planar
The basic vacuum forming process is the foundation
mold base (Figure 17.7). The forming is then
on which more flexible and elaborate thermoform-
completed by drawing a vacuum through ports in
ing processes are built by adding elements such as
the mold. The male mold form acts as a crude
billow and plug pre-stretching of the sheet.
sheet pre-stretch plug, but the sheet chills rapidly
17.3.2 Basic pressure forming on contact with the mold and there is a marked
tendency for the process to produce thick bases
The basic pressure forming process is conceptually
and excessively thin side walls.
similar to vacuum forming. It uses positive air pres-
sure instead of a vacuum to form the sheet and
therefore overcomes the force ceiling of one atmos-
phere, which is a limitation of vacuum forming. The
sheet is frame clamped and heated in the same way
as for vacuum forming, but is then trapped and
sealed between the mold and a pressure chamber
(Figure 17.6). When air under pressure is admitted
to this chamber, the sheet is forced into contact with
the mold form. During this operation, air must be
expelled from the space between the sheet and the
Figure 17.7 Drape forming process.

Thermoforming © Plastics Design Library


17.3.4 Snap back
Sheet pre-stretch is used when the forming force
supplied by air pressure differential is insufficient
to stretch the sheet adequately or when the form-
ing force alone is likely to lead to excessive varia-
tions in the product wall thickness. The two cases
overlap to an extent; however, broadly speaking,
the first case is met by billow and air slip tech-
niques that stretch the whole sheet, while the latter
is dealt with by plug assist means that provide se-
lective pre-stretching.
In the snap back process, a vacuum is used both
to billow pre-stretch and to form the sheet. The
heated sheet is first clamped across a vacuum box or
chamber, which is then partially evacuated, causing
atmospheric pressure to billow and stretch the sheet.
A male mold is then advanced into the billowed
sheet, and forming is completed by drawing a vac-
uum on the mold whilst venting the vacuum cham-
ber to the atmosphere. The process resembles drape
forming but with the advantage of sheet pre-stretch,
which produces a much more uniform distribution
of wall thickness.
17.3.5 Billow
Like the snap back process, billow forming is a
sheet pre-stretch process used with a male mold. In
this case, the sheet is clamped across a pressure
chamber and is billow pre-stretched by applying a
low magnitude positive air pressure to the chamber
(Figure 17.8). The male mold is then moved into the
Figure 17.8 Billow forming process.
© Plastics Design Library
231
stretched sheet until the clamp seals on the mold pe-
riphery. Contact between the mold and the sheet can
be regulated by controlling the rate at which the
pressure chamber is vented to compensate for the
advancing mold. The forming is completed by
drawing a vacuum through ports in the mold. Alter-
natively, forming can be effected by re-pressurizing
the pressure chamber at a higher pressure, or vac-
uum and pressure can be used together. The billow
process has the advantage that a greater pre-stretch
force is available than is the case with the snap back
process.
17.3.6 Plug assist
Plug assist is used principally when the basic pro-
cess is likely to lead to undue variations in the
product wall thickness. Plug assist supplies essen-
tially a selective or localized stretch which is re-
lated to the specific demands of an individual
mold cavity. It is likely to be beneficial when the
draw ratio — the ratio of depth to projected area
— of a product feature is high, and when the
product includes edges, corners and other features
where excessive stretch and thinning is likely to
occur. Plug assist is preferred for polypropylene
sheet formed in the solid phase.
In the plug assist process, the heated sheet is
clamped normally against the mold face, then one
or more specially shaped plugs are advanced into
the sheet to stretch it selectively in areas at least
partly confined to the plug contact areas (Figure
17.9). In a large mold, there may be a number of
different plugs specifically designed for different
features in the mold. A multi-cavity mold for cups
or packaging containers will be provided with a
plug for each cavity. As the plug begins to enter
the sheet, there may be additional pre-stretch de-
rived from a billow effect around the plug. This is
caused by air displaced from the closed cell
formed by the sheet and mold and is absent if the
cell is vented during the plug assist action. When
Figure 17.9 Basic plug assist process.
Thermoforming
232
