Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Faculty of Arts
Department of English
and American Studies
Lenka Drbalová
Comedy of Manners:
William Congreve and Oscar Wilde
Bachelor‟s Diploma Thesis
2014
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently,
using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
……………………………………………..
Author‟s signature
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank prof. Mgr Franková , CSc., M.A. and PhDr. Věra Pálenská, CSc.
Introduction ......................................................................................3
Conclusion .....................................................................................36
Résumé ...........................................................................................40
Notes ...............................................................................................41
Works Cited....................................................................................44
Preface
The comedy of manners is a genre which, since its beginnings in the Restoration
comedy, enjoyed much attention from both the writers and the audience. Its reputation
however suffered at times from accusations of many critics, who condemned it as being
improper, shallow and immoral. However, it reflects various tendencies permeating the
society in which it was created, be it the Restoration society or the one during the late
Victorian period, as those saw the creation of the plays discussed in the thesis. They
thus serve as a testament of not only what the authors created, but additionally, what the
The aim of the thesis is to explore the origins of the genre and highlight how it
comedy of manners, both from a different period, which illustrate how the genre
comedy of manners and elaborates on the atmosphere in which those plays were created
to ultimately provide basis for understanding the two plays discussed in the following
chapters. The main part of the thesis consists of a study of two plays: The Way of the
World (1700) by William Congreve (1670-1729) and The Importance of Being Earnest
(1895) by Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), which both bear elements of the genre of the
comedy of manners. The attention is paid to the notion of wit, which is a crucial aspect
in understanding the plays, to the process of courtship and finally, it discusses to what
degree the plays reflect the existing world in which they were created or whether they
2
Introduction
For this part of the thesis the studied materials consist of The Comedy of Manners
by John Palmer, The History of Restoration Drama by Allardyce Nicoll and English
them presents the genre from a slightly different angle, focusing on the critical
reception, the audience or the changes regarding the architecture of the theatres.
Together they offer a complex overview of the Restoration comedy as a genre and
The beginnings of the genre trace back to the Restoration period. As Palmer
writes: “The English comedy of manners began with Etherege, rose to perfection in
Congreve, declined with Vanbrugh and Farquhar and was extinguished in Sheridan and
Goldsmith” (Palmer 2). It presents a unique explosion of wit, social satire and
mannerism that lasted from 1660, when Charles II was restored to the English throne,
and reached its peak with Congreve‟s masterpiece The Way of the World, performed for
the first time in 1700. Beginnings of the Restoration comedy were based on “the comic
tradition of Jacobean and Caroline drama, which gave it an earthly grounding [and it]
acquired its elegance and polish from French influences, notably Molière” (Thomas 16-
17). French and Italian performances that were staged in London also introduced new
elements of stage tricks or stage character to the English playwrights. Altogether, the
Restoration period served as a melting pot, where old ideas met with the new ones and
3
Such progression was partially possible due to the fact that it was “drama of a
small and selected few” (Nicoll 4), and therefore the theatres profoundly depended on
portion of one town in the whole Britain” (Nicoll 4). Nicoll presents an account of
courtiers and their satellites, the noblemen in the pits, the fops and beaux and wits
and would-be-wits who hung on to their society, the women of the court, deprived
The theatre was for and about the small upper-class and as a consequence the
relationship between the audience and the theatre was a very close one as the theatre
To please such audience a constant change in the programme was crucial to fill
the theatres. Nicoll mentions that no play “could count on a run of over a few days”
(26). This did not solely create a great thirst for new plays, but it was also extremely
challenging for the actors as they had to memorize a great amount of lines in short time.
In addition, actors also became public personas and were familiar to both the dramatists
and the audience and as a consequence tended to be typecast, thus strengthening the
establishment of “stock characters”1 that are typical for this period. Nicoll mentions an
actor Sanford, who was so well known for his brilliance in the portrayal of evil
characters that the audience would not accept him in any different role and demanded to
In addition, the Restoration theatre introduced actresses on the stage for the first
time; however, they did not enjoy high social status and were not ranked much higher
1
a character in literature, theatre, or film of a type quickly recognized and accepted by the reader or
viewer and requiring no development by the writer. (www.dictionary.reference.com)
4
than prostitutes. Nevertheless this enabled not only a fresh look on the representation of
female characters from the previous period, who were finally portrayed by women, but
in addition those actresses had some influence on the contemporary playwrights as well
and consequently some roles were specially written for them. Such was the case of Mrs
Anne Brace Girdle and the role of Millamant in The Way of the World, which Congreve
Concerning the housing of the theatres, during the most of the Restoration period
there were two companies that received patents from Charles II and opened in the
summer of 1660: Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and Royal Opera House, Convent Garden.
They competed for the audience, but eventually united in 1681. As Nicoll remarks:
“The first years of Restoration certainly saw the birth of the modern stage” (4), in
contrast to the theatres of the Renaissance era, they were completely roofed, employed
more diverse scenery and also reduced the platform stage into a picture-frame stage.
However, they were not altogether an example of the modern theatre, but entailed as
Nicoll suggests a “compromise between the Globe of 1600 and the Covent Garden of
1900” (31).
The names of the theatres alone indicate their royal patronage. Indeed, the King
himself was a frequent theatre-goer. As was mentioned before, the Restoration theatres
were extremely close to the court and therefore reflected its sentiments. They benefited
from the fact that they enjoyed a cultured audience in possession of wit and elegance
and also of some theatre experience from abroad. Consequently those qualities were
also reflected on the stage to entertain the audience with the delicacy of language and
wit. Indeed, Nicoll notices that “[t]here is nothing like the ease and refinement of
dialogue in preceding dramas . . . the characters are true aristocrats” (Nicoll 25).
5
However, theatres did not only benefit from the refined audience, but also
indulged in the immoral life of the court, which was reprehended by many critics and
started a debate about propriety of such drama on stage. James Collier was the first one
to invent the moral criterion for the plays in his Short View of the Profanes and
Immorality of the English Stage published in 1698. His work changed the way how
drama was perceived. Palmer remarks that before him it seems as if the period was
unaware of the “enormous sinfulness of its theatre” (Palmer 6). Since then a reformation
of manners started to be demanded. Indeed, Palmer quotes Steele, who states in the
Spectator 51 that the audience should have “virtuous and moral people for heroes and
heroines” (Palmer 8), and not the wicked rakes2 and adulteresses, who roamed the stage.
Indeed, the Restoration plays put morally corrupted characters on display and as
some contemporary critics perceived it, they did not educate the audience or provide an
the youth and of the fact that society cannot possibly benefit from such plays. Palmer
mentions that a century later there was a brief shift in analysing the Restoration comedy
with William Hazlitt or Leigh Hunt, who “rescued the seventeenth century dramatists
for a brief moment” (Palmer 10), however this revival did not last long as Thomas
Macaulay “repeated the success of Collier” (Palmer 10) by condemning the plays for
being depraved and thus establishing the moral criterion once more.
