ENG SOIL CLASS 24/03/02

ENGINEERING SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Lecturer: D. A. Cameron, Senior Lecturer, UniSA

Lecture Notes prepared by K. G. Mills and D. A. Cameron

1. AN INTRODUCTION TO SOILS

1.1 Definition of Soil (to an Engineer)

Earth, or soil, in the engineering sense, is defined as “any unconsolidated material that is the product of
weathering and mechanical disintegration of rocks, composed of discrete particles with gases and liquids
interspersed between them”.

1.2 Types of Soils

a) Residual soils: These are formed in-situ by weathering of the original rock strata. Residual soils can be
formed from Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks. Weathering may be incomplete, structure may
be meta-stable, exhibiting strength loss on disturbance.

b) Transported soils: These are formed from particles that have been removed from rocks, then transported
and deposited away from the original source.
c) Alluvial soils: Soils formed by particles transported by water and deposited in lakes or on flood plains.
Soils are often sorted eg into sands or clays by the moving water.

d) Marine soils: Soils formed in the sea or at the estuaries of rivers. Marine clays have a structure
reflecting the saline conditions during depositon. Shell fragments and marine micro-organisms are
sometimes prevalent in these soils.

e) Glacial soils: Soils formed from the particles carried by glaciers. The composition and structure tends to
be very non-uniform.

f) Aeolian soils: Soils formed by particles usually sands and silts, carried by wind. The soil structure is
usually very porous.

g) Organic soils: Soils formed with a large percentage of organic matter within the soil.

1.3 Mineralogy of Soils

The mineralogical composition of soil depends on the parent rock from which the particles were derived, and
the chemical reactions with other materials contacted.

a) Boulders, cobbles, gravels: These size particles have the same composition as the parent rock. The
likely proportions of the components of igneous and sedimentary rocks are shown in Table 1.

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b) Sand: Sand grains are generally composed of quartz or silica. In some parts of the world, mica, gypsum
and limestone sands exist.

c) Silt: These are finer particles of quartz and silica. Other minerals may be present, feldspar and mica
usually re-crystallised into clay minerals. Very fine silts (Rock flour) may be produced by the grinding
together of rocks.

TABLE I: Average Mineralogical Composition of Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks

(after Kirsch, 1968)

IGNEOUS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

feldspar 59% feldspar 9%
quartz 12% quartz 30%
mica 4% mica 23%
augite and hornblende 17% carbonates 8.5%
others 8% others 2.5%
clay minerals 17.5%
Fe3 03 etc. 5.5%
chlorite 2%
water 2%

d) Clay : Clay particles consist mainly of minerals formed by chemical weathering of feldspars and micas.
Only fine particles are produced, hence most of the very fine particles in soils are clay minerals or certain
other chemical weathering products, e.g. laterites. In an engineering sense, clay particles are assumed to be
less than two microns thick.

“To a clay mineralogist, a clay mineral is a layer silicate mineral (also called a phyllosilicate) or other
mineral which imparts plasticity and which hardens upon drying or firing. (Guggenheim and Martin 1995)
The word "clay" is also used to refer to a particle size in a soil or sediment. The term is used in the U.S.
and by the International Society of Soil Science for a rock or mineral particle in the soil having a diameter
less than 0.002 mm (2 microns),…” http://www.clays.org.au/acms_clays.htm#kaolin

The three most prevalent clay minerals are :

i) Kaolinite (China clay, Kaolin)
Size, 20 nm thick × 100 to 500 nm wide.

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ii) Montmorillonite (Bentonite, Fullers earth, Smectite)

Size, 1 nm thick × 200 nm wide.
iii) Illite Size, 10 nm thick × 200 nm wide.
Water absorption, between that for kaolinite and montmorillonite.

A short description of the clay minerals is provided in Table II.

TABLE I: Description of the Common Clay Minerals

CLAY MINERAL CHARACTERISTICS BEHAVIOUR

Kaolinite 2 layer molecular / mineral (1:1) Strong, stable structure

Electrically charged layers Low plasticity

Hydrogen bonding between stacks Water absorption, approx.