the plug is fully advanced, the forming is made by
forcing the pre-stretched sheet into contact with
the mold by the normal vacuum means. The plug
assist technique is also frequently used with the
pressure forming process.
17.3.7 Billow plug assist
A generalized sheet pre-stretch is combined with a
further selective pre-stretch in the billow plug as-
sist process. The clamped and heated sheet is first
given an overall pre-stretch by inflating it with air
at a low positive pressure before the plug is ad-
vanced to perform a selective stretch. The forming
is then completed by drawing a vacuum through
the mold in the normal manner. The process re-
sults in products with a good uniformity of wall
thickness even at high draw ratios.
17.3.8 Air slip
The air slip process uses a positive pressure billow
sheet pre-stretch that is generated by the movement
of a male mold towards the heated sheet that is
clamped across a pressure chamber. The mold
platen acts as a piston in the chamber and drives a
volume of air ahead of it that serves to billow the
sheet. At the full extent of its forward travel, the
mold periphery seals against the sheet frame, and
forming is completed by drawing a vacuum through
ports in the mold. Conceptually, the process resem-
bles the billow process. The billow can be regulated
to an extent by venting air from the pressure cham-
ber, but the penalty for combining the billow and
mold functions is a loss of fine control over individ-
ual parameters.
17.3.9 Air slip plug assist
Air slip techniques can be combined with plug as-
sist for instances where the forming requires both
generalized and selective pre-stretching of the sheet.
In this case, a plug is advanced into the billowed
sheet when the mold is at or near the full extent of
its forward travel. A partial venting of the pressure
chamber compensates in a controlled manner for
the volume displaced by the advancing plug. When
the plug pre-stretch is fully extended, the forming is
completed by drawing a vacuum through ports in
the mold. The process is particularly suitable for
molds that have both male and female features.
17.3.10 Matched mold forming
Matched mold forming is a special case of thermo-
forming that differs from the mainstream in two
Thermoforming
important respects. The mold defines both surfaces
of the finished article, and the forming force is not
supplied by air pressure differential across the sheet
but by reaction forces generated by a power press
acting on the mold. The process amounts to com-
pression molding using a sheet preform. The mold
form is reproduced on both halves of the mold, off-
set by a dimension equal to the sheet thickness;
hence the term matched mold forming. The process
is performed by clamping and heating the sheet in
the usual way, then trapping it under pressure be-
tween the closing mold halves. High forming pres-
sures allow thick sheets to be shaped with sharply
defined detail on both surfaces. Mold costs are
higher than for pressure forming, and undercuts can
only be produced by introducing moving members
into the mold.
17.3.11 Twin sheet forming
Twin sheet forming, sometimes known as dual sheet
forming, is another special instance of thermo-
forming. The process resembles blow molding, ex-
cept that twin heated sheets are used instead of a tu-
bular parison. Like a blow mold, the twin sheet
forming mold consists of matched halves, generally
both female and equipped with pinch-off zones at
the periphery of the cavities. A blowing needle is
introduced at a suitable point between the sheets,
then the mold halves are closed under pressure,
welding the sheets into a closed body at the pinch-
off zones. At the same time, air under pressure is
introduced within the body through the blowing
needle, forcing each sheet into conformity with the
corresponding mold face. The scope for a high
blowing pressure permits the use of thick sheets and
provides good replication of mold detail. The proc-
ess can be an economical way of producing large
components such as pallets and tote trays.
17.3.12 Trimming
Because they are formed from a clamped sheet,
virtually all thermoformed articles must be com-
pleted by trimming away the excess sheet material.
For a single-impression mold, the operation con-
sists of a single peripheral cut. In the case of a
multi-impression mold, it is necessary to make in-
dividual cuts to sever the products from a web of
waste material. Trimming is usually performed as
a secondary operation, either in-line or off-line;
however, for large volume applications, there is an
increasing tendency to integrate trimming into the
forming mold. The technique is sometimes known
© Plastics Design Library