Palmer criticises Macaulay for such approach stating that he “disclaims the moral
test as final, but applies no other” (22-23). He points out that Macaulay is more
does not take into account all the aspects of the Restoration comedy. The way Palmer
2
a man, especially one who is rich or with a high social position, who lives in an immoral way, especially
having sex with a lot of women (www.dictionary.cambridge.com)
6
sees comedy of manners during the Restoration period greatly differs. In The Comedy of
comedy is directly due to the honest fidelity with which it reflects the spirit of an
intensely interesting phase of our social history” (Palmer 22), he goes as far as
suggesting that “the conscience of society was never more at ease, where precept and
practice were so clearly connected” (Palmer 37), thus presenting a critical approach
stripped of the moral test. However, it is still important to note that the society to which
he refers to consists of a small group of people and is not representative of the period
To conclude, the comedy of manners after the Restoration both benefited from the
involvement of the court and suffered from its overindulgence and immorality. It
depictured a period when theatre was concerned solely with a small upper-class: both as
the audience and the subject of the plays on stage. Nevertheless this unique moment in
changing to please the audience and the plays themselves reflected the elegance of
language and narration of the educated circles of high society. Last but not least the
the history there were dramatists who followed the genre of the comedy of manners and
introduced new elements to the traditional concept, such as Richard Brinsley Sheridan,
Oscar Wilde or in the 1920s Noel Coward followed by Henry Pinter or Joe Orton during
the1960s. The comedy of manners has thus proven to be a valuable and inspirational
7
Chapter One – The Way of the World
1.1 In General
First performed in 1700 at the Lincoln‟s Inn Fields, the Way of the World was
Congreve‟s fourth and last comedy of manners. It consists of a prologue, five acts and
an epilogue. In the prologue first spoken by Mr. Betterton, Congreve appeals to the
audience asking for their opinion and confesses his anxiety about the reception of the
play, pondering the uneasy role of a playwright. The following acts unfold a plot of two
couples of adulterers: Mirabel and Mrs Marwood; together with Mr and Mrs Fairall and
a deception aimed at a wealthy widow Lady Wishfort. However, the plot is not very
important, as was the practice in comedies of manners, and the message is conveyed
through the characters. In the epilogue Congreve condemns the critics that sit “judging
in the pit” (Epilogue 11), trying to find fault in the play or misinterpreting satire for
libel. Yet again, Congreve expresses anxiety about the reception of the play and
highlights the hardship it presents for a dramatist to create a play that would please
everyone.
perfect example of the comedy of manners. Nicoll ascribes the play‟s lack of success
when it was first performed to the fact that “Congreve‟s wit here is so refined that
suggests that as a text it works brilliantly. The play‟s last prominent adaptation dates
back to 2012, when it was performed at Chichester Festival Theatre3 and enjoyed rather
favourable reception, the official website of the festival features a review by The Daily
3
www.cft.org.uk/the-way-of-the-world
8
1.2 True Wit and False Wit
term the era of Congreve‟s society has to be considered as well because the meaning of
the word shifted throughout the history. Gelber mentions that while in the sixteenth
century wit stood for genius or wisdom, in the seventeenth century its meaning
of generally diverse ideas” (Gelber 269). To discover its most accurate meaning in
relation to Congreve‟s play, it is best to refer to the critics of the Restoration period
themselves and to the way they perceived it. Klára Bicanová points out in her
dissertation that wit was seen as something more than humour or cleverness. For both
Pope and Addison “wit involved good taste, morality and it was essentially
interchangeable with the idea of literary genius.” (Bicanová 191). Hinnant adds that
“wit refers to more than just a verbal play (puns, similitudes, antitheses etc.). It also
points to a traditional ideal of decorum (“a propriety of words and thoughts”) whose
theoretical basis provides a standard by which false wit can be judged” (Hinnant 374).
To elaborate more on the concept of true and false wit, characters in The Way of
the World that express this notion can be divided into two groups: wits and would-be
wits. However, Congreve creates more blurred distinction in dividing the characters into
these two groups. In his interpretation, the separation between the two groups is not
always clear, neither it is rigid, which makes it more difficult to distinguish the true wits
of the play. Hinnant points out that those categories are “not as static, as they tend to be
in the earlier comedies [of the Restoration period]” (Hinnant 381). Indeed, Congreve
continues with the interest in the notion of wit, but offers a fresh outlook on in. His
9
characters are not black and white. He allows his would-be wits to have some bright
moments as well.
rather problematic would-be wit. Hinnant mentions the fact that Witwoud was actually
taken for a true wit by his contemporaries as his affectation is focused towards
similitudes and his character “balances brilliance with dullness . . . a Witwoud who
sparkles and a Witwoud who is tiresome” (Hinnant 375). This allows Congreve to
express his sceptical attitude towards the usage of similitudes and its perception as an
example of true wit. Witwoud is someone who confesses: “I talk like an old maid at a
marriage, I don‟t know what I say” (Congreve 1.230-231), but at the same time he
tirelessly attempts to express what Kaufman names “the linguistic ease of the wits”
(412). As a consequence, the audience can “witness a self-conscious obsession with wit
self-aware of his overindulgence in similitudes, but simply cannot stop himself even
though his speeches are found tiresome by others. The scene that he shares with
MILLAMANT. Dear Mr. Witwould, truce with your similitudes; for I am as sick
of em
against myself.
10
Witwoud is conscious of his unstoppable flow of attempted wit, but he still tries to paint
himself as a true wit. Kaufman described him as “the logical end product of a society
rhetorical expressions, but lacks any sense of subtlety or fittingness of his utterances
The attempt to present oneself as a true wit is also expressed by female characters
in the play. They as well attempt to paint themselves as ingenious players in the game of
the society. And just as male characters, they are both successful and failing. Mrs
Marwood, Fainall‟s mistress, shares with Witwoud the endeavour to present herself as a
witty character. But just as he, she is not able to recognize the propriety of some of her
expressions. When she is discussing the issue of female friendship with Fainall, she
calls it “more sincere, and more enduring, than all the vain and empty vows of men”
(Congreve 2.1.144-145), Fainall immediately reminds her that she is his wife‟s friend
and at the same time his lover, thus immediately undermining her argument. Her words
could express true wit, but they would have to belong to a different character. After
such disclosure of her impropriety, she resorts to a less witty and more malicious
language that instead of the subtlety of true wit possesses unnecessarily dramatic
exclamation such as “I loathe you” (Congreve 2.1.194) or that it is not too late to
“detest, abhor mankind . . . and the whole treacherous world” (Congreve 2.1.211-212).