90% of dry weight

Illite 3 molecular layer/mineral (2:1) Strong, less stable

Higher plasticity
Stacks keyed together by potassium
cation (weaker than hydrogen!) Expansive

Net negative charge deficiency. Intermediate water

Absorbs water absorption

Montmorillonite As above but stacks or micelles keyed Unstable

together by sodium (ideal for lime
stabilisation) or calcium - an even weaker Very high plasticity
cation bonding
Highly expansive
Large negative charge deficiency.
Absorbs much water Water absorption, approx.
300 - 700%

e) Organic particles: Some soils have organic particles present in them. They consist mainly of
decomposed plants and products formed from bacteria and fungi reactions on soil minerals.

1.4 Particle Interactions

Coarse-grained soils (gravels and sands) behave differently from fine-grained soils (silts and clays). In the
coarse soils, particle interaction is mainly by direct physical contact, while in fine-grained soils, physico-
chemical interaction by electrostatic and other molecular scale forces dominate. The surface of soil particles
generally have an electric charge, the nature and magnitude of the charge depending on the type of particle.
Generally this is only important in the fine-grained soils, that is clay and to a lesser extent silt. This charge

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reacts with ions in the water component of soil attracting water to the soil mineral surface. A measure of the
surface reactivity is defined by specific surface:

Total surface area of grains

Ss =
Volume of grains OR mass of grains

Typical values of Ss are given for different soils in Table 3.

TABLE III
SPECIFIC SURFACE OF CLAY MINERALS

TYPE OF SOIL SPECIFIC SURFACE (m2/g)

kaolin 80
glauconite 400

black earth 440 - 990

bentonite 1300 - 1390

Other phenomena associated with the surface activity are :

i) Adsorbed Layer and Particle Hydration: The ions present in water surrounding soil particles are attracted
to the surface of the particles and form a tightly bound layer on the surface. The effect of the layer of water
and ions is to separate the particles. Hence fine-grained soils are compressible since the thickness of this
layer can be fairly readily changed.

ii) Electrokinetic Potential: This is the voltage difference between the inner layer and outer diffuse zone of
the adsorbed layer.

iii) Thixotropy: Some suspensions of soil and water form a thixotropic fluid, e.g. a mixture of bentonite and
water has been used to aid excavation of narrow trenches and boreholes for deep footings.

iv) Cohesion: The shear strength of soil at zero normal stress (called cohesion) is due mainly to the
electrostatic forces between the particles (frictional contribution is eliminated if the normal force is zero).
These attractive forces are inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, hence the
smaller the particle size, the greater the cohesion. Sands do not exhibit cohesion, although when they are
moist, an apparent cohesion arises from the surface tension of moisture films within the soil.

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Cohesive shear resistance may also result from cementation of the particles by crystallisation of salts from
water within the soil.

1.5 Water Retention and Capillarity

Water in soils may exist as films around particles, where the film is held by adsorption forces. The channels
of voids within a soil mass, which are more or less inter-connected, can be considered as capillary tubes.
The height that water will rise in a capillary tube is given by:
4T
H=
γ wd

where, T = surface tension of water

d = diameter of the capillary tube
γw = unit weight of water.

The height calculated from this formula correlates well with observed rises in sand, but in clays, observed
heights do not exceed 3 to 4m. Table 4 provides typical data on capillary rise for coarse-grained soils.

Since there is energy required to overcome the adsorption forces, and because the capillary water is above
the natural ground water level, the soil water in a fine-grained soil is at a lower potential energy level than
free water at the same elevation. This energy deficit can be expressed as a negative pressure (or suction),
which is simply energy per unit volume. If only capillarity is present, the suction has the normal physical
meaning.

TABLE IV

CAPILLARY RISE VALUES FOR COARSE-GRAINED SOILS

TYPE OF SOIL CAPILLARY RISE

(mm)
Fine sand 300 – 1000
Medium sand 150 – 300
Coarse sand 100 - 150
Well-graded sand 150 – 1000
Fine gravel 20 – 100
Coarse gravel 5 - 20

Source: NAASRA 1983

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1.6 Shrinkage and Swelling from Moisture Change

Variation in the volume of a fine-grained, undisturbed soil (ie clay) can be produced by changes in the pore
water suction acting on the soil skeleton and affecting the interaction of the particles.

