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1 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS - 1a PDF
1 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS - 1a PDF
2
5 Branches
3 Nodes
3 Loops
3
Determine the number of branches and nodes in
these figures.
(a) (b)
(c)
4
Current in a circuit will
always be proportional to the
voltage and resistance
presented
v
I R
V = IR
5
6
y R = 0.
y In practice, a short
circuit is usually a
connecting wire
assumed to be perfect
conductor.
7
y R = ∞.
8
P
V I
P = VI
9
y Two types:
1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).
2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
10
y Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the sum of
currents entering the node is equal to the sum of
currents leaving the node.
y i1+i2 = i3+i4
11
y Direction of current:
y It always flows from a higher potential (+ve) to lower
potential (‐ve) of passive element.
y Generally,
y Refer to the arrow of current source.
y It flows from +ve terminal of voltage source.
12
y Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the sum of all
voltages around a closed loop is zero.
y The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal
encountered first as we travel around the loop.
y It is either clockwise or counter clockwise.
13
− v + v1 + v2 = 0
v = v1 + v2
y From equation above
Sum of voltage drops = sum of voltage rises
14
If v = 10 V, R1 = 2 Ω and R2 = 5 Ω, find i.
15
Find io and vo in the circuit shown below.
16
y Two elements are in series if they share a single node
and carry the same current.
v ≠ v1 ≠ v2
i = i1 = i2
17
y Req = R1 + R2
18
Determine v1 and v2 if v = 10 v, R1 = 2 Ω and
R2 = 5 Ω.
19
v1 = [R1/(R1 + R2)]*v
v2 = [R2/(R1 + R2)]*v
20
By using Voltage Division Principle, determine
v1 and v2 if v = 10 v, R1 = 2 Ω and R2 = 5 Ω.
21
y Two or more elements are in parallel if they are
connected to the same two nodes and have the
same voltage across them.
v =v1 = v2
i ≠ i1 ≠ i2
22
y 1/Req = (1/R1) + (1/R2)
y Then; Req = (R1*R2)/(R1+R2)
y For N resistors:
1/Req = (1/R1) + (1/R2) +…+ (1/RN)
23
Determine i1 and i2 if v = 10 v, R1 = 2 Ω and
R2 = 5 Ω.
24
i1 = [R2/(R1 + R2)]*i
i2 = [R1/(R1 + R2)]*i
25
By using Current Division Principle, determine i1
and i2 if v = 10 v, R1 = 2 Ω and R2 = 5 Ω.
26
y Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage
sources are called ac circuit.
27
y General equation/ steady‐state equation:
v(t) = Vm sin ωt
where
Vm = the max. voltage
ω = angular freq. in rad/s
= 2πf
f = freq (50 Hz; Malaysia and 60 Hz; U.S.)
28
v(t) = Vm sin ωt
i(t) = Im sin (ωt − θ)
AC Signal
where
θ = angle between voltage (v) and current (i).
29
y It is a complex number that represents the amplitude
and phase of a sinusoid.
y It can be represented in 3 ways:
y Rectangular form.
y Polar form.
y Exponential form.
30
y Rectangular form:
z = x + j y
Where
y j = (−1)1/2 .
y x is the real part of z.
y y is the imaginary part of z.
31
y Polar form:
z = | r | ∠ θ
Where
y | r | = (x2 + y2)1/2 represents the magnitude of z.
y tan − 1 (y/x) represents the phase of z.
32
Imaginary axis
2j
r y
φ
x Real axis
33
y RMS stands for root‐mean‐square.
34
y RMS voltage
Vrms = Vm / √2
y RMS current
Irms = Im / √2
35
1. An ac signal is given as v(t) = 141.4 sin 314t.
Determine the maximum voltage, the rms voltage
and the frequency.
2. Find a steady‐state current if the rms current is 30 A
and the frequency is 50 Hz.
36
y It is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage
and current.
PF = cos θ
where θ is the angle between voltage and current (θv −
θi).