Eventually she has to be reminded by Fainall: “You have a mask, wear it a moment”
Wit is indeed closely connected to language, but is not expressed solely in words,
speeches or similitudes. It is also reflected through action. The central characters of the
play Mirabell and Fainall are both very good rhetoricians; therefore it is the deeds rather
that discourse that distinguish the true wit that is Mirabell from Fainall, who only feigns
11
it, however masterfully at times, using the language of a gentleman to mask his real
Indeed, it is mainly the action that uncovers his false wit. The way they both plot
against Lady Wishfort brilliantly highlights the differences that demark the two
law‟s fortune and he is willing to destroy his wife‟s reputation, to let her turn “adrift like
a leaky hulk to sink or swim” (Congreve 5.1.403-405), thus fully uncovering his
absolute lack of morality. Kaufman views Fainall as the “the libertine hero of the early
Restoration – a predator whose vision of society is one of man‟s animal instincts hidden
result spoil his success and leave him to exit the stage defeated. His instincts are not
accurate enough and he gets lost in his schemes. In his final scene, when he is faced
with the evidence of the parchment that allocates his wife‟s estate “in trust to Edward
Mirabell” (Congreve 5.1.500), he cannot control his rage or find words to fight or
defend himself, but flees after a failed attempt to assault his wife, which proves his
The world of Congreve‟s play is full of false wits, but there still can be found true
wit among the characters. Both Mirabell and his love interest Millamant show
superiority of wit among others. However, just as would-be wits have their moments of
brightness, those two also struggle, but even when they are “laughable at times, in the
main they are sympathetic and by the awareness of the way of the world (and a certain
degree of luck) they are able to escape its ever-present dangers” (Kaufman 412). They
learnt to conduct themselves in the society with sense of propriety and sufficient level
of self-discipline. Mirabell does not pursue his scheme unscrupulously as Fainall does,
but ensures that it does not pose real danger to Lady Wishfort, when he links her with a
12
suitor that is already married. He pleads that it was an innocent device even though “it
had a face of guiltiness” (Congreve 5.1.348-349) and that he has never intended to
cause lasting distress to Lady Wishfort. Indeed, through his action he distances himself
While Mirabell thus distances himself from Fainall, who portrays the villain of the
play, Millamant is also in control of her own situation. She does not appear in person
until the middle of the second act and immediately establishes herself as the character
that possesses true wit in contrast to Witwoud, with whom she shares the scene. When
he asks her about letters, she responds “I am persecuted with letters – I hate letters –
nobody knows how to write letters; and yet one has „em, one does not know why. They
serve one to pin up one‟s hair” (Congreve 2.1.321-323). She admits that she receives
letters from possible admirers and that she finds it rather tiresome, but at the same time
she is careful to use “one” instead of “I” that would make her statement more offensive
than amusing.
representation of wit in both its true and false forms. He uses typical wit-woulds from
the Restoration comedies, but he operates with them in such a way that they do not
remain only rigid, laughable characters. The barrier between them and true wits is
sometimes so thin that they are almost indistinguishable from each other. However, in
comparison to Mirabell or Millamant their affected wit (as Congreve called it in his
dedication) proves to be false. The discourse of such characters does not possess
sufficient subtlety or propriety and their actions lack sense of morality. As a result their
schemes eventually succumb to those flaws, leaving them defeated in the game of
society.
13
1.3 Courtship and Love
The Way of the World focuses greatly on romantic relationships, having the two
couples of adulterers in form of Mrs and Mr Fainall, Mrs Marwood and Mirabell at its
centre. Therefore the question of love and courtship is a prominent one. Many
characters also ponder it themselves as they try to navigate their actions in the world of
cuckolds, rakes and cast mistresses trying to find a suitable partner. Congreve portrays
various types of relationships, from those that are “bound by wealth and status”
(McCloskey 70), but prove to be malfunctioning, while at the same time he also
introduces affection as a part of courtship that, with the presence of true wit, creates a
mutually satisfying match for both Mirabell and Millamant. In that sense, the play also
reflects the social change in the early eighteenth century when marriage ceased to
function as “an alliance to improve the wealth or social position” (McCloskey 70) and
where love gradually started to create foundation for marriage in high society.
Congreve creates two completely different courses of courtship that mark the
differences between the two coexistent trends in appearing during the beginning of the
eighteenth century. The predominant motive for marriage was still “the economic,
social or political consolidation” (Stone 182), however love and mutual affection was
slowly being considered an important element of the courtship due to the “respect for
the individual pursuit of happiness” (Stone 183). The Way of the World was written
among those occurring changes and thus presents both trends on stage.
The old way of courtship is brilliantly presented through the character of Lady
Wishfort, Mrs. Fainall‟s mother. She is part of the old “world, which is contrived,
artificial, and committed to developing the appearance rather than the substance of
value” (Lyons 258). She is a widow, who is desperate to find a partner in order to fulfil
14
her cravings. Mirabell points out that “the good old lady would marry anything that
resembled a man” (Congreve 2.1.276-277). However, her pursuit after a husband, while
being comical, is also representative of the shortcomings of the old system, making her
the perfect target of Mirabell‟s scheme. When Mr. Waitwell, disguised as Mr. Rolland,
is set by Mirabell to meet her and propose a possibility of their marriage, the only thing
she is concerned about is whether he is handsome enough, while she also tries to present
herself as youthful and beautiful as she possibly can, putting layers of white varnish on
her skin, almost hiding her real face entirely under a mask. There is no honesty,
Mr. Rowland that she is not agreeing to marry him in such haste because of her “sinister
appetite, or indigestion of widowhood” (Congreve 4.1.462), while those are exactly her
reasons.
person that she is in the privacy of her rooms. Her language alone reflects this reality.
When she is alone with Foible in the beginning of the fifth act and is angry with her, she
abandons all the frills of her public persona: “Away, out, out! Go set up for yourself
again! Do, drive a trade do!” (Congreve 5.1.9-10), which contrasts to her affected
conversation with Sir Rowland, where her language is abstract and vague in meaning,
but full of figurative statements. She addresses Sir Rowland: “I am confounded with
confusion at the retrospective of my own rudeness. I have more pardons to ask that the
Pope distributes in the year of Jubilee” (Congreve 4.1.421-423). Roper argues that in
order for the courtship to lead to a successful marriage for both partners the ability to
“unite their public and private lives, to center themselves upon a decent, intimate
relationship while still participating fully in the mixed delights of society” (67) is
15
crucial. Certainly, such union as marriage penetrates both private and public lives;
presents a different pair of lovers – Mirabell and Millamant, who are eventually able to
skilfully negotiate their union. The famous proviso scene is both mocking the usual
false practices of courtship and its vices, but more importantly, also shows two people
that are able to create “balance between the requirements of social life, the couple and
the individual” (Roper 67). They both enter the scene having doubts about the union.
Millamant is afraid she will lose her freedom and that Mirabell will try to control her.
She is open about her desires and expectations, stating: “I‟ll never marry, unless I am
first made sure of my will and pleasure” (Congreve 4.1.152-153). She communicates to
Mirabell her reluctance to give up her way of life and her liberty. In return Mirabell
himself shares with her his concerns about the possible impropriety of her public
behaviour that would damage his reputation and potentially make him a cuckold. “I
covenant that your acquaintance be general; that you admit no sworn confidant . . . no
decoy-duck to wheedle you a fop” (Congreve 4.1.205-209). Thus being open about their
worries and expectations they are able to establish a match that would suit them both
and “safeguard the union after seeing the faults around” ( Mueschke 27).
However, it is not only transparency and mutual understanding of each other that
separates their courtship from the one of Lady Wishfort. The most important aspect of
their union is the fact, that they introduce a new foundation for marriage, which is love.