1.6.1 Types of Suction

a) Matric suction : This is the effect of capillary action and adsorption of water in the soil. On evaporation
of water from a soil’s surface, the capillary menisci retreat into the soil voids and the “contractile skin” of
surface tension forces exert a compressive stress on the soil skeleton. This squeezing of the soil reduces its
volume. When water is being removed during drying, the adsorption of moisture by adjacent particles draws
them together causing shrinkage. When water is later absorbed into the soil, the reverse action occurs but is
not fully reversible. Hence repeated wetting and drying of a soil will reduce its volume.

b) Solute suction : The total free energy of water depends on its content of dissolved salts as well as its
hydraulic potentials. If soil water has dissolved salts in it, it represents a state of suction relative to pure
water. The salts affect the forces of interaction between the particles in a complex way, and the salt
concentration of soil water changes. Subsequently the soil volume will change

c) Total suction : This is the sum of matric and solute suctions.

1.6.2 Measurement of suction

It is difficult to measure matric and solute suctions individually, therefore their combined effect, ie the total
suction, is usually measured.

The units of suction are those of pressure, ie kPa, or more conveniently log(kPa), or the alternative,
pF = log10 H.

where, H is the equivalent capillary rise in cm.

e.g. pF = 3 → H = 1,000 cm → suction = 98 kPa.

and log(kPa) ≈ (pF – 1)

Commonly, psychrometers are used to measure total suction in a well-controlled environment, two types
being :

a) Thermistor : Range 150 to 71,000 kPa (3.2 – 5.9 pF).

b) Thermocouple : Range 150 to 7,500 kPa (3.2 – 5.0 pF).
Possibly less accurate than the thermistor, but it is far quicker to use.

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The measurement of soil suction at the wet end below 3.5 pF is more difficult and far less accurate than near
the dry end.

1.6.3 Predicting Swelling and Shrinkage of Fine-grained Soils

a) Shrinkage can be estimated by drying a sample of soil and measuring the relationship between water
content and volume of the soil.

b) Swelling can be estimated by placing a known volume of dried and crushed soil into a measuring
cylinder of water. The increase in volume of the soil once it has settled, divided by the original volume of
the sample, gives the free swell value of the soil. An oedometer is more useful to examine the swelling
behaviour of the soil as the suppression of swell with vertically applied pressure can be determined. Distilled
water is commonly used to flood soil as it is a readily available standard material, although solute suction
changes may be particularly significant if the soil is saline.

The maximum pressure that can be exerted by a soil, which is trying to swell but is restrained, is known as
the swell pressure. This pressure can be estimated with an oedometer test.

c) Shrinkage Index tests: In recent years investigations have been made to measure the change in volume of
a soil due to total suction changes. From these tests we can determine the Shrinkage Index, defined as:
∆ε
I ps =
∆u

where, ∆ε = change in vertical strain of a laterally unrestrained sample

∆u = change in total suction in either log(kPa) or pF units.

In the field, the shrinkage/swelling that occurs seasonally can then be estimated from the product of the
Shrinkage Index and the expected change in suction caused by climatic conditions. Consideration should be
given to potential lateral strains in the ground. In Adelaide, because of its deep clay soils and dry climate,
seasonal movements of 50 to 80 mm are common extending to a depth of two metres within the soil. Even
greater and deeper movements occur due to the environmental changes produced by urbanization.

2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

2.1 Phase Relationships

The body of a soil sample is a mixture of soil particles, water and air. If the soil is saturated, the volume or
void space between the particles is completely occupied by water and air can not exist in the system.

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An element of soil can contain three distinct phases :

1 SOLID (mineral particles, some organic matter)
2 LIQUID (usually water containing dissolved salts)
3 GAS (usually air)

Equivalent
The Soil System Phase Diagram

air

water

solids

Va Air

Vv
Vw Water and Mw
V
salts M

Vs Solids Ms

VOLUMES ELEMENT OF SOIL MASSES

Figure 1. The Phase Diagram Concept for a Soil System

From this simple diagram, the state of soil can be readily visualized and expressed using such terms as
moisture content, density, void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation. Some common terms and their
definitions are given below.
The density of the completely solid phase (or soil particle density) needs to be determined (refer AS1289).
For soils, it is usually around 2.6 to 2.7 tonnes/m3.

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Common terms and definitions in geotechnical engineering related to the soil “phase diagram” are as
follows:
Mw
a) Water content w= × 100
Ms
NOTE : The mass of water removed on drying the soil depends on the temperature and type of solid. Hence
a standard temperature 105 - 110ºC has been adopted by AS 1289 Methods of Testing Soils for Engineering
Purposes.
M
b) Natural (Bulk) density ρ=
V
Ms
c) Density of solids ρs =
Vs
Ms
d) Dry density ρd =
V
e) Unit Weight γ = ρg where g = acceleration due to gravity.