as trim-in-place and is particularly advantageous
for polypropylene formings.
Cut sheet feed machines are generally not
equipped with in-line trimming, so it is normal to
trim the products off-line. Such products tend to be
bigger, more irregular in shape, and to be formed
from thicker sheet than products from web-fed
thermoformers. Taking the process off line makes it
possible to choose the most suitable trimming
method for each individual case. Trimming is ac-
complished either by shearing or machining.
Shearing methods include punching, knife-edge die
cutting, and orbital shearing. Machining methods
include routing, sawing, and cutting by means of la-
ser, water jet, or hot wire. Increasingly, the ma-
chining methods are performed by computer con-
trolled machines or under robot control so that
complicated peripheral cuts can be made accurately
and uniformly at high speed. Such machines have
the advantage that they can be rapidly repro-
grammed to deal with other products or a sequence
of products, whereas shearing methods usually re-
quire tooling dedicated to a single product.
Web-fed thermoformers using reeled or di-
rectly extruded sheet normally incorporate in-line
trimming or trim-in-place tooling. The cutting
method is almost always by shear punch or knife-
edge means, and the machines incorporate auto-
matic or semi-automatic waste and product han-
dling systems. In extruder-fed machines, the waste
handling system is usually arranged for full or
partial recirculation to the sheet extruder.
17.4 Thermoforming molds
The thermoforming mold performs two equally
important functions. It defines one surface of the
product, and it acts as heat exchanger to cool the
product rapidly from the forming temperature to
ejection temperature. The cooling function has a
direct bearing on process economics and is diffi-
cult to accomplish because all heat must be ex-
tracted through one surface of the product and be-
cause contact between the mold and the product is
not as intimate as is the case for flow processes or
high pressure operations.
The heat exchange function of the mold leads
to a conflict of interest. Thermoforming is carried
out at relatively low pressures — very low pres-
sures in the case of vacuum forming — so molds
can be constructed from light, inexpensive, easily
shaped materials such as wood, plaster, or epoxy
© Plastics Design Library
233
resins. However, these materials have a poor ther-
mal conductivity, and such molds do not function
well as heat exchangers. Consequently, their use is
best confined to short run or prototype use. In
normal production, the improved heat transfer ca-
pability of a metal mold will more than repay the
greater cost. Aluminum is most commonly used
for thermoforming molds; other options include
cast or sprayed low melting point alloys, porous
sintered metals, and copper alloys. The molds in-
clude channels for the circulation of a cooling
water. Because the forming process is performed
at relatively low pressure, the channels can, de-
pending on the material of construction and the
actual working pressure, approach within about 10
mm of the forming surface for greater cooling ef-
ficiency. In the case of a cast or sprayed mold, the
cooling channels can be prefabricated in copper
pipe to follow closely the cavity contours. In ma-
chined molds, the channels will be drilled or
milled and it is usually impossible to follow the
contours so closely. The greatest cooling effi-
ciency is achieved when the flow of water is tur-
bulent. This is a function of the Reynolds number,
and in practice it means that channels should not
be too large in relation to the coolant flow rate, so
running counter to the instinctive feeling that
larger cooling channels must always be better.
The principal decision to be made when de-
signing a thermoforming mold is to determine
which of the two product faces is to be defined by
the mold. As so many thermoformings are contain-
ers and are substantially cup or box-shaped, this de-
cision determines whether the mold is to be of the
male or female type. The shape of a thermoforming
is sharply defined only on the surface in contact
with the mold, so whichever is the primary presen-
tation face of the product may determine the mold
strategy. On the other hand, the forming may be
produced from a sheet with a grained or textured
surface and in this case, the mold may be designed
to define the second surface of the product in order
to preserve the sheet surface. Another consideration
is to simplify the production process and machinery,
and here the best choice is usually a female mold
because sheet clamping is easier to arrange. Female
molds also have the advantage when multiple cavi-
ties are to be placed close together. When male
cores are closely spaced, there is a risk of the sheet
bridging between cores and either failing to con-
form fully to the mold or becoming excessively
thinned or even ruptured. Shrinkage also makes it
Thermoforming
234