After they both agree on the provisos, Millamant remarks: “if Mirabell should not make
a good husband, I am a lost thing, for I find I love I him violently” (Congreve 4.1.278-
279). In the final scene of the play, Sir Wilfull, Millamant‟s cousin and also one of her
suitors admits that “the gentleman [Mirabell] loves her and she loves him” (Congreve
16
5.1.527). The Way of the World thus reflects the shift in society and the growing
tendency to perceive love as a reason for marriage and the fact that the union started to
be seen not only as a tool for improving one‟s wealth or social position but also as a
degeneration of the one of Mr. and Mrs. Fainall, which is based on the values of the old
world. Mrs. Fainall married in order to maintain her reputation and her husband wanted
to “make lawful prize of a rich widow‟s wealth” (Congreve 2.1.180-181). They both
represent a marriage between two people that do not have any affection or love for each
other, and eventually perceive their union as a prison, a cage. Their presence in the play
and Mirabell managed to avoid and as a consequence portray the changing values in the
society. As McCloskey remarks they defy the precedents of the old system and
formulate their own, indeed, together they teach the old world a new trick. (75).
In conclusion, The Way of the World reflects the scene of matchmaking and its
evolution during Congreve‟s time, which he skilfully adapts on stage. In his play lesser
importance is given to the social and economic advantages that a union between men
and woman may bring. It still plays a role, but at the same time the falseness of the
traditional courtship is disclosed and openly mocked, making the character of Lady
Wishfort or even Mrs Fainall the perfect example of the ineffectiveness of such
conduct. Moreover, Congreve not only presents this practice so he can criticise and
satirize it, but he also portrays a couple that successfully navigates their relationship to a
and love.
17
1.4 Invention vs. Reality
The previous chapter already elaborated on the fact that the play reflects some real
aspects of the society in form of the changing dynamics of courtship and marriage. It is
important to note once more in discussing the factuality and realness of the play, that
The Way of the World, as other Restoration plays before it, is concerned with a small
portion of the population - the highest class of England, therefore it does not portray
diverse setting or wide range of characters from different social ranks. However, it is
Congreve in his play and to what extent it corresponds to reality. Indeed, the play offers
some depiction of the society to the reader, which creates a certain image of the era.
John Palmer perceives the excellence of the Restoration comedy in its “honest fidelity
with which it reflects the spirit of an intensely interesting phase of our social history”
(22). But as much as the comedies reflected some existent ease in the highest circles of
the society, they still were an artificial creation primarily constructed to amuse and
entertain and therefore whatever reality they reflected and it was inevitably limited to
It is interesting to observe that the first arguments about the artificiality of the
world on the Restoration stage were presented by the advocates of the comedy of
manners, who defended it against the moralists during the second half of the
seventeenth century. Palmer mentions that a critic and essayist Charles Lamb (1775-
1783) in his essay On Artificial Comedy of the Last Century perceived the “world on
stage as a fairy land” (Palmer 16). The fact that the comedy was defended on the basis
of not being a true reflection of the society and that it was actually seen as being
detached from the real world in the time of its origin shows that even some of its
18
contemporaries were aware of the difference between the world of Fainall and Mirabell
However, there are also differing opinions regarding the factuality presented in
the comedies of manners. Bonamy Dodré perceives those plays as representative of its
time claiming that “the general life of the time, its movement, its amusements, its
general conceptions, were mirrored upon the stage . . . [no one] can have any difficulties
in matching the fiction with its reality” (Dobré 29-30). When trying to support his
statement, he relies on small details in the plays that also occurred in real life. He claims
that “the comic writers of this period took what they were able from the life around
them” (28). He lists as an example the fact that mock marriages did not appear only on
stage, but that in fact there is a case when “[t]he Earl of Oxfordbridge carried out a
sham ceremony with a famous actress with an impregnable virtue” (29). Nevertheless it
is arguable to draw any final conclusions regarding realness of the comedies based
simply on a number of events contained in the play that corresponded to some occasions
in real life and claim that the actions in the plays were truly representative of the
Indeed, some critics such as Elmer Edgar Stoll are convinced that the characters
of Restoration comedy are in fact not “real men and women, living according to the
rules of a real society” (Stoll 175). Their actions are certainly often irrational and do
not seem authentic. Stroll mentions extreme gullibility that is inherent to some
characters. Lady Wishfort‟s naivety may certainly support such theory and serve as an
example. In the fourth act, when she opens letter from Mrs. Marwood, which states that
“[h]e, who pretends to be Sir Rowland is a cheat and a rascal (Congreve 4.1.514-515),
she is convinced by her servant Foible and Waitwell, disguised as Sir Rowland, that the
letter was false and in fact written by Mirabell. She does not express much concern
19
about the truth of their argument, but is excited that she may still marry Sir Rowland
and does not have to abandon her scheme, certainly, she is not interested in the proof Sir
Rowland offers to support his theory stating: “Bring what you will; but come alive, pray
marriages and it does not apply only to The Way of the World, but also to other
startling, considering the fact that they lived “in day where divorce was for most people
next to impossible (and on the stage almost unknown), when fraud was so common and,
in marital matters justice so unobtainable” (Stoll 179). The lightness with which the
characters such as Lady Wishfort approach this matter suggests that those situations are
simply a device, a play-making to create comical moments, entertain the audience and
in the end deliver a revelation of the fraud, which was a standard conclusion for
comedies of the Restoration, and comedies that were produced in the next two hundred
years, similarly to the way death was the typical conclusion of a tragedy (Stoll 180).
However, even though the plot and the action s of the characters are often
exaggerated and irrational, there are still elements that the comedies share uniquely with
the environment of Restoration in which they were produced. As was already mentioned
in the Introduction the relationship between the court and the theatres was a close one
and as a consequence they greatly influenced each other. Those plays “represented the
tastes and the conditions of the courtly circles and its would-be imitators” (Miles 105).
For example the possession of wit was “a passport to the most exclusive circles” (Miles
106) in both the real and the staged world, as a result Witwoud‟s and Petulant‟s constant
attempts to prove their wit so they may enjoy a certain social position is not only
Congreve‟s dramatic, comical invention, but also had its place in the real society of the
20
court. Indeed, “wit was a common idol that every coxcomb worshipped” (Miles 107)
and ladies looked for it in their lovers. Its importance to the characters in The Way of the
World and other comedies of manners mirrored the fact that it was greatly appreciated
To conclude, it is certain that dramatists were inspired by the real world around
them and derived inspiration from the close relationship with their audience, which
helped to create foundation for their work. However, the society in The Way of the
the Restoration upper-class. The characters and their actions are indeed limited to their
functions as a part of the ensemble. They are an invention to serve a purpose: to amuse,
entertain and possibly instruct. As a result, the play, similarly to other comedies of
manners, is rather a testament to what the higher circles of the Restoration society
considered to be the idea of entertainment rather than serving as a proof to what their
21
Chapter Two – The Importance of Being Earnest
2.1. In General
London on 14 February 1895 as Oscar Wilde‟s fourth social comedy. The play,
consisting of three acts (originally four), brought him the biggest success to date. It
retains some features of the comedy of manners as it deals with similar topics of the
high society and its manners. As a consequence the play presents the continuing
tradition of the genre, while at the same time it also illustrates its evolution as it changed
over the two hundred years that separate it from Congreve‟s play.