ρs
f) Specific gravity of solids Gs = (this is an old term that shouldn’t be used)
ρw
Gs is a non-SI term. DO NOT use it in practicals, tutorials or in technical work after you graduate
whenever you are working to British or Australian Standards.
Vv
g) Void Ratio e=
Vs
Vv
h) Porosity n=
V
Vw
i) Degree of Saturation S= × 100
Vv
emax − e
j) Density Index ID = × 100
emax − emin

2.2 Consistency of Soil

The term consistency is applied differently in different soils. For coarse-grained soils, consistency or degree
of compactness refers to the in-situ soil density. Granular soils are loose, medium dense, dense, or very
dense according to their Density Index value.

For fine-grained soils, the consistency may be soft, firm, stiff or hard. These descriptive terms have
standardised meaning in terms of soil strength (see AS 1726: note the terms differ from the British Standard).

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Fine-grained soils are defined by “Consistency limits”, or Atterberg limits. These limits are determined on
remoulded soil and they assist in the engineering classification of a soil. Three states of consistency exist:

1 LIQUID behaves like fluid, shear resistance is negligible.

2 PLASTIC easily moulded to new shapes without cracking.
3 SOLID resistance to deformation is relatively high.

The consistency of a soil depends on its water content. Therefore the boundaries between these states of
consistency are defined by water contents as determined by the Atterberg tests on the soil.

Plastic Limit, PL LL, Liquid Limit

Solid Plastic Soil Zone Liquid

“Semi-Solid”

[< PL] [PL to LL] [>LL]

2.3 Atterberg Limits

a) Plastic Limit, PL: is the water content at the point where soil is changing from a fluid to plastic state.
The fine-grained portion of the soil is mixed with water to about the consistency of putty, but not wet
enough to feel greasy. It is then rolled out carefully into thin threads. If the threads begin to break when the
diameter of the soil ≅ 3 mm, then the PL has been reached.

b) Liquid Limit, LL: is the water content, when a rolled thread of soil just begins to harden and crack. The
fine-grained portion is mixed to almost liquid consistency. The soil is placed in a bowl connected to a
rotating cam device. A groove is cut through the soil paste with a grooving tool (Casagrande device) to form
a pair of mini soil slopes. The slopes are then disturbed by rotating the cam at a set rate, to lift and drop the
bowl onto a hardened rubber base. Each drop is termed a “blow”. The liquid limit is defined as the moisture
content at which closure of the groove extends over a 10 mm length after applying 25 blows to the soil.

Alternatively, a falling cone device may be used to determine the liquid limit.

c) Shrinkage Limit, SL: is the water content at the point where the volume of soil ceases to decrease on
drying.

d) Plasticity Index, PI: is a measure of the range of water content over which soil is in a plastic state.

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e) Activity, A: is another measure of the plasticity of a soil.

PI
A=
(% clay soil < 0.002 mm)

2.3 Particle Size and Particle Size Distribution

The size of an individual soil particle in an engineering sense determines whether it is gravel, sand silt or
clay. The ranges of particle sizes as given by AS1726 to define soil type are:

TABLE V. Soil Type by Particle Size to AS1726-1993

GRAIN SIZE
(mm)
log scale 0.002 0.075 0.2 0.6 2.36 6 20 63 200

BASIC Fine Med. C. Fine Med C.

.
SOIL CLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL COBBLES BOULDERS
TYPE
FINE SOIL COARSE SOIL VERY COARSE SOIL

Note: C. = “coarse”

Soils are usually comprised of more than just one particle size. The distribution of the fundamental particle
sizes in a soil mass is important, as it determines the potential behaviour of the soil. In Figure 2, particle size
distributions have been plotted for four soils. A visual explanation of the terms “well graded” and “poorly
graded” is provided in Figure 3.

2.3.1 Determination of distribution

The method depends on the size of particles :
a) Sieve analysis > 0.075 mm
b) Sedimentation ≤ 0.075 mm.

The curve of percentage passing a given sieve size against the sieve size opening is plotted from the test. A
steep curve indicates a uniform soil, a smooth and even curve is a well-graded soil, and one with a horizontal
section indicates some sizes are missing.