37
y It is also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.
y The power factor also regarded as the ratio of the real
power dissipated in the load to the apparent power of
the load.
38
y In ac circuit, there are three main components
involved:
y Resistor – R in Ohms (Ω)
y Inductor – L in Henry (H)
y Capacitor – C in Farad (F)
39
y Z = R
y I = (V∠ 0°)/ R
= |I| ∠ 0°
40
y Phasor diagram
v(t) = Vm sin ωt
i(t) = Im sin ωt
y Current, I and voltage, V are in phase.
41
y Since the angle between V and I is 0, then the power
factor will be
p.f. = cos θ
= cos 0°
= 1 or unity
42
L
y Z = R + j XL = |Z| ∠θ
y j XL = j ωL = j 2πfL in Ohms.
43
y I = (V∠ 0°)/ (|Z| ∠θ) = |I| ∠− θ
v(t) = Vm sin ωt
y Phasor diagram
i(t) = Im sin (ωt − θ)
Lagging
direction
y Current, I is lagging the voltage, V by θ degree.
44
y Since the angle between V and I is − θ, then the power
factor will be
p.f. = cos θ lagging
45
y Z = R + j XC = |Z| ∠− θ
y − j XL = − j (1/ωC) = − j (1/2πfC) in Ohms.
46
y I = (V∠ 0°)/ (|Z| ∠− θ) = |I| ∠ θ
v(t) = Vm sin ωt
y Phasor diagram
i(t) = Im sin (ωt + θ)
Leading
direction
y Current, I is leading the voltage, V by θ degree.
47
Inductive Load Capacitive Load
θ = + ve θ = − ve
Current LAG the voltage by θ Current LEAD the voltage by θ
degree degree
48
y Z = R ± j X
y |Z| = (R2 + X2)1/2
y θ = tan −1 (X/R)
49
v
I Z
V = IZ
50
Find the steady‐state current for this circuit. Also find
the phasor voltage across each element and construct a
phasor diagram.
51
1. Find all currents flow through each element.
2. Construct a phasor diagram showing all the currents
and the source voltage.
52
y 4 types:
1. Complex power, S.
2. Apparent power, |S|.
3. Real power, P.
4. Reactive power, Q.
53
y The product of the voltage across the load and the
current through the load.
S = VI* where I* = I conjugate.
y Unit: Voltage Ampere (VA)
54
If V = |V|∠0° and I = |I| ∠− θ
S = (|V|∠0°)(|I| ∠− θ)*
= (|V|∠0°)(|I| ∠ θ)
= |V||I| ∠ θ
= |S| ∠ θ
= P + jQ
55
y The product of the voltage across the load and the
current through the load whereby the phase angle are
ignored.
|S| = |V||I|
y Unit: Voltage Ampere (VA)
56
y The real power@ active power @ average power @ dc
power @ actual power supplied to the load.
P = |S| cos θ = |V||I| cos θ
= |S|×PF = |V||I| ×PF
y Unit: Watt (W)
57
y The reactive power @ imaginary power represent
energy that is first stored and then released in the
magnetic field of an inductor or in the electric field of
capacitor.
Q = |S| sin θ = |V||I| sin θ
y Unit: Voltage Ampere Reactive (VAr)
58
y S = P ± j Q
y |S| = (P2 + Q2)1/2
y θ = tan −1 (Q/P)
59
y various elements are characterized by
their ability to generate or absorb power:
P = +ve Æ circuit will absorb real power.
P = −ve Æ circuit will generate real
power.
Q = +ve Æ circuit absorb reactive power.
Q = −ve Æ circuit generate reactive
power.
60
y Inductive load: it is consuming both real and
reactive power from the source.
PXL = +ve and QXL = +ve
61
Calculate the current supplied to the load, the power
factor of the load and the real, reactive, apparent and
complex power to the load. Determine whether Z is
consuming or supplying reactive power.
62
1. A load draws 25 kVA at a power factor of 0.85
lagging from a supply of 240 V. Calculate a) the real
and reactive power to the load and b) the load
impedance.