The plot revolves around two male characters: Jack Worthing and his friend
Algernon Moncrieff, who both represent the figure of the dandy4, which constitutes
Wilde‟s contribution to drama. Both men play various social games to win the women
they love. Jack, who is in love with Gwendolen Fairfax struggles to gain the approval of
her mother Lady Bracknell, while Algernon intends to marry Jack‟s foster-child Cecily.
The play contains many schemes, mistaken identities and various puns5, one
being its title itself. It has enjoyed lasting popularity and is still being adapted on stage
from London‟s Harold Pinter Theatre to Canberra Theatre Centre and has become a
4
a man devoted to style, neatness and fashion in dress and appearance (www.oxforddictionaries. com)
5
the humorous use of a word or phrase so as to emphasize or suggest its different meanings or
applications, or the use of words that are alike or nearly alike in sound but different in meaning; a play
on words
22
2.2. True Wit and False Wit
The understanding of the word wit has undergone a substantial evolution since
Congreve‟s times. Victorians were not as concerned with the forms of true and false wit
as was the practice of their predecessors during the Restoration, the critics focused more
on the differences between wit and humour, however small, and in doing so, did not
find wit to be something that one should aspire to express in order to be accepted and
recognized by the society. Indeed, Martin mentions a Westminster Reviewer from 1871
that focused on the “evanescent character of wit, and especially that form of wit we call
“punning”” and found it to be only “a flash, a sudden contrast, a laugh, and all is
over…” (26). Indeed, Victorians appreciated humour more, since it was “distinguished
from wit as being less purely intellectual, and as having a sympathetic quality in virtue”
(Martin 26). Those characteristic appealed more to their “distrust of the intellect”
(Martin 28) and encouraged their sentimentality. However, the last quarter of the
nineteenth century began once more to “recognize the importance of wit and comedy as
valid modes of perception” (Martin 29). Wilde continued with the exploration of wit
and its modifications. Indeed, his invention of the dandy combined the virtues and vices
of the previous wits and would-be wits and as a result created a unique expression on
Earnest in terms of true and false wit. It is more accurate to speak of the wit of the
playwright rather that the wit of his characters, as indeed, the characters are incredibly
distant from the audience and convey almost no sense of credibility or realness
themselves. They are primarily puppets and it is, indeed, interesting to observe that they
almost do not possess a voice of their own as their sentences are easily interchangeable
23
and could belong to any other character in the play. Henderson supports this idea by
stating that:
their existence. They are mouthpieces for the diverting ratiocinations of their
Indeed, the characters even share the same vocabulary and a common interest in words
and their effects. Even Miss Prism, Cecily‟s teacher, expresses such awareness while
speaking with her student: “The manuscript unfortunately was abandoned. I use the
word in a sense of lost or mislaid “(Wilde 22). Thus it is not the voice of the characters
that is heard on the stage, but the one of Oscar Wilde, who only uses the personages as
However, interestingly enough, it is in their distance from the real world in which
they are able to speak in the manner they do, indulge in the idea of wit and create a
connection to the Victorian audience. Indeed, the characters remark on many of the
attributed vices and virtues of society with a striking light-heartedness. Thus the reader
may come across scenes such as the one where Jack apologises to Algernon for
JACK. …I suppose I shouldn‟t talk about your own aunt in that way before you.
thing that makes me to put up with them all. Relations are simply a tedious pack
of people, who haven‟t got the remotest knowledge of how to live, nor the
24
Those absurd utterances, while amusingly witty, can only live in the world of the play,
otherwise they would appear more insulting rather than humorous. It is only in the
universe of the dandy, of the pleasure seeking individual, that they may be uttered to the
audience‟s delight.
Indeed, the world of the play is filled with characters, whose wit would not
survive outside of the pages. Gregor suggests that: “The dramatic role of the dandy
inconsequential, and superficial” (502). Certainly, all the characters express a great
degree of self-importance and self-love, which, while it makes their words more
humorous on stage as they are uttered with absolute sense of dignity and grace on the
part of the characters, they would not be accepted anywhere else for being too offensive
or absurd. The wit of the characters therefore exists only within the margins of the play,
where the style is more important than the content, and where Miss Prism may react to
the news of Earnest‟s alleged dead with a statement: “What a lesson for him! I trust he
will profit by it” (26), and not witness a shocked reaction at her speech from her
companions.
It is equally intriguing to observe that the wit expressed in the play is not aimed at
entertaining other characters present on stage, but is mainly targeted at the audience,
which supports the idea of it never being improper or false as the reaction to it is in
control of the playwright. Certainly, most of the puns and utterances are received with
cold disinterestedness among the personages in the play. A scene that Algernon shares
with Cecily in the beginning of Act Two may serve as an example of such behaviour:
25
ALGERNON. Cecily, I shall not offend you if I state quite frankly and openly that
perfection.
CECILY. I think your frankness does you great credit, Earnest. (Wilde 31)
Cecily does not reply by expressing if or how Algernon‟s words affected her, but rather
coldness expressed by the characters and at the same time of the enthusiasm they all
share regarding the play of words. They almost seem to treat their vocabulary with more
tenderness and passion than they do their romantic interests; their wit thus permeates
every sentence and is omnipresent in the play, disregarding the fact who is speaking.
Thus, Wilde managed to create a world where wit is never inappropriate, awkward or
In addition it is also noticeable that while the characters and their wit are created
in order to cause laughter, they are in reality never directly mocked, or truly harmed by
each other‟s conduct. Thus “the laughter is absolutely free from bitter afterthought
(Walkley 197)” as there are no feelings hurt or characters deeply affected by someone‟s
blunt expressions. When Algernon expresses his surprise at Jack‟s coldness at the end
of the second act, when Cecily and Gwendolen find the truth about them lying, and asks
JACK. Well, I can‟t eat muffins in an agitated manner. The butter would probably
The audience or the reader do not laugh at the characters, they laugh with them, as the
world that is presented to them is stripped of the consequences of human behaviour and
26
speech and the responsibility attached to them. In the world of dandy life is never taken
seriously and thus there is no space for true shame, only pleasure.
Thus Wilde does not only employ the notion of wit that is predominantly
intellectual, but comes closer to the concept of humour as well. Indeed, it is not only the
wit that helped to earn the play a lasting favour of the audience over the centuries. It is
the humour that brings the play closer to the spectators. Martin mentions Leigh Hunt, an
English critic from the first part of the nineteenth century, who stated that humour
“derives its name from the prevailing quality of moisture in the bodily temperament;
and is a tendency of the mind to run in particular directions of thought or feeling more
amusing than accountable” (30). Wilde in The Importance of Being Earnest created a
perfect platform to display the sentiments of the society without being instantly
three: “In matters of grave importance, style, not sincerity is the vital thing” (Wilde 44)
and indeed, The Importance of Being Earnest manages to present a world where
pleasure is the most important element. It is therefore not only the knowledge and
intellect that is crucial to the concept of wit in the nineteenth century, but also the
sentimentality and pathos, which are generally ascribed to humour and are traceable in
the play.