The particle diameters, d10 and d60, are used to describe the distribution and then to classify the soil.
d10 = diameter at 10% passing (effective diameter)
d60 = diameter at 60% passing.
The Uniformity Coefficient, Cu, may be determined from these diameters:

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d 60
Cu =
d10
If Cu ≤ ≈5* ⇒ uniform soil
If Cu > ≈5* ⇒ well-graded soil

(* 4 for gravel and 6 for sand (AS1726)).

100
90
80
Percent finer by wt.

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Hydrometer
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain diameter mm
Weathered Uniform soil Well-graded
Gap-graded Uniform Uniformly mixed Partially settled

Figure 2. Sieve analysis chart and sedimentation test

P - Poorly graded
(uniform)

W - Well graded

P - Poorly graded
(gap graded)

Figure 3. Interpretation of Particle Size Distributions

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2.4 Micro-structure or Fabric

2.4.1 Cohesionless soils: These soils are composed largely of bulky grains, the density depending on the
packing of the grains. The Density Index is a measure of the stability of the soil structure. Low density soils
are susceptible to collapsing on vibration or inundation with water.
2.4.2 Cohesive soils: These soils are composed mainly of fine grain particles. Their behaviour depends on
the quantity and type of clay minerals present.

2.4.3 Composite soils : These consist of large particles bounded by a matrix of fine soil acting as a binding
agent. Depending on the relative proportion of the fine particles, the soil may behave primarily as either a
cohesive or cohesionless soil.

2.5 Classification of Soils

There are many systems for classifying soils. Two of them are :

2.4.1 Pedological : This classification is based on the development of a profile of a soil due to weathering.
If the ground the ground is excavated, it can be observed that the character of the soil changes with depth.
Colours vary, soil types change and organic matter may be evident near the surface. The various soil layers
that are observed constitute the “soil profile”. The characters of the soil layers give clues to the genesis of
the soil mass (pedology).
Layers are grouped into soil horizons as follows:
A = topsoil
B = subsoil
C = weathered parent rock
D = parent rock

“The B horizon is formed chiefly by the deposition of mineral matter dissolved in the soil water and by the
washing down from above of clay particles produced by mineral weathering or originally present as clay in
the rock”.

The key indicators for pedologists are:

a) Colours → salts present → leaching, drainage
red = iron
white = calcium, gypsum

b) Grain shape → soil history → affects soil strength

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c) Fabric (arrangement of basic particles) → affects soil behaviour

There are two main systems in pedological classification:

a) Division into Great Soil Groups, based on environment.
b) Division into orders and sub-orders based on the differences in soil profile.
Pedological classification for soils in Adelaide was provided by Taylor, Thomson and Shepherd, who
produced Bulletin 46 for the Department of Mines, S.A. in 1974. The title of the bulletin is “The soils and
geology of the Adelaide area”. A comprehensive report was provided with a map of the soils and geology.
The map extended from the Mt Lofty ranges to the coast and included the suburbs of Banksia Park to the NE
and Seacliff Park to the SW extremities of the map boundaries.

The Great Soil group classifications were applied, but included more specific soil types related to each
Group, as is briefly summarised in Table VI. The Table does not include the Alluvials (AL), Dune Sands
(DS) or Estuarine Soils (EMS) of the Great Soil Groups, which were used in their report, as the variation of
soil type within these Groups was minimal. On Taylor et al.’s map, each mapping unit represented a “soil
association”, within which one or more dominant soils types were likely to be found, possibly in association
with one or more minor soils types.

The Great Soil Groups were inter-mixed on the map. The soil associations might for example be RZ, TR
with RB’s as the minor soil type, or BS, TR with BE as the minor soil type. This uncertainty in the mapping
is not as great as the uncertainty associated with deeper soil types. Taylor et al.’s map was based largely on
exploration of the top 1.5 to 2 metres of soil. It has long been recognised that most of the Adelaide region is
underlain by highly expansive Pleistocene clays (Hindmarsh or Keswick clay) of alluvial origin (Selby
and Lindsay, 1982). The depth to which these clays are found below the surface varies, as does their
thickness.

2.4.2 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS): This engineering classification system is based on the
Casagrande classification. Soils are divided into broad groups based on particle size (Table V) and are
further distinguished by certain characteristics as indicated in Table VII. The soils are then assigned
appropriate symbols of the classification scheme. The primary symbol identifies the dominant (> 50% by
mass) soil type, eg clay or gravel, C or G. The second symbol describes the particular feature of the soil.