63
y PF is the cosine of the phase difference between
voltage and current, PF = cos θ.
y Any load with low PF draws more current than a load
with high PF for the same amount of useful power
transfer.
64
y In Malaysia, the minimum power factor specified by
TNB is 0.85.
y This capacitor is connected in parallel with the load.
65
y PF: Cos θ2 < Cos θ1
y C = Qc / (ω|V|2) in Farad (F).
where Qc = Q1 – Q2
66
One load Z = 25 ∠ 30° is connected with a 120 V, 50 Hz
source. Calculate the capacitance value that needed to
improve the overall power factor to 0.95 lagging.
67
Van = |V| sin ωt
Vbn = |V| sin (ωt – 120°)
Vcn = |V| sin (ωt – 240°)
68
y It consists of generators, transmission lines and loads .
y All three loads have same value of impedance.
69
y Phasor diagram (abc sequence)
70
y The advantages of 3‐phase system:
1. It is possible to get more power per kilogram
of metal from 3‐phase machine.
2. The power delivered to a 3‐phase load is
constant at all times instead of pulsating as it
does in 1‐phase system.
3. The 3‐φ motor having constant torque, start
and run much better than 1‐φ motor.
71
y There are 2 connections in three phase system namely:
y Star/ Wye connection – Y
y Delta/ Mesh connection ‐ ∆
72
73
y The phase voltages ( line to neutral voltages):
VAN = |V| ∠ 0°
VBN = |V| ∠ − 120°
VCN = |V| ∠ − 240° = |V| ∠ 120°
where |V| is the magnitude of phase voltage
74
y The line voltages (line to line voltages):
where |V| is the magnitude of phase voltage
75
y Phasor diagram
76
y Since VAB, VBC and VCA are all line voltages and V is the
phase voltage, then
|Vline| = √3 |Vph|
|Iline| = |Iph|
77
78
y The phase currents:
IAB = |I| ∠ 0°
IBC = |I| ∠ − 120°
ICA = |I| ∠ − 240°
where |I| is the magnitude of phase current
79
y The line voltages:
where |I| is the magnitude of phase current
80
y Phasor diagram
81
y Since IA, IB and IC are all line currents and I is the phase
current, then
|Vline| = |Vph|
|Iline| = √3 |Iph|
82
Features YConnected ∆Connected
83
y Complex power:
y Apparent power:
|S3φ| = 3 |Vph| |Iph| = |VL| |IL|
84
y Real power:
y Reactive power:
85
y The current in the neutral of the balanced Y‐connected
loads is In = Ia + Ib + Ic = 0.
86
y Single‐Phase Circuit for Per‐Phase Analysis
87
y Steps of analysis:
1. Determine the voltages, currents and powers at
various points in the circuit with a per‐phase
equivalent circuit. (phase voltage and current).
2. Convert all ∆‐connected load to Y‐connected load:
ZY = Z∆ / 3
3. Draw the per‐phase equivalent circuit.
4. Solve it as common circuit in circuit theory.
88
A three‐phase, Y connected system has 200 V
effective line voltage and an equal impedance of (3 +
j 4) Ω. Determine the line currents.
89
A balanced 415V, 50Hz delta‐connected generator
supplies a star‐connected load, comprising three
single‐phase impedances, each of 20 + j12 Ω. The line
impedance is 0.02 + j 3.5 Ω. Determine (a) the line
current, (b) the phase voltage across the load, (c) the
line voltage at the load terminals and (d) the real,
reactive and complex power of the load including
power factor.
90
y It provide a compact way to represent the
interconnections of a power system.
y The voltage and types of connections of each generator
and load are usually shown on the diagram.
91
Bus 1
Load 1 Y-connected
G1
Y-connected Load 2 -connected
92
Based on figure above
1. Find the overall PF of the distribution system.
2. Find the total line current supplied to the distribution
system.
Assume that the impedance of distribution
line is negligible.
93