To conclude, Oscar Wilde succeeded in creating a world in which wit may thrive
and prosper without being inappropriate or false. The characters are indulging in verbal
combats and puns, free of any serious unpleasant or negative reaction. Thus there is
nothing present on stage, which would disturb the effect of the entertainment the play
intends to offer the audience or the reader. The wit of the play is however limited to the
boundaries of its world, where it is shared by the characters. It is only there, where it is
27
2.3 Courtship and Love
It has been previously stated that the play is absurd and hardly true to reality,
however, as every piece of art, it is also reflective of human nature. In social comedies,
critical point of view they also serve as a testimony to the nature of rules and
regulations that were approved and followed by the society. The Importance of Being
Earnest employs courtship as a key element of the play, when both Jack and Algernon
are trying to conquer the hearts of their partners, and thus their story offers a platform
for Wilde to not only satirize the process, but also express his ideas on the matter. Thus,
the world of the Victorian tradition represented by Lady Bracknell, Algernon‟s aunt,
whose idea of marriage is very similar to doing business, as there is no space for love or
affection, is contrasted with the rebellious behaviour of her daughter Gwendolen, who is
determined to decide her fate on her own and according to her personal requirements
and ideals. Wilde thus artfully explores the hypocrisy of the courtship and emphasises
both reflected in the play through its female characters and also highlighted by
numerous critics focusing on Victorian society. Frost mentions the fact that “most
historians have assumed that women were primarily concerned in courtship . . . they
unsuitable ones. They also did most of the planning for social occasions and weddings”
(Frost 78). Lady Bracknell, Algernon‟s aunt is the perfect embodiment not only of some
Victorian sentiments such as her distrust of intellect and negative attitudes to education
as she states that “the whole theory of modern education is radically unsound” (Wilde
28
13), but also of the role of a woman relative in courtship. Indeed, she possesses a great
amount of power when it comes to the matter of potential marriage. When she discovers
that Gwendolen is engaged to Jack, she dismisses the fact by stating that she is the one
to decide on the matter: “Pardon me, you are not engaged to anyone. When you do
become engaged to someone, I, or your father, should health permit him, will inform
you of the fact” (Wilde 12). Gwendolen‟s personal feelings of love and affection are not
never appears in the play and remains an abstract figure throughout the whole course of
the three acts. As a result, he does not have any real power or control over the courtship
of his own daughter and Jack. Lady Bracknell clarifies his role towards the beginning
of the Third Act, where she states that while Gwendolen eloped, her father has not even
been informed, but is “under the impression that she is attending a more than usually
Income on Thought” (Wilde 45). The power in the matters of courtship thus remains in
the hands of Lady Bracknell, who is according to the rules of society supposed to decide
Indeed, her presumed control over the matter is expressed in the scene she shares
with Jack, in which she interrogates him in order to discover whether he is suitable or
not to marry Gwendolen. In addition this scene reflects the true processes during
courtship, where a man “was expected to confess the peccadilloes of his bachelor life”
(Raby 169) before bounding himself to a woman. The scene also reflects the whole
she has a “list of eligible young men” (Wilde 12) she shares with “the dear Duchess of
Bolton” (Wilde 12) and that in fact, they “work together”(Wilde 12). However, when
29
she starts the interview, Lady Bracknell does not only poses questions regarding Jack‟s
economic situation as would be expected in such situation, but also is keen to discover
whether he knows “everything or nothing” (Wilde 12) and is pleased to discover that he
knows nothing, which is not threatening her ideals of “natural ignorance” (Wilde 13). It
is the fact that due to Jack‟s unknown origins, he would not be able to have a
“recognized position in good society” (Wilde 14), for which she refuses to give her
and disregards the expected conduct. She is aware that “we live . . . in an age of ideals”
(Wilde 10) and hers are different from those of her mother. Her ideal “has always been
to love someone of the name of Earnest” (Wilde 10), which, as bizarre it might sound,
represents the absurdity of someone‟s expectations in the matter of courtship and the
disapproval shows Jack‟s affection behind Lady Bracknell‟s back by blowing kisses at
him when her mother is not looking (Wilde 12). This is the first sign of her free-
mindedness and her inclination to rebel. However her rebellion is gradual. When she
comes back to Jack after his interview with Lady Brackenell, she claims: “noting that
she can possibly do can alter my eternal devotion to you” (Wilde 17). She has thus freed
her mind from the authority of her mother and is ready to eventually go even further.
Indeed, in the beginning of the second act Gwendolen appears again as she has escaped
from her home and is determined to follow her ideals. When her mother discovers her,
30
GWENDOLEN. Merely that I am engaged to be married to Mr. Worthing, mama.
(Wilde 45)
The power of the ideals in the courtship that is presented in The Importance of Being
in the character of Cecily, Jack‟s ward, who lives in the country, nurturing her fantasies
about marrying someone called Earnest. Mackie writes that to be earnest “for a
Cecily both imagine something different under the expression, for them the attraction to
the name is an “aesthetic one” (161 Mackie) and quite surprisingly, they both utter the
same sentence stating that the name Earnest “inspires absolute confidence” (Wilde10).
This is their ideal, which plays a vital part in the process of courtship, as they will not
marry unless their partners fulfil it. Wilde thus creates a relationship between two
couples that is purely based on the notion of imagination, expectation, but where there
ideals that are important in the process of courtship, the ones of the Victorian society
mannerism that permeates the upper-circles, but also the ones of Gwendolen and Cecily,
who are obsessed with the idea of a person without actually considering their real
character. Oscar Wilde thus emphasises the superficiality present in the process of
courtship, where to be earnest does not mean to be honest or genuine, but to meet
31
2.4 Invention vs. Reality
crucial to take into account the era in which Wilde created his plays. The theatrical
attitude is that by the last decade of the nineteenth century . . . English theatre
grudgingly began to inch away from the posturing of melodrama and towards the
honesty of realism” (5). The question is, whether there is some notion of reality to be
Additionally, Wilde offers a glimpse into a rather limited world of a few representatives
of the upper-circle; therefore the play cannot possibly offer representation of a broader
spectrum of the society. However, Wilde was writing to an audience he knew and was
consequently aware of what they expected and what they might enjoy. To gain an
them, what they recognize in their own world and therefore can identify with when they
encounter it in an exaggerated and satirized form on stage. Wilde thus revisits and
reinvents the conventions and stereotypes of his times. Indeed, he “seems to weave in
and out of the received wisdom of popular perception of the world, often laughing at
common morality but sometimes upholding it” (Bose 27). His play is therefore an
invention created to mirror some aspects of the society while remaining artificial and
elusive as a whole.