Coarse-grained soils are readily sieved, but fined-grained soils are impractical to sieve. Generally,
sedimentation tests are not conducted to distinguish between clays and silts in a fine soil. Instead the
relationship between the plastic index and liquid limit of the soil provides empirical evidence as to whether it
is basically silt or clay. The Plasticity Chart is used to distinguish soil types (Figure 4). If the soil plots
above the “A Line” on the chart, it is likely to be clay (C) rather than silt (M) or organic soil (O).

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TABLE VI. Soils of Adelaide (after Taylor, Thomson and Shepherd, 1974)

SOIL GROUP SOIL ABREVIATED DESCRIPTIONS

TYPE
1 RB RB1 to 9 Generally formed on the transported sediments of the outwash
Red brown earths plain.
2 BE BE Formed on fine-grained alluvium subject to slow drainage and
Black earths periodic wetness. Variable CaCO3 content.
3 RZ RZ Developed on calcareous slates or limestones. Calcrete up to
Rendzina 5cm thick on calcareous silt. Can grade to BE.
4 TR TR Developed from highly calcareous rock eg limestone. Shallow
Terra Rossa red to red brown soils.
5 P P1 to P4 Residual soils formed under relatively high rainfall and acid
Podzolic soils leaching conditions, often sandy clay. Restricted usually to the
foothills.
6 S S1,S2 Yellow and grey clays, similar to P soils but are more dense
Solodic soils and more plastic.
7 BS BS Developed from calcareous material, primarily windblown.
Brown solonized Grey brown or reddish brown materials. Can be associated
soils with RB4 (Ingle Farm), but usually overlies Hindmarsh Clay.

TABLE VII. Symbols of the Unified Soil Classification System

Class Primary Characteristic A line Secondary
Symbol Position Symbol
Coarse-grained
Gravel G Well graded NA W
Poorly graded P
Excess of fines C or M
Sand S Well graded NA W
Poorly graded P
Excess of fines C or M
Fine-grained
Clay C Low plasticity Above L
(LL < 30%)
Medium Plasticity Above I
(30 to 50%)
High plasticity Above H
(LL > 50%)
Silt M Low plasticity Below L
(LL < 50%)
High plasticity Below H
(LL > 50%)
Organic silt and O Low plasticity Below L
clay (LL < 50%)
High plasticity Below H
(LL > 50%)
Peat Pt

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The liquid limit of a fine soil provides the secondary classification symbol in the USCS, as indicated in
Table VII and also in Figure 4. Therefore, a silt might be ML, MI or MH depending on its value of liquid
limit. So a fine soil may be classified through knowledge of its Atterberg Limits or its plasticity.

The secondary classification of coarse-grained soils is based on the particle size distribution and whether the
soil is well graded or poorly graded. If the coarse soil is significantly contaminated with fines (silt or clay),
the secondary symbol based on grading is replaced with either M or C to indicate the nature of the fines. SC
would indicate a clayey sand or sand–clay mix, having more than 12% clay soil.

Borderline classifications arise when the percentage of fines in a coarse soil lies between 5 and 12%. Dual
symbols are then used, eg SP-SM (sand with some silt, poorly graded). The additional two symbols warn
that there exist some fines, which may affect the soil behaviour.

Dual symbols may also be required for fine soils when a soil plots on the “A line” or on a boundary value of
the liquid limit in the plasticity chart. So as an example, CH-OH or CL/CH designations may be appropriate.

Low Medium High

60

CH
Plastic Index (%)

40
A - Line
U - Line CI
20
MH
CL or
CL - ML OH
ML or OL
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Liquid Limit (%)

Figure 4. Soil Plasticity Chart after AS1726 - 1993

A flow chart depicting the steps needed to classify a soil according to the Unified Soil Classification System
is provided in Figure 5.

Fine soils may be classified in the field using simple tests, rather than waiting for the results of the more
precise laboratory tests. The dry strength, toughness and dilatancy tests provide an indication of plasticity.
Particles greater than 0.2 mm are excluded before testing the soil.