easier to release the forming from a female mold
than from a male.
The cavity surfaces should be finely sand
blasted to prevent formings from sticking in the
mold. Vertical cavity walls require a release taper of
1° to 2°. Cores need a greater taper of at least 5°.
The mold requires a multiplicity of vacuum or vent
ports, and these should be distributed across the
forming surface and must also be carefully sited in
ribs, slots and other features that are likely to be-
come isolated as the forming sheet progressively
seals off the other ports. The ports must be small in
diameter, so that little or no trace of their presence
is transferred to the product as a witness mark. One
rule is to make the vent diameter smaller than the
thickness of the forming at that point, subject to a
maximum diameter of 0.3 mm. The vents are re-
lieved from the back of the mold by a much larger
bore or a series of diminishing bores, drilled to
within about 2 mm of the mold face.
The thermoforming mold may include two
other important features. Pre-stretch plugs are de-
signed specifically for a particular mold contour
and should be regarded as an integral part of the
mold design. There is an increasing tendency, too,
for product trimming to be built into the thermo-
forming tooling, either by means of a peripheral
knife-edge around the mold form or by providing
an integral punch that separates the product by
shearing it from the sheet. The advantage is that
there is no possibility of sheet shrinkage producing
a misalignment between the product and the trim-
ming action. The disadvantage is that in-mold
trimming increases the mechanical complication
and cost of tooling, so the technique tends to be
confined to high volume packaging applications.
17.5 Thermoforming with polypropylene
Polypropylenes for thermoforming typically have
a melt flow index in the range 1.8 to 8.0. Homo-
polymers are widely used; nucleated grades are
used for improved clarity and stiffness and for
melt phase processing. Block copolymers are em-
ployed for improved impact strength at low tem-
peratures, while random copolymers are selected
for high transparency and improved heat sealing
qualities. Stiff, high tensile modulus grades can be
used to replace standard grades when wall thick-
ness downsizing is important. Thick-walled parts
are typically produced from a low MFI homo-
polymer grade with a high molecular weight.
Polypropylene sheet for thermoforming should
be produced with a highly uniform degree of crys-
tallinity across the web. Heating too must be uni-
form, both across and through the sheet. Preheating
is performed at about 120°C and the final forming
temperature depends on whether solid phase or melt
phase processing is being undertaken. For unfilled
grades of polypropylene, the solid phase forming
range is typically 155°C to 165°C, with 160°C fre-
quently quoted as the optimum. However, the true
optimum depends on grade and on the required
properties of the forming. Nucleated grades, for ex-
ample, will normally require a slightly higher tem-
perature than basic grades. The wall thickness, ori-
entation, and mechanical properties of thin-walled
polypropylene packaging products are substantially
influenced by the sheet forming temperature, so
precise temperature control is required. Temperature
variations across the sheet should not be greater
than 3°C.
The temperature range for melt phase forming
is 170°C to 180°C; in this case the variation in

Table 17.5 Typical solid phase forming conditions for selected types of polypropylene [1124]
Forming
Forming Optimum Minimum Maximum cycle time
temperature forming forming forming for 0.05in
range temperature strain strain thickness
Polypropylene type (°C) (°C) (% yield) (% break) (sec)
Homopolymer 160-170 160 24 3360 28
Homopolymer, 10% calcium carbonate 155-165 160 23 3280 22
Homopolymer, 30% calcium carbonate 150-165 160 21 3190 14
Copolymer 155-165 160 22 3360 26
Copolymer, 10% calcium carbonate 150-165 160 23 3180 22
Copolymer, 30% calcium carbonate 130-155 150 80 1500 30

Thermoforming © Plastics Design Library

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sheet elastic response across the temperature range characteristic of polypropylene (Section 13.2.3),
is relatively small and the concept of an optimum this makes it impossible to quote a single reliable
temperature has less significance. thermoforming shrinkage figure.
Thermoforming molds for use with polypro- References for chapter 17:
pylene sheet should be constructed from materials 1007, 1021, 1032, 1064, 1084, 1094, 1124, 1133,
of high thermal conductivity and should be effi- 1134, 1181, 1212, 1213, 1236, 1237
ciently cooled. Plug assist is recommended, using
low friction plugs of low thermal conductivity to
avoid premature chilling of the sheet.
The shrinkage of polypropylene thermoform-
ings is complex and is a function of sheet crystal-
linity and orientation as well as thermoforming
conditions and orientation arising from stretching
during forming. Allied to the high basic shrinkage

© Plastics Design Library Thermoforming