What Wilde achieved by creating an artificial world that his characters inhabit, is
the fact that it brilliantly depicts the factitiousness of the upper Victorian society, which
he both mocks and admires at the same time. Indeed, his characters “celebrate their own
32
artificiality was unacknowledged and largely concealed by upper-class Victorian
society” (Mackie 146). In the far-fetched universe of the play this reality may be
exposed, however absurd and distant the action on the stage is. It is ultimately
representative of the fact that one‟s identity in the society is created not in order to
reflect the true character, but to satisfy the expectations of others. Lady Bracknell
remarks that “London society is full of women of the very highest birth who have, of
their own free choice, remained thirty-five for years” (Wilde 49). As youth is something
The appearance as a crucial element in the Victorian society is also a key concept
in The Importance of Being Earnest and it does not only include physical visage, but
more importantly how one presents oneself in society. The style is more important than
the essence. A scene which Gwendolen shares with Cecily in the beginning of the third
act supports this theory. When Cecily is asked, if she believes Algernon‟s arguments,
she states:
Cecily. I don‟t. But that does not affect the wonderful beauty of his answer.
Gwendolen. True. In manners of great importance, style, not sincerity is the vital
I does not matter what is being said, but in what manner and style it is being phrased.
The beauty of the answer is more important than its truthfulness. Consequently, as long
as the style remains intriguing, everything else is irrelevant. Wilde thus, in exaggerated
terms, exposes the shallowness of the upper-society and its focus on appearance. As
Bastiat notices, Wilde “tells us that appearances are deceitful” (56) as it is something
which can be easily created or assumed. Algernon and Jack may both become Earnest,
33
Consequently the play creates a place where everyone wears a mask. Martin
writes that “English society seems a natural subject for comedy, since it is a compound
of flatteries and intrigues, each striving to hoist himself up a step higher on the social
ladder and to push back those who are climbing” (40).Wilde thus exposes in his play the
notion of hypocrisy he observed in his own surroundings. Lady Bracknell may serve as
an example of such social climber as she attained her position via marriage not birth. In
the beginning of the third act she confesses “When I married Lord Bracknell I had no
fortune of any kind. But I never dreamed for a moment of allowing that to stand in my
way” (Wilde 40). She manages to maintain her position by conforming to the role that is
expected from her. She embraces and absorbs the manners and codes of the upper-class
society to such an extent, she immediately recollects that the number of house Jack
professed to own is on “the unfashionable site” (Wilde 13). Bastiat notes that “Oscar
Wilde rebels against the artificial and hypocritical social codes of his class and suggests
that anyone can pass for an aristocrat with a bit of practice” (57).
In The Importance of Being Earnest this is accentuated by the fact, that almost
every character leads a double life. The audience is laughing at “the struggles of a
particular social group to avoid being exposed for what they really are” (Raby 227).
This represents the notion of private and public personages that create and important
part of social life in the upper-class society. Oscar Wilde himself, as a prominent public
figure, struggled to balance his public and private image. Being a homosexual in times
where homosexuality was a criminal offence inevitably drove him to “hiding under the
public mask” (Sammells 17).Wilde consequently incorporates the issue of double life
into his writing. Every character has a secret, a different identity. Algernon, when tired
by the society in the city escapes to the country under the pretence of visiting his
imaginary sick friend Bunbury. Jack escapes the society in a similar manner, by
34
inventing Earnest, who helps him to be a respectable guardian to Cecily and at the same
time escape his obligations, when he desires to. Wilde thus presents to what an absurd
extent one is willing to go to maintain one‟s private identity and at the same time submit
to the society‟s expectations of high morals and duty. As a result “Wilde manages to
combine commercial success with conservative audiences whilst mocking the very
conventions that these audiences are supposed to live by” (Bastiat 54).
stage and bears little essence of realism, there are still some notions, which create
connection with the audience and echo the times of the late Victorian era. Oscar Wilde
wrote about the society he knew and in which he had to survive. He consequently
exposes the duality of social life, the hypocrisy it involves and which he himself abhors,
but at the same time he professes great admiration for the creative treatment of such
matters. He elaborates on the resourcefulness with which his characters adjust to the
expectations and attempt to balance their private and public parsonages. The play in its
distance and absurdity offers Wilde a brilliant platform on which he can satirize,
criticise, mock and admire the real inventiveness of the Victorian society, the hypocrisy
that permeates it and the importance of appearance that is absolutely crucial. It is indeed
appearance
35
Conclusion
The comedy of manners builds on the tradition of Jacobean and Caroline drama
and has its foundation in the upper-class society of the Restoration period. As such, it
reflects the sentiments of the environment in which and for which it was created. It is
important to consider that it does not address or represent a wide range of social strata;
consisted of. As a genre the Restoration comedy of manners both benefited and suffered
from the close connection to the upper-class society and its manners. It reflected on
stage both the sophistication of language and culture and at the same time it indulged in
the immorality of the life at court, which was frequently mirrored in the plays and
However, this moment in theatrical evolution also introduced female actresses on the
stage for the first time and saw many fundamental changes to the architecture and
evolution that inspired many other playwrights who continued with the tradition of the
Both Oscar Wilde and William Congreve, whose plays are the subject of the
thesis, however different their lives and personalities may be, targeted similar notions in
their plays and consequently their works elaborate on similar concepts, such as the idea
of morals, manners and social behaviour . Nevertheless, their style and way of artistic
expression also greatly differ in many aspects. This is apparent for example in their
treatment of the notion of wit. It is not only the fact that the Restoration society ascribed
wit a slightly different set of characteristics than the Victorian one, but it is also the way
both playwrights approached it that makes their plays unique. Whereas in The Way of
36
the World Congreve attempts to create true wit in contrast to the attempted wit in such a
manner that the audience may see the difference, Oscar Wilde created a world in which
wit may never be truly false, as it will never be recognized as such. He stripped his
characters of a true sense of personality and created them in a way they are more of his
own echo rather than posing as individuals with their own voice. Consequently, they do
not differ as much from each other as the characters in The Way of the World do and as
a result the same distinction between false and true wit cannot be applied.
approach the subject with similar intentions as it presents a fantastic opportunity for the
creation of comic situations. But in addition it also enables displaying of the false
virtues of the upper-society be it the Restoration or the Victorian one. Both plays
explore the feigned morality and pretended manners and emphasise the importance of
appearance, both physical and social. Indeed, their characters tirelessly attempt to
portray themselves as something they, in reality, are not, whether it is through layers of
varnish that Lady Bracknell in The Way of the World uses on her skin to look younger
for her suitor, or the pretence of Jack to pose as Earnest in the city. Thus both
playwrights elaborate on the idea of two identities, the one that is private and the other,
however, Wilde‟s outlook and approach to this topic differs from the one of Congreve.
Indeed, The Way of the World elaborates on the idea of overcoming the hypocrisy and
society, as is brilliantly reflected in the proviso scene between Millamant and Mirabel.
In contrast, Wilde‟s play does not subscribe to the same idea. The world in The
37
transparent relationship is not stressed as is the case in Congreve‟s writing. On the
the constancy of style. Indeed, Wilde‟s world of the dandy puts style on a pedestal and
therefore anything that would endanger it, such as the reality stripped of its fancy might,
is pushed into the background. In fact, Wilde emphasises the importance of ones ideals
that rarely correspond to the reality and uses those as a platform to expose the
romantic nature. Wilde does not resort to offering a relationship that would be built on
more sincere and transparent foundations, as is the case of the union between Mirabel
and Millamant.