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A brief explanation of the USCS field tests is as follows:

a) Dry strength: The dry strength test is performed by moulding a ball of soil to the consistency of putty,
allowing it to dry completely and then crushing it between the fingers. The greater the colloidal content,
the higher the dry strength. So CH clays have a high strength while silts are weak and feel “floury”.
b) Toughness: Again the soil is moulded to the consistency of putty. The soil is manipulated to the shape
of a thread or ribbon, repeatedly, until it begins to crumble (near plastic limit). The feel or toughness of
the thread at this point is qualitatively assessed. The tougher it feels, the greater is the colloidal content.

c) Dilatancy: Dilation as applied to soils is the increase of volume of the soil as it is sheared. Dilation
depends on particle shape and the density of particle packing. It will be most noticeable in fine-grained,
clean sand and will not be evident in clay. The test requires the mixing of the soil to a moist pat in the
palm of the hand. Disturbing the pat of soil by vibration may cause water to rise to the surface giving
the soil a “livery appearance”. Shearing the soil by opening the palm or squeezing the pat of soil will
cause opening up of void space and a sudden disappearance of the surface water and livery look of the
soil, if the soil is strongly dilatant.

Table 8 outlines the application of the field tests to the classification scheme. The tests are subjective and so
can be quite difficult for beginners to differentiate between soils such as OH and CL/CI. Nevertheless the
tests provide a good first estimate of soil types. The Unified Soil Classification System has been in use for
so long across the globe that engineering application charts have been developed for use in conjunction with
the scheme (see Lambe and Whitman “Soil Mechanics”).

TABLE VIII. Classification According to Field Test Result

Soil Dry Toughness Dilatancy
Strength
ML None to None Quick to
Low Slow
CL, CI Medium to Medium None to
High Very Slow
OL Low to Low Slow
Medium
MH Low to Low to Slow to
Medium Medium None
CH High to High None
Very High
OH Medium to Low to None to
High Medium Very Slow

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ENG SOIL CLASS 24/03/02

Wet sieve complete

soil sample through
0.075 mm sieve
size

Fine Fraction Coarse Fraction

< 50% retained >50% retained

FINE GRAINED SOIL COARSE GRAINED SOIL

[Clay or Silt, Organic [Sand or Gravel]
or non-organic]

Atterberg Limits
Sieve coarse fraction
Above A line Below A line through 2.36 mm sieve size

Clay Silt, Organic Soil

Liquid Limit Liquid Limit

<30% >50% <50% >50%

< 50% retained > 50% retained

CL CI CH ML OL MH OH
SAND GRAVEL

Fines < 5% Fines > 12% Fines < 5% Fines > 12%

Examine Soil Atterberg Examine Soil Atterberg

Grading Limits Grading Limits

SP SW SC SM GP GW GC GM

Figure 4 Flow Chart for Application of the Unified Soil Classification System

Figure 5. Flow Chart for the Unified Soil Classification System

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ENG SOIL CLASS 24/03/02

EXERCISES

Problem 1
A soil has a unit weight of 15 kN/m3, a water content of 10%, and a density of solids of 2.7 t/m3, when
dumped loosely from a scraper.

Determine:

(a) for easiest compaction the water content (optimum) should be 15%. How much water in litres/m3
should be added to raise the water content to the optimum?

(b) After compaction at the optimum moisture, the soil is estimated to be 95% saturated. Find e, n, ρ and
γ of the compacted soil.

Problem 2

The following data were obtained by mechanical analysis and plasticity tests of soil samples :

SIZE % FINES
(mm) SOIL 1 SOIL 2*
2.00 
0.850 86 98
0.425 72 95
0.250 60 92
0.150 45 86
0.075 35 83
0.05 33 82
0.01 21 57
0.002 10 36
LL (%) 19 67
PI (%) 0 27

Plot the grain size curves and classify each soil using the Unified System. Consult AS1726 or laboratory
notes as necessary.

* The dry strength of Soil 2 was found to be medium to high, and the dilatancy none to very slow.

Problem 3

A sand with a minimum void ratio of 0.45 and a maximum of 0.97 has a Density Index of 40%. The particle
density of the solids is 2.68 t/m3.

a) Find the density and unit weight, dry and saturated, in the present state.

b) How much will a 3m thick stratum of sand settle if the sand is densified to a Density Index of 65%?

c) What will be the new densities and unit weights, dry and saturated?

Problem 4

A saturated soil has a water content of 40% and a unit weight of 17.9 kN/m3. Determine the void ratio,
porosity and particle density of the solids of the soil.

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