It is very difficult to draw any real connections between the existing upper-classes
of the Restoration and the Victorian period and the world introduced on stage. In
general, literary critics agree on the fact that the society displayed in the plays of the
comedy of manners is artificial and does not correspond to the actual state of the reality.
There are some suggestions that support the argument that the world in the comedies
and the real life of the upper-society are similar, such as the proposition of Bonamy
Dobré, who focuses in detail on the plays and tries to discover examples of various
events that occurred both in reality and were then repeated on stage, however, the
evidence from the Restoration critics, who defended the genre on the basis of the world
of the comedies of manners being a fairy land suggests that the occurrence of some
similarities is more an indication of the authors‟ being inspired by some events in their
proximity rather than authentically recreating them in their writing. Thus both
Congreve and Wilde‟s plays cannot pose as an honest and genuine depiction of the era
in which they were produced, even though they still bear some characteristics of the
38
To conclude, The Way of the World and The Importance of Being Earnest both
elaborate on similar notions of the upper-class as both authors aim at uncovering the
manners of the highest social circles. However, their approaches also differ, as Oscar
Wilde takes the importance of fancy and creates a world that is built on the notion of
superficiality entirely, while Congreve attempts to present an ideal version of a true wit,
39
Notes
Tylovo divadlo – 31 May 1967 until 11 March 1968, translation Karel Michal, music
Evžen Illín, performed under the title Jak to na tom světě chodí
Divadlo Máj Praha – April 1982, translation J. Z. Novák, set to music by Jakub Pospíšil
Městské divadlo Brno – 20 December 2003, final performance 4 June 2008, translation
modernized by Pavel Dominik under the title Jak důležité je mít Filipa
Slovácké divadlo – 16 June 2012, translation Pavel Dominik, title Jak důležité je ho mít
6
All information comes from the official web pages of the theatres
40
William Congreve7
William Congreve was born on January 24th 1670 in Bardsey, Yorkshire. When
he was four, his father moved with the family to Ireland and eventually joined the Duke
of Ormond‟s Regiment. Congreve was thus able to attend Kilkenny College and later
Trinity College in Dublin. Due to the College closing, he moved to London and quickly
became acquainted with the circle of wits that gathered at Will‟s Coffee House and
He published his first novella Incognito anonymously in 1691. The following year
he finished The Old Bachelor, his first play, which was first performed in March 1693
and was a big success. His second play The Double Dealer was not so warmly accepted.
In 1694 he finished Love for Love, which starred the famous actress Anne Bracegirdle
in one of the leading roles. His first tragedy titled The Mourning Bride was performed at
Lincoln‟s Fields in 1697 and was again a great success. His most famous play The Way
of the World was first staged on 12 March 1700 and again contained an important role
for Anne Bracegirdle as Millamant, however, the play received little recognition and
However, he did not leave the world of theatre. He was planning to open a new
opera house with Vanbrugh in the Haymarket, but that plan was a failure and Congreve
creating poetry. Eventually he held the position of the Secretary to the Island of
Jamaica.
Towards the end of his life he began a relationship with a married woman - Lady
Henrietta Godolphin, who was with him when he died on 19th January 1729 at his place
7
Taken from: Thomas, David. William Congreve. Houndmills: Macmillan, 1992. Print.
43
Oscar Wilde8
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin on 16 October 1854. After finishing Trinity
figure, being known for his wit and intelligence. In 1881 he gave a series of lectures in
America that enabled him to make connections that eventually led him to finish his first
In 1884 he got married to Constance Lloyd, with whom he had two sons. He
earned a living as a journalist before publishing his essays Intentions and his other
works, notably the novel The Picture of Dorian Grey, which was a sensation. In 1891
he got acquainted with Lord Alfred Douglass and both entered into a complicated and
passionate relationship. Between the years 1891 and 1895 he produces many comedies
of manners, the first play being Lady Windermere’s Fan, which was performed for the
first time in St. James Theatre on 20 February 1892. This was followed the next year by
A Woman of No Importance. In 1893 he finished Ideal Husband His next and last
comedy of manners was The Importance of Being Earnest, which was first performed at
His professional success was then spoiled by his private life as he had to stand
trial for sodomy and was eventually sentenced to two years imprisonment with hard
Cimetière de Bagneux, but his grave was later moved to Père Lachaise Cemetery.
8
Taken from: Worth, Katharine. Oscar Wilde. London: Macmillan P, 1983. Print.
42
Works Cited
Primary Sources:
Congreve, William. The Way of the World. Ed. Brian Gibbons. London: A&C Black,
1994. Print.
Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. New York: Dover Publication, 1990.
Print.
Secondary Sources:
Bastiat, Brigette. “The Importance of Being Earnest (1895) by Oscar Wilde: Conformity
Bicanová, Klára. “From Rhetoric to Aesthetics: Wit and Esprit in the English and
Frost, Ginger S. “Courtships and Weddings.” Promises Broken: courtship, class, and
43
Gregor, Ian. “Comedy and Oscar Wilde.” The Sewanee Review. 74.2 (1966): 501-521.
Hinnanat, Charles H. “Wit, Propriety and Style in The Way of the World.” Studies in
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April 2014.
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Summary
The bachelor thesis focuses on the theatre genre of the comedy of manners, which
has its beginnings in the Restoration period after the return of the Stuarts on the English
throne in 1660. Its aim is to examine the first phase of the genre in which the plays dealt
with in the thesis were created and its specifications and also to show the context in
which the plays studied in the following two chapters were created.
After introducing and analysing the plays, that is The Way of the World (1700) by
William Congreve and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895) by Oscar Wilde, as two
representative comedies of manners, the focus is put on the concept of wit, the way
courtship is constructed and what role love plays in the dramatic action and last but not
least to what extent the plays reflect the actual life of the upper-circles in the times of
the Restoration and Victorian periods. In the last part of the thesis I compare and
contrast the two plays in terms of aforementioned aspects and examine their differences
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Resumé
Bakalářská práce se zaměřuje na divadelní žánr komedie mravů, který datuje své
počátky od období restaurace Stuartovců na anglický trůn v roce 1660. Cílem práce je
objasnit počátky tohoto žánru a jeho zaměření a ukázat, v jakém kontextu vznikly hry,
Po úvodu je prostor věnován dvěma hrám, které je možné zařadit mezi komedie
mravů, a to Jak to na tom světě chodí (The Way of the World,1700) od Williama
Congreva a Jak je důležité míti Filipa (The Importance of Being Earnest, 1895) od
Oscara Wilda. U obou her jsou zkoumány stejné aspekty, a to koncept, který se
schovává pod pojmem „wit“9, způsob, jakým jsou prezentovány námluvy a jakou roli
v nich hraje romantická láska a v neposlední řadě do jaké míry odrážejí hry realitu
se věnuji porovnání obou her z daných aspektů a hledání rozdílů či podobností, které
9
volně přeloženo jako důvtip
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